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Induction heating is an established, highly energy-efficient industrial process. The traditional areas of application inclu-
de, among other things, induction hardening, forge heating, tube welding and annealing as well as the heating and
quenching followed by tempering of steel bars or tubes. More and more new applications are being added, as the
shortage of fossil fuels means that heating processes are being increasingly switched from oil or gas to electroheat. This
does not always mean that conventional furnaces should not be used, rather both combustion furnaces and induction
technology can be used intelligently side by side.
W
ith induction heating the energy is transfer- buted to the physical properties of the inductor-work-
red from the inductor into the product to be piece arrangement.
heated (workpiece). The inductor’s most basic
design is that of a cylindrical coil, however it can have PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE INDUC-
a variety of forms, depending on the application. If the TOR-WORKPIECE ARRANGEMENT
inductor is connected to an AC supply, an electroma- The inductor-workpiece arrangement roughly corresponds
gnetic alternating field is created around it. This field to a transformer with shorted secondary winding. In the
generates an alternating voltage within the electrically simplified equivalent circuit diagram it can be roughly
conductive material, resulting in so-called eddy-currents seen as the parallel or series connection of an equivalent
in the near-surface area of the workpiece. Heat is gene- resistance and inductance. For a more detailed analysis
rated in the workpiece due to the electrical resistance of the parallel connection of the components is chosen, as
the material. Heat conduction causes the temperature shown in Fig. 2.
of the workpiece to homogenize from the outside in It is theoretically possible to connect the inductor with the
over a period of time. workpiece directly to an AC power supply. This can be done
The power supply for induction heating has to meet vari- provided the frequency of the voltage source can be adjusted
ous requirements. If one looks at the typical applications from to the requirements of the process. For most practical requi-
the point of view of the power and frequencies required only, rements it can be seen that the inductor’s reactive current IL,
it becomes apparent that both the power range and frequen- which lags the feeding voltage by 90°, will be several times
cy range cover three to four logarithmic orders of magnitude. greater (by a factor of 3 to 10) than the active current IR, which
Fig. 1 shows several widely used applications of induction is in phase with the voltage. This is shown in the right-hand
electroheat in the frequency-power diagram. The bordered section of Fig. 2 as a vector diagram.
area shows the key areas of application. There are numerous Only the active current IR causes the workpiece to heat
other applications shown outside the area marked. up. It is true that the inductor’s reactive current IL is abso-
It is clear that different power supplies are required for lutely essential for building the magnetic alternating field,
the variety of applications. The difference is not just in however it does not contribute to the energy expended in
the electrical data of the equipment itself, but primarily the workpiece. Since the power source and the transmissi-
in the circuit topology. on paths are subject to extreme loads due to its intensity,
Nevertheless, there are common features with almost it may be potentially unfavourable for the energy balance
all types of power supplies used, and these can be attri- to connect the inductor directly to the power source. The
Fig. 1: Power and frequency range of the power supply for induction electroheat Fig. 3: Parallel resonant circuit and its vector diagram
power source and the transmission paths would have to The advantageous behaviour of the oscillating resonant
be multiply over dimensioned to cover the reactive current circuit described has resulted in it becoming the establis-
requirements. hed method in almost all induction heating applications.
Several characteristic variables for the parallel resonant
ADVANTAGES OF A RESONANT LOAD circuit are shown below [1].
The reactive power of the inductor does not necessarily
have to be supplied by the power source, it can also be 1
ω0 = ______
___ Natural angular frequency (1)
√
L · C
generated within the load. A simple load configuration,
which has been tried and tested for years now and allows δ = _____ R Damping (2)
2L · ω0
this approach, is the so-called oscillating circuit. An oscil- _____
lating circuit is created when a capacitor is connected in ωe = ω0 · √1 − δ2
Resonant angular frequency (3)
parallel or in series to the inductor. For the sake of simplicity,
this study deals only with a parallel resonant circuit (Fig. 3) a With induction heating the resonant frequency changes
series resonant circuit behaves similar to the parallel reso- during the heating process. The eddy-current intensity
nant circuit. induced in the workpiece decreases from the surface of
The capacitor current IC leads the alternating voltage U the material to the interior. The penetration depth [2] is the
at the capacitor by 90°. It is also a reactive current, however distance δ from the surface, at which the current density
its phase is displaced by 180° with respect to the phase of has dropped to a 1/e-fold amount of the surface current
the inductor reactive current IL. The amounts of both reac- density. It depends on the frequency as well as on the
tive currents depend on the frequency. However, while the specific electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability
capacitor reactive current rises as the frequency increases, of the workpiece material.
the inductor reactive current is reduced with an increase in _____
the frequency. For the arrangement shown in Figure 3 there √
δ = ______1
ω · κ · μ (4)
is exactly one frequency at which the absolute values of
both reactive currents are identical, as shown in the vector δ = Penetration depth
diagram in Fig. 3 on the right-hand side. This frequency is κ = Specific electrical conductivity of the material
called resonant frequency. μ = Magnetic permeability of the material
Since the phases of both reactive currents are in oppo- ω = Induced angular frequency
sition, in the case of resonance the inductor reactive cur-
rent is fully compensated by the capacitor reactive current. Since the material parameters change with the
The external power source only has to supply the active temperature and field intensity, the inductance of the
current I = IR, it is not loaded with any reactive power. inductor-workpiece arrangement and therefore both,
Fig. 10: Series resonant converter 2,400 kW, 800 V, 150 kHz, IGBT inverter (source: SMS Elotherm)
Fig. 13: Converter with PWM inverter; top: output voltage and current; bottom: load voltage
Under this condition the output current of the inver- CONVERTER WITHOUT RESONANT CIR-
ter is in phase with the fundamental component of the CUIT (DIRECT CONVERTER)
output voltage and hardly subjects the inverter to reac- A voltage dc link converter with a PWM inverter can also
tive power. The load voltage is sinusoidal, just like the feed the inductor directly (Fig. 14). Since no resonant cir-
inductor current. The control method described means cuit and no resonant load exist, the output frequency of
that applications with operating frequencies up to 200 Hz the converter can be freely modified during operation.
can be used. This may be advantageous for certain applications [6]. The
Fig. 14: D
irect converter without resonant circuit Fig. 15: PWM voltage control of a converter without resonant circuit
output power of the direct converter can be controlled by operation. It is otherwise so inferior compared to resonant
changing the width of the inverter pulses (Fig. 15). converters in terms of its efficiency that it is really no alter-
This circuit, however, has one serious disadvantage; the native when it comes to energy efficiency.
entire inductor current, including the full proportion of reac- More and more importance is being attached to a reduc-
tive current, flows through the inverter and the connecting tion in the system perturbation of frequency converters. It
cables between the inductor and the inverter. See also the is not only the cos φ power factor of the fundamental that
explanations given in Chapter 2 et seq. in this article. plays an important role here. The loading of the system with
With this type of topology the inverter has to be harmonic currents may result in a variety of problems and
heavily over dimensioned. Since the losses in the con- needs to be kept in check. Higher pulse rectifiers, power
necting cables show a square-law increase with the factor correction circuits or active filter technologies may be
current, the efficiency of the system decreases overall, useful here. The improvement in the cos φ and the reduction
compared to resonant converters with the same level in harmonic current both result in the enhancement of the
of power. Only the need to continuously change the energy efficiency of the power supply.
operating frequency during the heating process may Frequency thyristors, the further development of which
justify the use of this circuit. was virtually stopped, are now only being used by a handful
of converter manufacturers in high-power inverters and at low
CONCLUSION operating frequencies. More and more frequency thyristors
Looking to the future, resonant converters will continue to are being discontinued by the manufacturers, with the result
maintain their position as highly efficient standard power that their use may continue to dwindle.
supply systems for induction heating applications. Parallel Due to their advantageous properties IGBTs are ideal for
and series resonant converters will still be used as universal use in voltage dc link converters. This topology forms the
systems. Modern power semiconductors as well as opti- basis of many of the types of converters described. The most
mized control algorithms will result in a further reduction well-known of these are the series resonant converter and
in frequency-dependent switching losses in the inverter. the converter with L-LC load. Converters with sine-weighted
This means the maximum operating frequencies of such PWM modulation of the inverter can also be used to feed a
converters can be further increased. parallel resonant circuit via a coupling choke.
New converter topologies, such as the voltage link con- IGBTs and MOSFETs are semiconductor technologies
verter with an L-LC resonant load, have gained considerably which, to some extent, compete with each other. For high
in importance, in spite of some limitations compared to frequencies MOSFETs still offer more benefits than IGBTs,
parallel and series resonant converters. For system-related even though the range of IGBT-applications is continuously
reasons, they can only be used within a very narrow frequen- growing.
cy range without changing their components. Additional It will still be some time before power semiconductors
components, such as the coupling choke, contribute to an from silicon carbide (SiC) are used in medium and high-
increase in the losses. power frequency converters. Silicon-based IGBTs and MOS-
The direct converter without resonant circuit will con- FETs will remain the components of choice for a long time
tinue to be used only for applications where continuous to come. Future areas of application for SiC components
adjustment of the operating frequency is required during may first be found in high-frequency converters.
LITERATURE
[2] D
ede, E.: Static Inverters for Induction Heating: From the Fun- AUTHORS
damentals to the Analysis and Design. PCIM International
Conference 1998 Seminar Notes
[3] P
atent DE 101 15 326 B4 2009.10.15 Verfahren zur Ansteue- Dipl.-Ing. Edmund Zok
rung eines Schwingkreis-Wechselrichters. Schwingkreis- SMS Elotherm GmbH
Wechselrichter und Regler. Remscheid, Germany
[4] M
ohan; Undeland; Robbins: Power Electronics. Converters, Tel.: +49 (0) 2191/ 891-639
Applications and Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1995 e.zok@sms-elotherm.com
[5] Z
ok, E.; Matthes, H.G.: Kritische Halbleiterbelastungen im
Schwingkreisumrichter, VDE Konferenz Leistungselektronik Dipl.-Wirtsch.-Ing. Dirk M. Schibisch
und ihre Bauelemente in Bad Nauheim 2002 SMS Elotherm GmbH
[6] N
uding, M.: MF-Umrichtertechnologie zur Vereinfachung Remscheid, Germany
induktiver Erwärmprozesse, Elektrowärme International, Tel.: +49 (0)2191/ 891-300
issue 1/2009 d.schibisch@sms-elotherm.com
www.feuerfest-kolloquium.de