Chemistry Notes Prepared by JL.

Table of Contents
Topic 2.1: Energetics I ....................................................................................................................................... 2
Topic 2.2: Organic chemistry I (introduction, alkanes, alkenes, halogenoalkanes and alcohols ...................... 6
Topic 2.3: Kinetics I ........................................................................................................................................ 16
Topic 2.4: Chemical equilibria I ...................................................................................................................... 19
Topic 2.5 Industrial inorganic chemistry ......................................................................................................... 21
Use ............................................................................................................................................................ 24
Property .................................................................................................................................................... 24
Topic 3.1B Laboratory Chemistry ................................................................................................................... 25

Copyright by Betatutorhk. All Rights Reserved.

Page 1
 Chemistry Notes Prepared by JL.
Topic 2.1: Energetics I
2.1a Enthalpy change
Enthalpy (H) is the heat content of a system. In a reaction this may increase or decrease and produce an
enthalpy change (/\H).
/\H = H2 - H1
where H1 = enthalpy of reactants and H2 = enthalpy of products
The enthalpy change is affected by pressure and temperature so standard conditions are used for
measurements. These conditions are 1 atmosphere pressure and a temperature of 25oC or 298K.
for 2H2(g) + O2(g) -----> 2H2O(l) standard enthalpy of reaction /\Ho 298 = -571.6 kJmol-1
This enthalpy change is per mole of equation.

2.1b Exothermic and endothermic reactions

An exothermic reaction is one in which heat is given out. It results in a temperature increase. /\H is given a
negative sign to indicate an exothermic reaction, e.g.
2H2(g) + O2(g) -----> 2H2O(l) ; /\Ho 298 = -571.6 kJmol-1
An endothermic reaction is one in which heat is taken in. It results in a temperature decrease. /\H is given a
positive sign to indicate an endothermic reaction, e.g.
2Ag2O(s) ---> 4Ag(s) + O2(g) ; /\Ho 298 = + 61 kJmol-1

2.1c Enthalpies of formation, combustion and neutralisation

Enthalpy of formation (/\Hof)is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of a substance is formed from its
constituent elements in their standard states with measurements made under standard conditions of 298K
and 1 atm.
C(s) + 2S(s) -----> CS2(l) /\Hof = + 88kJmol-1
The positive sign means that for each mole of CS2 formed 88kJ are absorbed.
NB. The enthalpy of formation of an element is O kJmol-1
Enthalpy of combustion (/\Hoc) is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of a substance is burnt completely in
oxygen with measurements made at 298K and at 1 atm.
C3H6 (g) + 4 1/2 O2(g) ----> 3CO2 (g) + 3H2 O (l) /\Hoc = -2219.7 kJ per mole
The negative sign means that each mole of propane burnt releases 2219.7 kJ.
Enthalpy of neutralisation (/\Honeut) is the enthalpy change when 1 mol of water is formed by the
neutralisation of hydrogen ions by hydroxide ions with measurements made under standard conditions.
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) ---> H2O(l) (/\Honeut) = -57kJmol-1
Task 2.1c.1: State the names of the following energy changes and given the amounts of reactant or product
that they involve.
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) ---> NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
C(s) + 2H2(g) ---> CH4(g)
C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) ---> 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
Task 2.1c.2: Write balanced equations for reactions which would have the following enthalpy
changes: Enthalpy of combustion of methane, enthalpy of formation of water, enthalpy of combustion of
hydrogen and twice the enthalpy of formation of hydrogen sulfide (H2S).
2.1d Enthalpy level diagrams and reaction profiles
Exothermic reaction Endothermic reaction
enthalpy level diagram enthalpy level diagram

Copyright by Betatutorhk. All Rights Reserved.

Page 2
 Chemistry Notes Prepared by JL.
reactants products
| /\
| negative enthalpy change | positive enthalpy change
| |
products \/ reactants |

A reaction profile shows how the enthalpy of a system changes during the reaction. It shows that heat needs
to be put into a system before molecules can react or break up. For example hydrogen and iodine react in a
reversible reaction to form hydrogen iodide.
H2(g) + I2(g) ---> 2HI(g) The reaction profile is shown below.

Task 2.1d: Draw enthalpy level diagrams and reaction profiles for the reactions shown in 2.1c above.

2.1e The direction of spontaneous change

Exothermic reactions with a -ve enthalpy change often proceed spontaneously. This means they start as
soon as the reactants meet like with magnesium and acid. This is in the direction of greatest stability.
Endothermic reactions with +ve enthalpy changes are often not spontaneous. When reactants are mixed no
change occurs.
The sign of enthalpy change does not always indicate the direction of spontaneous change because other
factors affect events e.g. the speed of the reaction. Some endothermic processes are spontaneous e.g.
glucose dissolving in water. Some exothermic processes are not spontaneous although may start if heated
e.g. sugar reacts with oxygen exothermically but sugar does not burst into flames in a sugar bowl.

2.1f Application of Hess's law

This states that the total enthalpy change for a chemical reaction is the same regardless of the route taken for
the reaction. It is also a consequence of a more general physical law- the Law of Conservation of Energy
which states that energy can not be created nor destroyed.

route A reactants ----/\H1----> products

| /\
/\H2 |
| |
route B \/ |
intermediates -----/\H3--------->
Copyright by Betatutorhk. All Rights Reserved.
Page 3
 Chemistry Notes Prepared by JL.
Enthalpy change along route A (/\H1) = Enthalpy change along route B (/\H2 + /\H3)
/\H1 = /\H2 + /\H3
Applying Hess's Law using enthalpy of formation data

DH[reaction] = sum DHfo[products] - sum DHfo[reactants]

Task 2.1f.1
Applying Hess's Law using enthalpy of combustion data

DH[reaction] = sum DHcomo[reactants] - sum DHcomo[products]

Task 2.1f.2
Applying Hess's Law using bond enthalpy term data see 2.1h

DH[reaction] = sum E[reactants] - sum E[products]

2.1g The experimental measurement of standard enthalpy changes

Enthalpy of combustion
Copyright by Betatutorhk. All Rights Reserved.
Page 4
 Chemistry Notes Prepared by JL.
Weigh a burner containing a flammable liquid.
Place burner under a copper calorimeter of known mass containing a know mass of water.
Record the initial temperature of the water.
Light the burner then remove and it put it out when the temperature has gone up by about 20oC.
Weigh the burner again.
Calculate the energy given out into the copper and the water using (specific heat capacity of copper =
385Jkg-1K-1, of water = 4180Jkg-1K-1 and
energy = mass of substance * specific heat capacity of substance * temperature rise
Calculate the energy given out by 1 mol of the flammable liquid substance
Task 2.1g Draw up a results table for this experiment.

2.1h Average bond enthalpies

Bond dissociation enthalpy is the enthalpy change when one mole of bonds of a particular type in a
particular environment are broken.
The Bond Enthalpy Term or E is an average value of bond dissociation enthalpies for a particular bond. The
bond dissociation enthalpies for the O-H bonds in water differ slightly, the bond enthalpy term is the average.
so E(O-H) = Average bond dissociation enthalpy = (494 + 430)/2 kJmol-1
so E(O-H) = +462 kJmol-1

The enthalpy of atomisation is often needed. This is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of gaseous atoms are
formed from an element in its standard state. e.g. The enthalpies of atomisation of carbon and hydrogen are
the enthalpy changes for:
C(s) --> C(g) and 1/2 H2(g) --> H(g)

These quantities can be combined to calculate enthalpies of reaction when all of the reactants and products
are in the gas state E.g. What is the enthalpy of reaction for the formation of gaseous water given E(O-H) =
+462 kJmol-1, E(H-H) = +436 kJmol-1 , E(O=O) = 498 kJmol-1 .

DHr + 2E[O-H] = E[H-H] +1/2E [O=O]

DHr = E[H-H] +1/2E [O=O] - 2E[O-H]
DHr = 436kJmol-1 +1/2*498kJmol-1 -2*462kJmol-1
DHr = -239kJmol-1

Task 2.1h

Copyright by Betatutorhk. All Rights Reserved.

Page 5