MT-­‐201B

 MATERIALS  SCIENCE  

1  
Why  Study  Materials  Science?  

1.  ApplicaBon  oriented  Proper&es    

 
2.  Cost  consideraBon  
 
3.  Processing  route    

2  
ClassificaBon  of  Materials  
1.  Metals  
2.  Ceramics  
3.  Polymers  
4.  Composites  
5.  Semiconductors  
6.  Biomaterials  
7.  Nanomaterials  
  3  
Syllabus  
1.  IntroducBon  to  Crystallography  
2.  Principle  of  Alloy  FormaBon  
3.  Binary  Equilibria  
4.  Mechanical  ProperBes  
5.  Heat  Treatments  
6.  Engineering  Materials  
7.  Advanced  Materials  
 
4  
 Recommended  Books  

1.  Callister  W.D.,   Materials  Science  and  

Engineering  an  Introduc&on  
2.  Askeland  D.R.,   The  Science  and  
Engineering  of  Materials  
3.  Raghavan  V., Materials  Science  and  
Engineering-­‐  A  first  Course,  
4.  Avener  S.H,   IntroducBon  to  Physical  
Metallurgy,  
5  
The  Structure  of  Crystalline  Solids  
CRYSTALLINE  STATE  
 

•   Most  solids  are  crystalline  with  their  atoms  arranged  in  a          

     regular  manner.  
•   Long-­‐range  order:  the  regularity  can  extend  throughout  the      
     crystal.  
•   Short-­‐range  order:  the  regularity  does  not  persist  over      
     appreciable  distances.  Ex.  amorphous  materials  such  as  glass        
     and  wax.  
•   Liquids  have  short-­‐range  order,  but  lack  long-­‐range  order.  
•   Gases  lack  both  long-­‐range  and  short-­‐range  order.  
•   Some  of  the  properBes  of  crystalline  solids  depend  on  the    
   crystal  structure  of  the  material,  the  manner  in  which  atoms,      
   ions,  or  molecules  are  arranged.  
 
6  
 La\ce  
•   SomeBmes  the  term  la\ce  is  used  in  the  context  of  crystal      
     structures;  in  this  sense   la\ce  means  a  three-­‐    
     dimensional  array  of  points  coinciding  with  atom  posiBons      
     (or  sphere  centers).  

 A  point  la*ce    
7  
 Unit  Cells  
•  The unit cell is the basic structural unit or building block of the crystal
structure and defines the crystal structure by virtue of its geometry and
the atom positions within.
•  This size and shape of the unit cell can be described in terms of their
lengths (a,b,c) and the angles between then (α,β,γ). These lengths and
angles are the lattice constants or lattice parameters of the unit cell.

 A  point  la*ce     A  unit  cell  

8  
 Bravais  La\ce  
Table 1: Crystal systems and Bravais Lattices

Crystal systems and Bravais Lattice

9  
Types of crystals

Three relatively simple crystal structures are found for most

of the common metals; body-centered cubic, face-centered
cubic, and hexagonal close-packed.

1. Body Centered Cubic Structure (BCC)

2. Face Centered Cubic Structure (FCC)

3. Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP)

10  
1.  Body Centered Cubic Structure (BCC)

In these structures, there are 8 atoms at the 8 corners and

one atom in the interior, i.e. in the centre of the unit cell with
no atoms on the faces.

11  
2. Face Centered Cubic Structure (FCC)

In these structures, there are 8 atoms at the 8 corners,

6 atoms at the centers of 6 faces and no interior atom.

12  
3. Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP)

In these structures, there are 12 corner atoms (6 at the bottom

face and 6 at the top face), 2 atoms at the centers of the
above two faces and 3 atoms in the interior of the unit cell.

13  
Average Number of Atoms per Unit Cell
Since the atoms in a unit cell are shared by the neighboring
cells it is important to know the average number of atoms per
unit cell. In cubic structures, the corner atoms are shared by 8
cells (4 from below and 4 from above), face atoms are shared
by adjacent two cells and atoms in the interior are shared by
only that one cell. Therefore, general we can write:

Nav = Nc / 8 + Nf / 2 + Ni / 1

Where,
Nav = average number of atoms per unit cell.
Nc = Total number of corner atoms in an unit cell.
Nf = Total number of face atoms in an unit cell.
Ni = Centre or interior atoms.
14  
•  Simple cubic (SC) structures: In these structures there are
8 atoms corresponding to 8 corners and there are no atoms
on the faces or in the interior of the unit cell. Therefore,
Nc = 8, Nf = 0 and Ni = 0
Using above eqn. we get, Nav = 8/8 + 0/2 + 0/1 = 1

15  
2. Body centered cubic (BCC) structures: In these
structures, there are 8 atoms at the 8 corners and one
atom in the interior, i.e. in the centre of the unit cell with
no atoms on the faces. Therefore Nc = 8, Nf = 0 and Ni = 1
Using above eqn. we get, Nav = 8/8 + 0/2 + 1/1 = 2

16  
3.  Face Centered Cubic Structure (FCC): In these structures,
there are 8 atoms at the 8 corners, 6 atoms at the centers
of 6 faces and no interior atom
Therefore Nc = 8, Nf = 6 and Ni = 0
Using above eqn. we get, Nav = 8/8 + 6/2 + 0/1 = 4

17  
4. Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP) Structures:
In these structures, there are 12 corner atoms (6 at the bottom face and 6 at
the top face), 2 atoms at the centers of the above two faces and 3 atoms in
the interior of the unit cell.
For hexagonal structures, the corner atoms are shared by 6 cells (3 from
below and 3 from above), face atoms are shared by adjacent 2 cells and
atoms in the interior are shared by only one cell. Therefore, in general the
number of atoms per unit cell will be as: Nav = Nc / 6 + Nf / 2 + Ni / 1
Here Nc = 12, Nf = 2 and Ni = 3
Hence, Nav = 12 / 6 + 2 / 2 + 3 / 1 = 6

18  
Co-­‐ordina&on  Number  

Co-­‐ordinaBon  number  is  the  number  of  nearest  equidistant  

 neighboring  atoms  surrounding  an  atom  under  consideraBon  
1.  Simple  Cubic  Structure:    

Simple  cubic  structure  has  a  coordinaBon  number  of  6  

19  
2.  Body  Centered  Cubic  Structure:    

Body  centered  cubic  structure    

has  a  coordinaBon  number  of  8  

20  
 3.  Face  Centered  Cubic  Structure:    

Face  centered  cubic  structure  has  a  coordinaBon  number  of  12  

21  
 4.  Hexagonal  Close  Packed  Structure:    

Hexagonal  close  packed  structure  has  a  coordinaBon  number  of  12  

22  
 Stacking  Sequence  for  SC,  BCC,  FCC  and  HCP  
•   La\ce  structures  are  described  by  stacking  of  idenBcal  planes    
     of  atoms  one  over  the  other  in  a  definite  manner  
 

•   Different  crystal  structures  exhibit  different  stacking  sequences  

1.  Stacking  Sequence  of  Simple  Cubic  Structure:  
 

Stacking  sequence  of  simple  cubic  structure  is  AAAAA…..since  the  

second  as  well  as  the  other  planes  are  stacked  in  a  similar  manner  
as  the  first  i.e.  all  planes  are  stacked  in  the  same  manner.      
   
A  

A  

A   23  
2.    Stacking  Sequence  of  Body  Centered  Cubic  Structure:  
 
•   Stacking  sequence  of  body  centered  cubic  structure  is  ABABAB….  
   
 

•   The  stacking  sequence  ABABAB  indicates  that  the  second  plane    

     is  stacked  in  a  different  manner  to  the  first.    
 

•   Any  one  atom  from  the  second  plane  occupies  any  one  intersBBal  
     site  of  the  first  atom.    
 

•   Third  plane  is  stacked  in  a  manner  idenBcal  to  the  first  and  fourth    
     plane  is  stacked  in  an  idenBcal    
     manner  to  the  second  and  so  on.     A  
     This  results  in  a  bcc  structure.     B  
A
B  

24  
 3.    Stacking  Sequence  of  Face  Centered  Cubic  Structure:  
 
•   Stacking  sequence  of  face  centered  cubic  structure  is  ABCABC….  
     
•   The  close  packed  planes  are  inclined  at  an  angle  to  the  cube  faces    
     and  are  known  as  octahedral  planes  
 

•   The  stacking  sequence  ABCABC…  indicates  that  the  second  plane    

     is  stacked  in  a  different  manner  to  the  first  and  so  is  the  third  from  
     the  second  and  the  first.  The  fourth  plane  is  stacked  in  a  similar    
     fashion  to  the  first  

25  
26  
4.    Stacking  Sequence  of  Hexagonal  Close  Packed  Structure:  
 
    •   Stacking  sequence  of  HCP  structure  is  ABABAB…..  
 

•   HCP  structure  is  produced  by  stacking  sequence  of  the        

   type  ABABAB…..in  which  any  one  atom  from  the  second      
   plane  occupies  any  one  intersBBal  site  of  the  first  plane.  
 

•   Third  plane  is  stacked  similar  to  first  and  fourth  similar  to        
   second  and  so  on.  

27  
Atomic Packing Factor (APF)
Atomic packing factor is the fraction of volume or
space occupied by atoms in an unit cell. Therefore,

APF = Volume of atoms in unit cell

Volume of the unit cell
Since volume of atoms in a unit cell = Average number
of atoms/cell x Volume of an atom  

APF = Average number of atoms/cell x Volume of an atom

Volume of the unit cell

28  
1.  Simple  Cubic  Structures:  
 
In  simple  cubic  structures,  the  atoms  are  assumed  to  be  placed  in  
such  a  way  that  any  two  adjacent  atoms  touch  each  other.  If   a  is  
the  la\ce  parameter  of  the  simple  cubic  structure  and   r  is  the  
radius  of  atoms,  it  is  clear  from  the  fig  that:  r  =  a/2  
 

APF = Average number of atoms/cell x Volume of an atom

Volume of the unit cell
= 1 x 4/3 π r3 = 4/3 π r3 = 0.52
a3 (2r)3
APF  of  simple  cubic  structure  is  0.52  or  52%  
29  
2.  Body  Centered  Cubic  (BCC)  Structures:  
In  body  centred  cubic  structures,  the  centre  atom  touches  the  
corner  atoms  as  shown  in  fig.  
 

If   a  is  the  la\ce  parameter  of  BCC  structure  and  

  r  is  the  radius  of  atoms,  we  can  write  
                                                         (DF)2    =  (DG)2  +  (GF)2  
Now                                          (DG)2    =  (DC)2  +  (CG)2  and  DF  =  4r  
Therefore,                        (DF)2    =  (DC)2  +  (CG)2  +  (GF)2  
 
30  
                                              (4r)2    =  a2    +  a2      +  a2  
Therefore,                        r  =  a√3  /  4  

APF  =  Average  number  of  atoms/cell  x  Volume  of  an  atom    

                                                             Volume  of  the  unit  cell  
 
                                       2  x  4/3  π  (a√3  /  4)3            =        0.68  
                                                               a3  

APF  of  body  centered  cubic  structure  is  0.68  or  68%  

31  
 3.  Face  Centered  Cubic  (FCC)  Structures:  
               In  face  centred  cubic  structures,  the  atoms  at  the  centre  of  faces    touch  the      
               corner  atoms  as  shown  in  figure.  

                 If   a  is  the  la\ce  parameter  of  FCC  structure  and   r  is  the  atomic  radius  
                                                       (DB)2      =    (DC)2      +      (CB)2  
                                                 i.e.  (4r)2      =  a2  +  a2  
                     Therefore,  r  =  a  /  2√2  
APF  =  Average  number  of  atoms/cell  x  Volume  of  an  atom    
                                                             Volume  of  the  unit  cell  
                                         =      4  x  4  /  3  x  π  (a/2√2)3      =        0.74    
                                                                                 a3  
APF  of  face  centered  cubic  structure  is  0.74  or  74%   32  
4.  Hexagonal  Close  Packed  (HCP)  Structures  
The  volume  of  the  unit  cell  for  HCP  can  be  found  by  finding  out  the  area  
of  the  basal  plane  and  then  mulBplying  this  by  its  height  

This  area  is  six  Bmes  the  area  of    

equilateral  triangle  ABC  
Area  of  triangle  ABC  =  ½  a2  sin  60  
Total  area  ABDEFG  =  6  x  ½  a2  sin  60  
                                                                       =  3  a2  sin  60  
Now  volume  of  unit  cell  =  3  a2  sin  60  x  c  

             For  HCP  structures,  the  corner  atoms  

             are  touching  the  centre  atoms,  i.e.  atoms    
             at  ABDEFG  are  touching  the  C  atom.  
             Therefore  a  =  2r  or  r  =  a  /  2  

33  
 APF  =  Average  number  of  atoms/cell  x  Volume  of  an  atom    
                                                             Volume  of  the  unit  cell  
 
                                                                 APF  =  6  x  4π/3  r3  
                                                                                       3  a2  sin  60  x  c  
                                     
                                                                 APF  =        6  x  4π/3  (a/2)3  
                                                                                             3  a2  sin  60  x  c  
                                                                 APF  =                  π  a  
                                                                                             3  c  sin  60    

The  c/a  raBo  for  an  ideal  HCP  structure  consisBng  of  uniform  spheres  packed  as  
 Bghtly  together  as  possible  is  1.633.  

Therefore,  subsBtuBng  c/a  =  1.633  and  Sin  60o  =  0.866  in  above  equaBon  we  get:  
APF  =      π  /  3  x  1.633  x  0.899    =  0.74  

APF  of  face  centered  cubic  structure  is  0.74  or  74%  
34  
 Atomic  Packing  Factor  

1.  Simple  cubic  structure:  0.52  

 

2.  Body  centered  cubic  structure:  0.68  

3.  Face  centered  cubic  structure:  0.74  

4.  Hexagonal  close  packed  structure:  0.74    

35  
 Crystallographic  Points,  Planes  and  DirecBons  
1.  Point  Coordinates  
  hen  dealing  with  crystalline  materials  it  olen  becomes  necessary  to  
                 W
specify  a  parBcular  point  within  a  unit  cell.  
 

                 The  posiBon  of  any  point  located  within  a  unit  cell  may  be  specified  in  
terms  of  its  coordinates  as  fracBonal  mulBples  of  the  unit  cell  edge  lengths.  

36  
37  
2.  Plane  Coordinates    
1.  Find  out  the  intercepts  made  by  the  plane  at  the  three  
reference  axis  e.g.  p,q  and  r.  
2.  Convert  these  intercepts  to  fracBonal  intercepts  by  dividing  
with  their  axial  lengths.  If  the  axial  length  is  a,  b  and  c  the  
fracBonal  intercepts  will  be  p/a,  q/b  and  r/c.  
3.   Find  the  reciprocals  of  the  fracBonal  intercepts.  In  the  above  
case  a/p,  b/q  and  c/r.  
4.  Convert  these  reciprocals  to  the  minimum  of  whole  numbers  
by  mulBplying  with  their  LCM.  
5.  Enclose  these  numbers  in  brackets  (parenthesis)  as  (hkl)  
               Note:  If  plane  passes  through  the  selected  origin,  either  another  
parallel  plane  must  be  constructed  within  the  unit  cell  by  an  
appropriate  translaBon  or  a  new  origin  must  be  established  at  the  
corner  of  the  unit  cell.  
  38  
1.   Intercepts:  p,q  and  r.  
2.  FracBonal  intercepts:  p/a,  q/b  and  r/c.  
3.   Reciprocals:  a/p,  b/q  and  c/r.  
4.  Convert  to  whole  numbers  
5.  Enclose  these  numbers  in    
             brackets  (parenthesis)  as  (hkl)  
 

39  
Step  1  :    IdenBfy  the  intercepts  on  the    
x-­‐  ,  y-­‐  and  z-­‐  axes.  In  this  case  the  intercept  on  the    
x-­‐axis  is  at  x  =  1  (  at  the  point  (1,0,0)  ),  but  the  surface    
is  parallel  to  the  y-­‐  and  z-­‐axes  so  we  consider  the    
intercept  to  be  at  infinity  (  ∞  )  for  the  special  case    
where  the  plane  is  parallel  to  an  axis.    
The  intercepts  on  the  x-­‐  ,  y-­‐  and  z-­‐axes  are  thus    
Intercepts  :        1  ,  ∞  ,  ∞    
Step  2  :    Specify  the  intercepts  in  fracBonal  co-­‐ordinates    
Co-­‐ordinates  are  converted  to  fracBonal  co-­‐ordinates  by  dividing  by  the  respecBve    
cell-­‐dimension  -­‐  This  gives    
FracBonal  Intercepts  :        1/1  ,  ∞/1,  ∞/1        i.e.        1  ,  ∞  ,  ∞    
Step  3  :    Take  the  reciprocals  of  the  fracBonal  intercepts    
This  final  manipulaBon  generates  the  Miller  Indices  which  (by  convenBon)  should    
then  be  specified  without  being  separated  by  any  commas  or  other  symbols.    
The  Miller  Indices  are  also  enclosed  within  standard  brackets  (….).    
The  reciprocals  of  1  and  ∞  are  1  and  0  respecBvely,  thus  yielding    
Miller  Indices  :      (100)  So  the  surface/plane  illustrated  is  the  (100)  plane  of  the  
cubic  crystal.  
40  
 Intercepts  :      1  ,  1  ,  ∞    
FracBonal  intercepts  :      1  ,  1  ,  ∞  
Reciprocal:  1,1,0  
Miller  Indices  :      (110)    

Intercepts  :      1  ,  1  ,  1    
FracBonal  intercepts  :      1  ,  1  ,  1    
Reciprocal:  1,1,1  
Miller  Indices  :      (111)    

41  
Intercepts  :      ½    ,  1  ,  ∞    
FracBonal  intercepts  :      ½  ,  1  ,  ∞    
Reciprocal:  2,1,0  
Miller  Indices  :      (210)    

Intercepts  :      1/3    ,  2/3  ,  1    

FracBonal  intercepts  :      1/3    ,  2/3  ,  
1    
Reciprocal:  3,  3/2,  1  
Miller  Indices  :      (632)    
42  
Exercise  

43  
Exercise  

44  
Exercise  

45  
Exercise  

46  
Exercise  

47  
48  
If  the  plane  passes  through  the  origin,  the  origin    
has  to  be  shiled  for  indexing  the  plane  

49  
50  
 Miller  Indices  of  Planes  for  Hexagonal  Crystals  
 
•   Crystal  Plane  in  HCP  unit  cells  is  commonly  idenBfied  by  using  four  indices  
     instead  of  three.  
 

• The  HCP  crystal  plane  indices  called  Miller-­‐Bravis  indices  are  denoted  by  the  
     lepers  h,  k,  i  and  l  are  enclosed  in  parentheses  as  (hkil)  
 

• These   four   digit   hexagonal   indices   are   based   on   a   coordinate   system   with   four  
axes.  
• The  three  a1,  a2  and  a3  axes  are  all  contained  within  a  single  plane  
   (called  the  basal  plane),  and  at  1200  angles  to  one  another.  The  z-­‐axis  is  
   perpendicular  to  the  basal  plane.  
 

• The  unit  of  measurement  along  the  a1,  a2  and  a3  axes  is  the  distance    
     between  the  atoms  along  these  axes.  
 

• The  unit  of  measurement  along  the  z-­‐  axis  is  the  height  of  the  unit  cell.  
•   The  reciprocals  of  the  intercepts  that  a  crystal  plane  makes  with  the  
     a1,  a2  and  a3  axes  give  the  h,  k  and  I  indices  while  the  reciprocal  of  the  
     intercept  with  the  z-­‐axis  gives  the  index  l.  
51  
52  
53  
 Miller Indices of Directions for Cubic Crystals

•  A  vector  of  convenient  length  is  posiBoned  such  that  it      

   passes  through  the  origin  of  the  coordinate  system.  
 

•   The  length  of  the  vector  projecBon  on  each  of  the  three  axes      
     is  determined.  
•   These  three  numbers  are  mulBplied  or  divided  by  a  common    
     factor  to  reduce  them  to  the  smallest  integer  values.  
 

•   The  three  indices,  not  separated  by  commas,  

     are  enclosed  in  square  brackets  [uvw]  
 

•   If  a  negaBve  sign  is  obtained  represent    

     the  –ve  sign  with  a        
     bar  over  the  number  

54  
55  
For  direcBon  not  originaBng  from  origin  the  origin  has  to  be  shiled    

56  
Examples  of  direcBons  with  shil  of  origin  

57  
58  
 Family  of  Symmetry  Related  Planes  

_  
(  1  1  0  )   (1  1  0)  
_  
(  1  0  1  )   (  1  0  1  )  
_  
(  0  1  1  )   (  0  1  1  )  

{  1  1  0  }  
{  1  1  0  }  =  Plane  (  1  1  0  )  and  all  other  planes  related    by  
symmetry  to  (  1  1  0  )  

59  
 Family  of  Symmetry  Related  DirecBons  
[  0  0  1  ]  

IdenBcal  atomic  density  

IdenBcal  properBes  
_  
[  1  0  0  ]  

〈  1  0  0  〉  
[  0  1  0  ]  
_   [  1  0  0  ]  
[  0  1  0  ]   〈1  0  0〉=  [  1  0  0  ]  and  all  other  
z _  
[  0  0  1  ]   direcBons  related  to  [  1  0  0  ]  
by  symmetry  
y

x 60  
SUMMARY OF MEANINGS OF PARENTHESES

q r s represents a point

(hkl) represents a plane

{hkl} represents a family of planes

[hkl] represents a direction

<hkl> represents a family of directions

61  
 Anisotropy  of  crystals  

191.1  GPa  

Young s  modulus  
of  FCC  Cu  

130.3  GPa  

66.7  GPa   62  
Anisotropy  of  crystals  (contd.)  

Different  crystallographic  
planes  have  different  
atomic  density  

And  hence  
different  
properBes  

Si  Wafer  for  
computers  

63  
 Linear  and  Planar  DensiBes  
Linear  Density  
•   Linear  density  (LD)  is  defined  as  the  number  of  atoms  per        
     unit  length  whose  centers  lie  on  the  direcBon  vector  
 
   LD  =  number  of  atoms  centered  on  direcBon  vector  
                                                     length  of  direcBon  vector      

The  [110]  linear  density  for  

FCC  is:    
LD110  =  2  atoms/4R  =  1/2R    
64  
 Planar  Density  
 
•   Planar  density  (PD)  is  defined  as  the  number  of  atoms  per        
unit  area  that  are  centered  on  a  parBcular  crystallographic  
           plane  

•     PD  =  number  of  atoms  centered  on  a  plane  

                                                                 area  of  plane      

Planar  density  on  (110)  plane  in  a  FCC  unit  cell  

•   Number  of  atoms  on  (110)  plane  is  2  
•   Area  of  (110)  plane  (rectangular  secBon)  is    
   4R  (length)  x  2√2R  (height)  =  8R2√2    
   PD  =  2  atoms  /  8R2√2  =    
                     1  /  4R2√2  
 
  65  
 Planar  density  on  (100)  plane  in  a  Simple  Cubic  
Structure:  
•   Number  of  atoms  on  (100)  plane  is  1  
•   Area  of  (100)  plane  (square  secBon)  is    
   a  x  a  =  a2    
   PD  =  1  atom  /  a2  =    
               =    1  /  a2  

Planar  density  on  (110)  plane  in  a  

Simple  Cubic  Structure:  
•   Number  of  atoms  on  (110)  plane  is  1  
•   Area  of  (110)  plane  (rectangular  
secBon)  is  √2a2  
   PD  =  1  atom  /  √2  a2  =    
               =    1  /  √2  a2  
66  
Planar  density  on  (111)  plane  in  a  
Simple  Cubic  Structure:  
•   Number  of  atoms  on  (111)  plane  is  
1/6  x  3  =  0.5  
•   Area  of  (111)  plane  (triangle  DEF)  is    
   1/2  x  (√2a)  x  (0.866  x  √2a)  =  0.866a2    
   PD  =  0.5  atom  /  0.866a2  =    
               =    0.577  /  a2  

Planar  density  on  (100)  plane  in  a    

Body  Centred  Cubic  Structure:  
•   Number  of  atoms  on  (100)  plane  
is  1  
•   Area  of  (100)  plane  (square  
secBon)  is  a  x  a  =  a2  
   PD  =  1  atom  /  a2  =  1  /  a2  
67  
 Planar  density  on  (110)  plane  in  a  Body  
Centered  Cubic  Structure:  
•   Number  of  atoms  on  (110)  plane  is  1/4  
x  4  +  1  =  2  
•   Area  of  (110)  plane  (rectangle  AFGD)  is  
a  x  √2a    =  √2a2      
   PD  =  2  atoms  /  √2a2  =    
               =  √2    /  a2  =  1.414  /  a2  

Planar  density  on  (111)  plane  in  a  

Body  Centered  Cubic  Structure:  
•   Number  of  atoms  on  (111)  plane  is  
1/6  x  3  +  1  =  1.5  
•   Area  of  (111)  plane  (triangle  DEG)  is  
½  x  √2a    
   √2a  sin60o    =  0.866  a2  
   PD  =  1.5  atoms  /  0.866a2  =    
               =  1.732  /  a2  
68  
 Voids  in  crystalline  structures  
  We have already seen that as spheres cannot fill entire space → the atomic
packing fraction (APF) < 1 (for all crystals)
  This implies there are voids between the atoms. Lower the PF, larger the
volume occupied by voids.
  These voids have complicated shapes; but we are mostly interested in the
largest sphere which can fit into these voids
  The size and distribution of voids in materials play a role in determining
aspects of material behaviour → e.g. solubility of interstitials and their
diffusivity
  The position of the voids of a particular type will be consistent with the
symmetry of the crystal
  In the close packed crystals (FCC, HCP) there are two types of voids →
tetrahedral and octahedral voids (identical in both the structures as the voids
are formed between two layers of atoms)
  The tetrahedral void has a coordination number of 4
  The octahedral void has a coordination number 6
69  
70  
Inters&&al  sites  /  voids  

71  
Tetrahedral  sites  in  HCP  

Octahedral  sites  in  HCP  

72  
Voids:  Tetrahedral  and  Octahedral  Sites    
 

•    Tetrahedral   and   octahedral   sites   in   a   close   packed   structure   can  

be        
   occupied  by  other  atoms  or  ions  in  crystal  structures  of  alloys.    
 

•   Thus,  recognizing  their  existence  and  their  geometrical  constrains    

   help  in  the  study  and  interpretaBon  of  crystal  chemistry.    
 

•   The  packing  of  spheres  and  the  formaBon  of  tetrahedral  and      
     octahedral  sites  or  holes  are  shown  below.  

73  
74  
What is the radius of the largest sphere that can be placed in a tetrahedral
void without pushing the spheres apart?

To solve a problem of this type, we need to construct a model for the analysis.
Use the diagram shown here as a starting point, and construct a tetrahedral
arrangement by placing four spheres of radius R at alternate corners of a cube.
•  What is the length of the face diagonal fd of this cube in terms of R?
Since the spheres are in contact at the centre of each cube face, fd = 2 R.
•  What is the length of the edge for such a cube, in terms of R?
Cube edge length a = √2 R
•  What is the length of the body diagonal bd of the cube in R?
bd = √6 R
•  Is the center of the cube also the center of the tetrahedral hole?
Yes
•  Let the radius of the tetrahedral hole be r, express bd in terms
of R and r
If you put a small ball there, it will be in contact with all four spheres.
bd = 2 (R + r). r = (2.45 R) / 2 - R
= 1.225 R - R
= 0.225 R
•  What is the radius ratio of tetrahedral holes to the spheres?
r / R = 0.225 75  
Derive the relation between the radius (r) of the octahedral void and the
radius (R) of the atom in a close packed structure
(Assume largest sphere in an octahedral void without pushing the parent atom)

A sphere into the octahedral void is shown

in the diagram. A sphere above and a
sphere below this small sphere have not
been shown in the figure. ABC is a right
angled triangle. The centre of void is A.  
Applying Pythagoras theorem.  
BC2 = AB2 + AC2  
(2R)2 + (R + r)2 + (R + r)2 = 2(R + r)2
 
4R2/2 = (R + r)2  
           
2R2  =  (R  +  r)2    
√2R  =  R  +    r    
r  =  √2R  –  R  =  (1.414  –1)R
r  =  0.414  R   76  
 Single  Crystal  and  Polycrystalline  

Stages  of  solidificaBon  of  a  polycrystalline    

material  

Single  Crystal  

77  
 silicon single crystal

Micrograph of a polycrystalline
stainless steel showing grains
and grain boundaries

78  
79  
Polymorphism  

80  
 Ceramic  Crystal  Structures  
•   Ceramics  are  compounds  between  metallic  &  nonmetallic  
     elements  e.x.  Al2O3,  FeO,  SiC,  TiN,  NaCl  
•   They  are  hard  and  briple  
•   Typically  insulaBve  to  the  passage  of  electricity  &  heat  
 

Crystal  Structures  
•   Atomic  bonding  is  mostly  ionic  i.e.  the  crystal  structure  is  
   composed  of  electrically  charged  ions  instead  of  atoms.  
•   The  metallic  ions,  or  caBons  are  posiBvely  charged  because    
   they  have  given  up  their  valence  electrons  to  the    
   nonmetallic  Ions  or  anions,  which  are  negaBvely  charged  
 
81  
Ionic  bonding  

82  
•   In  a  ceramic  material  two  characterisBcs  of  the      
   component  ions  influence  the  crystal  structure:  
     
  1.  Charge  neutrality  
 
2.  The  relaBve  sizes  of  the  caBons  and  anions  

83  
          1.  Charge  neutrality:  each  crystal  should  be        
                   electrically  neutral  e.x.  NaCl  and  CaCl2  

84  
2.  The  relaBve  sizes  of  the  caBons  and  anions  
 

•     Because  the  metallic  elements  give  up  electrons  when    

     Ionized,  caBons  are    
     smaller  than  anions  
 
 
 

•     Hence  rc  /  ra  is  less  than  unity  

 

•     Stable  ceramic  crystal  structures  form  when  those  

       anions  surrounding  a  caBon  are  all  in  contact  with  the  
       that  caBon  

85  
•   CoordinaBon  number  is  related  to  the  caBon-­‐anion  raBo  
 

•   For  a  specific  coordinaBon  number  there  is  a  criBcal    

   or  minimum  rc  /  ra    raBo    
 
 

86  
87  
88  
PredicBng  Structure  of  FeO  

89  
90  
 AX-­‐TYPE  STRUCTURES  
•   Equal  number  of  caBons  and  anions  referred  to  as    
   AX  compounds  
 

A  denotes  the  caBon  and  

X  denotes  the  anion  

rNa  =  0.102  nm  

 

rCl  =  0.181  nm  

 
r  Na  /  rCl        =  0.564    
 
 
CaBons   prefer  octahedral  sites  
 
  Rock  Salt  Structure   91  
AX-­‐TYPE  STRUCTURES  conBnued…  

MgO  also  has  a  NaCl  type  structure  

rO  =  0.140  nm  
 

rMg  =  0.072  nm  

 
 
r   Mg  /  rO        =  0.514    
 
CaBons  prefer  octahedral  sites  
 
 
 
  92  
AX-­‐TYPE  STRUCTURES  conBnued…  

93  
AmXp-­‐TYPE  STRUCTURES  
•   number  of  caBons  and  anions  are  different,        
   referred  to  as  AmXp  compounds  

Calcium  Fluorite  Structure  

94  
AmBnXp-­‐TYPE  STRUCTURES  
•     Ceramic  compound  with  more  than  two  types              
     of  caBons,  referred  to  as  AmBnXp  compounds  

95  
 Crystal  defects  (ImperfecBons  in  Solids)  
•  Perfect order does not exist throughout a crystalline material
on an atomic scale. All crystalline materials contain large
number of various defects or imperfections.

•  Defects or imperfections influence properties such as

mechanical, electrical, magnetic, etc.

•  Classification of crystalline defects is generally made

according to geometry or dimensionality of the defect
i.e. zero dimensional defects, one dimensional defects and
two dimensional defects.

96  
Crystal defects / imperfections are broadly classified
into three classes:
1. Point  defect  (zero  dimensional  defects)  
           Vacancy,                              
           Impurity  atoms  (  subs&tu&onal    and  inters&&al)  
           Frankel  and  Scho]ky  defect    
 

2.  Line  defect  (one  dimensional  defects)  

         Edge  disloca&on  
         Screw  disloca&on,    
         Mixed  disloca&on    
 

3.  Surface  defects  or  Planer  defects  (two  dimensional  

defects)  
 

           Grain  boundaries  
           Twin  boundary    
           Stacking  faults  
97  
             
 1. Point defects
Vacancy  

98  
Vacancy  
•  If an atom is missing from its regular site, the defect produced
is called a vacancy
•  All crystalline solids contain vacancies and their number
increases with temperature
•  The equilibrium concentration of vacancies Nv for a given
quantity of material depends on & increases with temperature
according to

Where:
N is the total number of atomic sites
Qv is the energy required for the formation of a vacancy
T is the absolute temperature &
k is the gas or Boltzmann s constant i.e. 1.38 x 10-23 J/atom-K or
8.62 X 10-5 eV/atom-K
99  
100  
Vacancies aid in the movement (diffusion) of atoms

101  
  Impurity  atoms  (  subs&tu&onal    and  inters&&al)  

102  
•  Impurity point defects are of two types
1. Substitutional
2. Interstitial

•  For substitutional, solute or impurity atoms replace or

substitute for the host atoms

•  For interstitial, solute or impurity atoms fill the void or

interstitial space among the host atoms

•  Both the substitutional and interstitial impurity atoms

distort the crystal lattice affecting the mechanical and
electrical / electronic properties

103  
•  Impurity atoms generate stress in the lattice by distorting the
lattice
•  The stress is compressive in case of smaller substitutional
atom and tensile in case of larger substitutional atom
•  These stresses act as barriers to movement of dislocations and
thus improve the strength / hardness of a material
•  These stresses also act as barriers to the movement of
electrons and lower the electrical conductivity (increases
resistivity) of the material

104  
  Frankel  and  Scho]ky  defects    

105  
•  Frenkel and Schottky defects occur in ionic solids like ceramics

•  An atom may leave its regular site and may occupy nearby
interstitial site of the matrix giving rise to two defects
simultaneously i.e. one vacancy and the other self interstitial.
These two defects together is called a Frenkel defect. This can
occur only for cations because of their smaller size as
compared to the size of anions.

•  When cation vacancy is associated with an anion vacancy, the

defect is called Schottky defect.
Schottky defects are more
common in ionic solids because
the lattice has to maintain
electrical neutrality

106  
 2. Line defects
DislocaBons  
 

•   A  missing  line  or  row  of  atoms  in  a  regular  crystal        

   la\ce  is  called  a  dislocaBon  
•   DislocaBon  is  a  boundary  between  the  slipped  region      
   and  the  unslipped  region  and  lies  in  the  slip  plane    
•   Movement  of  dislocaBon  is  necessary  for  plasBc        
   deformaBon  
•   There  are  mainly  two  types  of  dislocaBons  (a)  Edge    
     dislocaBons  and  (b)  Screw  dislocaBons  

107  
Edge Dislocation

DislocaBon  line  and  b  are  perpendicular  to  each  other   108  

Movement  of  edge  dislocaBon  

109  
ElasBc  stress  field  responsible  for  electron  scapering  and  
 increase  in  electrical  resisBvity  

la\ce  strain  around  

dislocaBon   110  
 Screw Dislocation

DislocaBon  line  and  b  are  parallel  to  each  other   111  

 
Movement of Screw Dislocation

112  
When Dislocations Interact

113  
 Mixed Dislocations

By  resolving,  the  contribuBon  

 from  both  types  of  
 dislocaBons  can  be  
 determined  

114  
DislocaBons    
as  seen  under  
Transmission  
Electron  Microscope    
(TEM)  

115  
 3. Surface defects
Grain  Boundary  
•  Grain boundary is a defect which separates grains of different
orientation from each other in a polycrystalline material.
•  When this orientation mismatch is slight, on the order of a few
degrees (< 15 degrees) then the term small- (or low- ) angle
grain boundary is used. When the same is more than 15
degrees its is know as a high angle grain boundary.
•  The total interfacial energy is lower in large or coarse-grained
materials than in fine-grained ones, since there is less total
boundary area in the former.
•  Mechanical properties of materials like hardness, strength,
ductility etc are influenced by the grain size.
•  Grains grow at elevated temperatures to reduce the total
boundary energy.
116  
117  
Coarse and fine grain structure

Grain boundaries acting as barriers

to the movement of dislocations

Deformation of grains during 118  

cold
working (cold rolling in this case)
 Twin  Boundary  

Twin  boundary  
Atoms  on  one  side  of  the  boundary  are  located  in    
Mirror  image  posiBons  of  the  atoms  on  the  other  side  

119  
A twin boundary is a special type of grain boundary across which there is
a specific mirror lattice symmetry; that is, atoms on one side of the
boundary are located in mirror-image positions of the atoms on the other
side.

The region of material between these boundaries is appropriately termed

a twin.

Twins result from atomic displacements that are produced from applied
mechanical shear forces (mechanical twins), and also during annealing
heat treatments following deformation (annealing twins).

Twinning occurs on a definite crystallographic plane and in

a specific direction, both of which depend on the crystal structure.

Annealing twins are typically found in metals that have the FCC crystal
structure, while mechanical twins are observed in BCC and HCP metals.

Twins contribute to plastic deformation in a small way

120  
Stacking fault
•   Occurs  when  there  is  a  flaw  in  the  stacking  sequence  
•   Stacking  fault  results  from  the  stacking  of  one  atomic  plane  out  of      
   sequence  on  another  and  the  la\ce  on  either  side  of  the  fault  is      
   perfect  
•   BCC  and  HCP  stacking  sequence:  ABABABAB……  
   with  stacking  fault:  ABABBABAB……or  ABABAABABAB……..  
•   FCC  stacking  sequence:  ABCABCABC….  
   with  stacking  fault:  ABCABCABABCABC……  

Stacking  fault  

FCC
Stacking 121  
PlasBc  DeformaBon  

122  
 Principles  of  Alloy  FormaBon  
Solid  Solu&on:    
•   A  homogeneous  crystalline  phase  that  contains  two  or      
   more  chemical  species  
•   It  is  an  alloy  in  which  the  atoms  of  solute  are  distributed        
   in  the  solvent  and  has  the  same  structure  as  that  of  the      
   solvent    
 

Types  of  Solid  Solu&ons:  

 1.  IntersBBal  solid  soluBon,  ex.  Fe-­‐C   IntersBBal  Solid  Soln  
 2.  SubsBtuBonal  solid  soluBon,  ex.  Au-­‐Cu  
 
123  
SubsBtuBonal  Solid  Soln  
1.  Inters&&al  Solid  Solu&on  Alloys  
•   Parent  metal  atoms  are  bigger  than  atoms  of  alloying  metal.  
•   Smaller  atoms  fit  into  spaces,  (IntersBces),  between  larger      
   atoms.  

124  
Inters&&al  sites  

125  
2.  Subs&tu&onal  Solid  Solu&on  Alloys  
•   Atoms  of  both  metals  are  of  almost  similar  size.  
•   Direct  subsBtuBon  takes  place.  

126  
Some Solid Solution Alloys

Alloy   Unit  Cell  Structure  

Copper  -­‐  Nickel   FCC  
Copper  -­‐  Gold   FCC  
Gold  -­‐  Silver   FCC  
Nickel  -­‐  PlaBnum   FCC  
Molybdenum  -­‐  Tungsten   BCC  
Iron  -­‐  Chromium   BCC  

127  
Hume-­‐Rothery s  Rules  of  Solid  Solubility  

1.  Atomic  size  factor  

 
2.  Crystal  structure  factor  
 
3.  ElectronegaBvity  factor  
 
4.  RelaBve  valency  factor  

128  
1.  Atomic  size  factor:  If  the  atomic  sizes  of  solute  and  solvent  
differ  by  less  than  15%,  it  is  said  to  have  a  favourable  size  
factor  for  solid  soluBon  formaBon.  If  the  atomic  size  
difference  exceeds  15%  solid  solubility  is  limited  
 
 
 
2.  Crystal  Structure  factor:  Metals  having  same  crystal  structure  
will  have  greater  solubility.  Difference  in  crystal  structure  
limits  the  solid  solubility  

+  

A  (fcc)   B  (fcc)   AB  solid  solu&on  (fcc)   129  

3.  Electronega&vity  factor:  
The  solute  and  solvent  should  have  similar  electronegaBvity.  If  
the  electronegaBvity  difference  is  too  great,  the  metals  will  tend  
to  form  compounds  instead  of  solid  soluBons.  
 If  electronegaBvity  difference  is  too  great  the  highly  electroposiBve  
 element  will  lose  electrons,  the  highly  electronegaBve  element  will  
 acquire  electrons,  and  compound  formaBon  will  take  place.  
 
4.  Rela&ve  Valency  factor:  Complete  solubility  occurs  when  the  
solvent  and  solute  have  the  same  valency.  
If  there  is  shortage  of  electrons  between  the  atoms,  the  binding    
between  them  will  be  upset,  resulBng  in  condiBons  unfavourable  for  
solid  solubility  
 
  130  
131  
 Phase  Diagrams  

Phase  diagrams:  
Phase   or   equilibrium   diagrams   are   diagrams   which   indicate   the  
phases   exisBng   in   the   system   at   any   temperature,   pressure   and  
composiBon.  
 
Why  study  Phase  Diagrams?  
•   Used  to  find  out  the    amount  of  phases  exisBng  in  a  given  alloy      
     with  their  composiBon  at  any  temperature.  
 

•   From  the  amount  of  phases  it  is  possible  to  esBmate  the      
     approximate  properBes  of  the  alloy.  
 

•   Useful  in  design  and  control  of  heat  treatment  procedures  

 
132  
Terms:  
System:   A   system   is   that   part   of   the   universe   which   is   under  
consideraBon.    
Phase:  A  phase  is  a  physically  separable  part  of  the  system  
with  disBnct  physical  and  chemical  properBes.  (In  a  system  
consis6ng   of   ice   and   water   in   a   glass   jar,   the   ice   cubes   are  
one   phase,   the   water   is   a   second   phase,   and   the   humid   air  
over   the   water   is   a   third   phase.   The   glass   of   the   jar   is  
another  separate  phase.)    
Variable:  A  parBcular  phase  exists  under  various  condiBons  
of   temperature,   pressure   and   concentraBon.   These  
parameters  are  called  as  the  variables  of  the  phase  
Component:     The   elements   present   in   the   system   are   called  
as  components.  For  ex.  Ice,  water  or  steam  all  contain  H2O  
so  the  number  of  components  is  2,  i.e.  H  and  O.  
133  
Gibb s  Phase  Rule:  
The  Gibb s  phase  rule  states  that  under  equilibrium  condiBons,    
the  following  relaBon  must  be  saBsfied:  
                                                                       P  +    F  =  C  +  2  
Where,  
P  =  number  of  phases  exisBng  in  a  system  under  consideraBon.  
F  =  degree  of  freedom  i.e.  the  number  of  variables  such  as    
           temperature,  pressure  or  composiBon  (concentraBon)  that  can    
           be  changed  independently  without  changing  the  number  of    
           phases  exisBng  in  the  system.  
C  =  number  of  components  (i.e.  elements)  in  the  system,  and    
2  =  represents  any  two  variables  out  of  the  above  three  i.e.    
           temperature  pressure  and  composiBon.

134  
Most   of   the   studies   are   done   at   constant   pressure   i.e.   one  
atmospheric   pressure   and   hence   pressure   is   no   more   a  
variable.  For  such  cases,  Gibb s  phase  rule  becomes:  
                                                                     
                                                                                     P  +    F  =  C  +  1  
 
In   the   above   rule,   1   represents   any   one   variable   out   of   the  
remaining  two  i.e.  temperature  and  concentraBon.    
 
Hence,  Degree  of  Freedom  (F)  is  given  by  
 
   F  =  C  –  P  +  1  
 

135  
 ApplicaBon  of  Gibbs  Phase  Rule  

•   C   At  point  A  
P  =  1,  C  =  2  
F  =  C  –  P  +  1  
F  =  2  –  1  +1  
F  =  2  
The  meaning  of  F  =  2  is  that  both  temperature  
and  concentraBon  can  be  varied  independently  
without  changing  the  liquid  phase  exisBng  in    
the  system  
 
At  point  C   At  point  B  
P  =  1,  C  =  2   P  =  2,  C  =  2  
F  =  C  –  P  +  1   F  =  C  –  P  +  1  
F  =  2  –  1  +1   F  =  2  –  2  +1  
F  =  2   F  =  1  
The  meaning  of  F  =  2  is  that  both  temperature   The  meaning  of  F  =  1  is  that  any  one  variable  
and  concentraBon  can  be  varied  independently   out  of  temperature  and  composiBon  can  be    
 without  changing  the  liquid  phase  exisBng  in     changed  independently  without  altering  the    
the  system   liquid  and  solid  phases  exisBng  in  the  system  
136  
 
Types  of  Phase  Diagrams:  
 

•   Unary  phase  diagram  

•   Binary  phase  diagram  

•   Ternary  phase  diagram  

137  
1.  Unary  Phase  diagram  (one  component)  
 

The   simplest   phase   diagrams   are   pressure-­‐temperature  

diagrams   of   a   single   simple   substance,   such   as   water.   The  
axes  correspond  to  the  pressure  and  temperature.    

138  
2.  Binary  Phase  diagram  (two  components)  
 
•   A  phase  diagram  plot  of    temperature  against  the      
 

     relaBve  concentraBons  of  two  substances  in  a  binary        

   mixture  called  a  binary  phase  diagram  
•   Types  of  binary  phase  diagrams:  
 1.  Isomorphous  
 2.  EutecBc  
 3.  ParBal  EutecBc    

139  
 3.  Ternary  Phase  diagram  (three  components)  
 
•   A  ternary  phase  diagram  has  three  components.    
 

 
•   It  is  three  dimensional  put  ploped  in  two  dimensions  at      
     constant  temperature  
•   Stainless  steel  (Fe-­‐Ni-­‐Cr)  is  a  perfect  example  of  a  metal  alloy    
     that  is  represented  by  a  ternary  phase  diagram.    

140  
Binary  phase  diagram  
The  binary  phase  diagram  represents  the  concentraBon  (composiBon)  
along  the  x-­‐axis  and  the  temperature  along  the  y-­‐axis.  These  are  
ploped  at  atmospheric  pressure  hence  pressure  is  constant  i.e.  1  atm.  
pressure.  These  are  the  most  widely  used  phase  diagrams.  
 
Types  of  binary  phase  diagrams:  
• Binary  isomorphous  system:  Two  metals  having  complete  solubility  
in  the  liquid  as  well  as  the  solid  state.  
• Binary  eutecBc  system:  Two  metals  having  complete  solubility  in  the  
liquid  state  and  complete  insolubility  in  the  solid  state.  
• Binary  parBal  eutecBc  system:  Two  metals  having  complete  solubility  
in  the  liquid  state  and  parBal  solubility  in  the  solid  state.  
• Binary  layer  type  system:  Two  metals  having  complete  insolubility  in  
the  liquid  as  well  as  in  the  solid  state.  
141  
Cooling  curve  for  Pure  Metal  (one  component)  

142  
Cooling  curve  for  an  alloy  /  solid  soluBon  
 (two  components)  

143  
144  
Plo\ng  of  Phase  Diagrams  

145  
 Binary  isomorphous  system:    
• These  phase  diagrams  are  of  loop  type  and  are  obtained  for    
   two  metals  having  complete  solubility  in  the  liquid  as  well  
as      
   solid  state.  
•   Ex.:  Cu-­‐Ni,  Au-­‐Ag,  Au-­‐Cu,  Mo-­‐W,  Mo-­‐Ti,  W-­‐V.  
 
 
 

146  
 Lever  rule  
Finding  the  amounts  of  phases  in  a  two  phase  region  :  
1.  Locate  composiBon  and  temperature  in  phase  diagram  
2.  In  two  phase  region  draw  the  Be  line  or  isotherm  
3.  FracBon  of  a  phase  is  determined  by  taking  the  length    of  the  
Be  line  to  the  phase  boundary  for  the  other  phase,    and  dividing  
by  the  total  length  of  Be  line  
 

147  
%  of  Solid  =  LO  /  LS  X  100=  (Wo-­‐Wi)  /  (Ws-­‐Wi)  X  100  
 
%  of  Liquid  =  OS  /  LS  X  100=  (Ws-­‐Wi)  /  (Ws-­‐Wi)  X  100  
or  simply  %  Liquid  =  100  -­‐  %  of  Solid  or  vice  versa  
 

148  
Development  of  Microstructure  during  slow  cooling  in    
isomorphous  alloys  

149  
ProperBes  of  alloys  in  Isomorphous  systems    
with  variaBon  in  composiBon    

(a)  Phase diagram of the Cu-Ni alloy system.

Above the liquidus line only the liquid phase
exists. In the L + S region, the liquid (L) and
solid (S) phases coexist whereas below the
solidus line, only the solid phase (a solid
solution) exists.

(b) The resistivity of the Cu-Ni alloy as a

Function of Ni content (at.%) at room
temperature

150  
151  
 Binary  EutecBc  System:    
 
These  diagrams  are  obtained  for  two  metals  having  complete  
solubility  (i.e.  miscibility)  in  the  liquid  state  and  complete  
insolubility  in  the  solid  state.  
Examples:  Pb-­‐As,  Bi-­‐Cd,  Th-­‐Ti,  and  Au-­‐Si.    
 

152  
 What  is  a  EutecBc?  
 
•   A  eutec6c  or  eutec6c  mixture  is  a  mixture  of  two  or  more  phases    
   at  a  composiBon  that  has  the  lowest  melBng  point  
•   EutecBc  ReacBon:  
   Liquid    ↔    Solid  A  +  Solid  B  

153  
Cooling  Curves  in  EutecBc  System  

154  
Plo\ng  of  EutecBc  Phase  Diagrams  

155  
    Binary  Par&al  Eutec&c  System  
These  diagrams  are  obtained  for  two  metals  having  complete    
solubility  (i.e.  miscibility)  in  the  liquid  state  and  parBal  solubility    
in  the  solid  state.  
Examples:  Pb-­‐Sn,  Ag-­‐Cu,  Sn-­‐Bi,  Pb-­‐Sb,  Cd-­‐Zn  and  Al-­‐Si.    

156  
157  
Development  of  microstructure  in  binary  par&al  eutec&c  alloys    
during  equilibrium  cooling  

1.  SolidificaBon  of  the  eutecBc  composiBon  

158  
2.  SolidificaBon  of  the  off  -­‐  eutecBc  composiBon  

159  
3.  SolidificaBon  of  composiBons  that  range  between  the  room  
temperature  solubility  limit  and  the  maximum  solid  solubility  at  
the  eutecBc  temperature  

160  
Uses  of  Eutec&c  /  Par&al  Eutec&c  Alloys  
 

Alloys  of  eutecBc  composiBons  have  some  specific  properBes    

which  make  them  suitable  for  certain  applicaBons:  
• Since  they  fuse  at  constant  temperature,  they  are  used  for    
   electrical  and  thermal  fuses.  
• They  are  used  as  solders  due  to  their  lower  melBng  temperature.  
• Since  eutecBc  alloys  have  low  melBng  points,  some  of  them  are    
   used  coaBngs  by  spraying  techniques  
• Since  they  melt  at  constant  temperature  they  can  be  used  for      
   temperature  measurement.  
•   Majority  of  the  eutecBc  alloys  are  superplasBc  in  character.  
SuperplasBcity  is  the  phenomenon  by  which  an  alloy  exhibits  large  
extension  (ducBlity)  when  deformed  with  certain  rate  at  some  
temperature.  The  alloy  behaves  like  plasBc  and  can  be  formed  into  
many  shapes.
161  
 The  Iron  –  Carbon  System  
Allotrophic  TransformaBons  in  Iron  

162  
Iron  –  Carbon  Phase  Diagram  

163  
 Phases  in  Iron-­‐Carbon  Phase  Diagram  
1.  Ferrite:  Solid  soluBon  of  carbon  in  bcc  iron  
2.  Austenite:  Solid  soluBon  of  carbon  in  fcc  iron  
3.  δ-­‐iron:  Solid  soluBon  of  carbon  in  bcc  iron  
4.  Cemen&te  (Fe3C):  Intermetallic  compound  of  iron    
and  carbon  with  a  fixed  carbon  content  of  6.67%  by  wt.  
5.  Pearlite:  It  is  a  two  phased  lamellar  (or  layered)  
structure  composed  of  alternaBng  layers  of  ferrite  and  
cemenBte    
 
164  
 Austenite  

Ferrite  and    δ-­‐iron  

Cemen&te   165  
166  
The  iron-­‐carbon  system  exhibits  three  important  
transformaBons  /  reacBons  as  described  below:  

Eutectoid  Reac&on:      
                                                       Solid1  ↔  Solid2  +  Solid3  
                                         Austenite  ↔  Ferrite  +  CemenBte  
 

Eutec&c  Reac&on:    
                                       Liquid  ↔  Solid1  +  Solid2  
                                         Liquid  ↔  Austenite  +  CemenBte  
 

Peritec&c  Reac&on:    
                                                                 Solid1  +  Liquid  ↔  Solid2    
                                                               δ-­‐iron  +    Liquid  ↔  Austenite  
 
  167  
What  is  Pearlite?  
Pearlite  is  a  two  phased  lamellar  (or  layered)  structure  composed    
of  alternaBng  layers  of  ferrite  and  cemenBte  that  occurs  in  some    
steels  and  cast  irons  
 
100%  pearlite  is  formed  at  0.8%C  at  727oC  by  the  eutectoid  reacBon  /  
PearliBc  transfromaBon  

Eutectoid  Reac&on:      
                 Solid1  ↔  Solid2  +  Solid3  
   Austenite  ↔  Ferrite  +  CemenBte  

168  
 Development  of  microstructures  in  steel  during    
slow  cooling  
Eutectoid  Steel  

169  
Hypoeutectoid  Steel  

170  
Hypereutectoid  Steel  

171  
 Non-­‐Equilibrium  Cooling  
•   Non-­‐equilibrium  cooling  leads  to  shil  in  the  transformaBon  
   temperatures  that  appear  on  the  phase  diagram  
•   Leads  to  development  of  non-­‐equilibrium  phases  that  do  not    
   appear  on  the  phase  diagram  
   

172  
 Some  common  binary  phase  diagrams  and  
important  alloys  belonging  to  these  systems  
Cooper  –  Zinc  (Cu-­‐Zn)  
Cooper  –  Tin  (Cu-­‐Sn)  
Copper  –  Nickel  (Cu-­‐Ni)  
Aluminum  –  Silicon  (Al-­‐Si)  
Lead  –  Tin  (Pb-­‐Sn)  

173  
Copper  and  copper  alloys  

Proper&es:  
1.  It  has  good  ducBlity  and  malleability  
2.  It  has  high  electrical  and  thermal  conducBvity  
3.  It  is  non-­‐magneBc  and  has  a  pleasing  reddish  colour  
4.  It  has  fairly  good  corrosion  resistance  
5.   It  has  good  ability  to  get  alloyed  with  other  elements  

Major  copper  alloys  

1.  Brass:  Alloys  of  copper  and  zinc  
2.  Bronzes:  Alloys  of  copper  containing  elements  other  than  zinc  
             ex.  Copper-­‐Tin  alloys  
                         Copper-­‐Nickel  alloys  
 
174  
Cooper  –  Zinc  (Cu-­‐Zn)  

•   Cu-­‐Zn  alloys  exhibit  good  

   ducBlity  at  lower  amounts  
   of  Zn.  
 

•   These  alloys  are  mostly  

     cast  and  formed  
 

•   Widely  used  for  tubes  in  

   heat  exchangers,  cartridge
   cases,  fixtures,  springs,    
   utensils,  pump  parts,    
   propeller  shals,  etc  

175  
Cooper  –  Tin  (Cu-­‐Sn)  

•   Cu-­‐Sn  alloys  exhibit  good    

     ducBlity  and  malleability  
     along  with  good  corrosion  
       resistance.  
 

•   Widely  used  for  pumps,  

   gears,  marine  fi\ngs,    
   bearings,  coins    etc  

176  
Copper  –  Nickel  (Cu-­‐Ni)  

•   Cu-­‐Ni  Complete  solubility  in    

     each  other  
 

•   Copper  alloy  containing  about  

     45%  Nickel  has  very  high    
     electrical  resisBvity  
 

•   Hence  used  for  resistors  and    

   thermocouple  wires  

177  
Aluminium  and  aluminium  alloys  
Proper&es:  
1.  It  is  ducBle  and  malleable  
2.  It  is  light  in  weight  
3.  It  has  good  thermal  and  electrical  conducBvity  
4.  It  has  excellent  ability  to  get  alloyed  with  other  elements        
         like  Cu,  Si,  Mg,  etc.  
5.  It  has  excellent  corrosion  and  oxidaBon  resistance  
6.  It  is  non-­‐magneBc  and  non-­‐sparking  
 
Major  Aluminium  Alloys:  
1.  Aluminium-­‐  silicon  
2.  Aluminium  –  copper  
3.  Aluminium-­‐  Magnesium  
 
    178  
Aluminum  –  Silicon  (Al-­‐Si)  

•   Al-­‐Si  alloys  widely  used    

   for  casBngs  due  to  their  
   excellent  fluidity  and  casBng  
   characterisBcs.  
 

•   Higher  silicon  content  gives  

   beper  mechanical  properBes,    
   beper  corrosion  resistance,  
   Improved  fludity  
 

•   Widely  used  for  automobile  

   casBngs  like  engine  block  etc  

179  
Lead  –  Tin  (Pb-­‐Sn)  

•   Pb-­‐Sn  alloys  form  a  eutecBc  

   at  61.9%  Sn  at  183oC.  
 

•   These  alloys  widely  used  

     as  solders  because  of  their  
   low  melBng  point  and  flow  
   characterisBcs  
 

180