The Radius of the Zero Divisor Graph

of Zn

AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND
STATISTICS
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE
PHILIPPINES
STA. MESA, MANILA
AS PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MATHEMATICS

BY:
BENJAMIN REYES CABALONA JR.
ADVISER:
JOHN PATRICK STA. MARIA

OCTOBER 2017
 Contents

Abstract i

1 Introduction 1

1.1 Background of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.3 Significance of the study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Related Studies 3

3 Theoretical Necessities and Preliminary Results 4

3.1 Definitions from Graph theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

3.2 Definitions from Abstract Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3.3 The integers modulo n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3.4 The Zero divisor graph of Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

 Abstract

Let R be a ring. The notion of a Zero Divisor Graph denoted as Γ(R) was
first introduced by Beck and was further studied by Livingston. The former
considered the set of all x in R as vertices, while the latter considered the zero
divisors of R as vertices. We shall use the latter’s definition of a Zero divisor
graph.

One of Livingston’s first observations was given any finite commutative ring R,
Γ(R) is connected and diam(Γ(R)) ≤ 3.

Now consider the ring of Integers modulo n, denoted by Zn and let [x] and [y]
be vertices in Γ(Zn ). We say that [x] is adjacent to [y] if and only if [x][y] = [0]
or simply if n|xy.

Since Zn is a finite commutative ring then, Γ(Zn ) is connected. Furthermore,

diam(Γ(Zn )) ≤ 3. It is then natural for us to ask about the radius of Γ(Zn )
which we will further discuss in the following sections.

i
 1 Introduction

1.1 Background of the Study

Consider a graph G. One particular interesting chapters that can be found on

an introductory course in Graph theory is a notion of the distance, that is given
a connected graph G, there is always a shortest path among vertices. Now
consider any element x of V (G), the eccentricity of x denoted as (x) is the
maximum distance to any other element y of V (G). Let B = {(x) such that x
is in V (G) } be a set of positive integers. Denote the diameter of Γ(R) as

diam(Γ(R)) = sup{B}

similarly, define the radius of Γ(R) as

r(Γ(R)) = inf {B}

On the other hand, another interesting chapter in an elementary abstract algebra

course is the notion of a zero divisor because of the fact that the ”relation” of
zero divisor is intransitive. For example consider Z10

[2][5] = [(2)(5)]

[2][5] = [0]
Similarly,
[4][5] = [0]
but
[2][4] 6= [0]
This was then the motivation for Livingston’s work which will be our primary
interest as well.

Now, consider a finite and commutative ring R Livingston was able to show
that Γ(R) is connected. Furthermore diam(Γ(R)) ≤ 3. It is then natural for us
to ask about the radius of Γ(R) since in general r(Γ(R)) 6= 21 diam(Γ(R).

1
 1.2 Statement of the Problem

Consider Γ(Zn ) and let x be any vertex in V (Γ(Zn )). Since we already know
that the diam(Γ(Zn )) ≤ 3 it is natural for us to ask the following questions

1. When is r(Γ(Zn ) = 0. In other words, when is Γ(Zn ) = ∅.

2. When is r(Γ(Zn ) = 1. In other words, for any vertex x (x) ≤ 3.

3. When is r(Γ(Zn ) = 2. In other words, for any vertex x, 1 < (x) ≤ 3.
4. When is r(Γ(Zn ) = 3. In other words, for any vertex x, (x) = 3.

We will now then consider the following cases

1. r(Γ(Zn ) for n = p where p is prime

2. Let k > 1 r(Γ(Zn ) for n = pk where p is prime

3. Let n = lm where l and m is any integers such that gcd(l, m) = 1. We
will examine when is
r(Γ(Zn ) = (r(Γ(Zl ))(r(Γ(Zm ))
r(Γ(Zn ) < (r(Γ(Zl ))(r(Γ(Zm ))
r(Γ(Zn ) > (r(Γ(Zl ))(r(Γ(Zm ))

2
 1.3 Significance of the study

The notion of the shortest distance between vertices in a graph has a lot of
applications including but not limited to communication networks, queueing
theory and schedulin in operations research. This paper aims to contribute in
examining the underlying ring theoretic properties of a ring R to its associated
zero divisor graph Γ(R).

2 Related Studies

Our main influence in this paper is Livingston’s Structure in Zero-Divisor

Graphs of Commutative Rings where he studied connectivity, diameter
and symmetry of the zero divisor graph. His results will be frequently mentioned
in this paper.

We have also used the article Acyclic Zero divisor graph of Zn by Bauyon
and Linao where they studied cases on which values of n, in which Γ(Zn ) is
acyclic, that is Γ(Zn ) does not contain any cycle. A ”visually nice” Γ(Zn ) can
be constructed for specific values of n. For Example, If n = 2p where p is a
prime number Γ(Zn ) is a Star graph. Similarly, if n = ab where both a and b
are prime numbers Γ(Zn ) is a Complete bipartite graph

We have also notice something about Γ(Zn ) for n = pk which we will further
discuss in this paper.

Since for large values of n, one can not simply see ”special” properties of
Γ(Zn ), the article Constructing Zero divisor graph did us a lot of help
in constructing our claims. In particular, they were able to conclude that the
complexity of Γ(Zn ) is depending on the prime factorization of n.

3
 3 Theoretical Necessities and Preliminary
Results

3.1 Definitions from Graph theory

Definition 3.1. A Simple Graph G is a pair of sets V (G) 6= ∅ which we call

the vertex set of G and a set of distinct unordered pairs E(G) which we call
the edge set G. Let two vertices x and y be vertices in V (G).
If (x, y) ∈ E(G) we say that x is adjacent to y or (x, y) is an edge in G. For
ease of notation we write (x, y) = e. If E(G) = ∅, then G is an emptygraph.

Definition 3.2. Let x ∈ V (G). The neighborhood of x is the set

Nx = {y ∈ V (G) such that x is adjacent to y}.

Definition 3.3. A walk in G is a set of finite non-null sequence

w = v0 e1 v1 e2 , ..., ek vk

where vi , i = 0, 2, 3, ..., k are vertices and ej , j = 1, 2, 3, .., k are edges in G. If

the edges e1 , e2 , ..., ek are distinct, we say that w is a trail in G. If in addition
the vertices v1 , v2 , ..., vk are distinct, we say that w is a v0 − vk path in G of
length k.

Example:

a b

c d

Walk w = a, (a, d), d, (d, c), c, (c, d), d

Trail t = a, (a, b), b, (b, d), d, (d, c), c, (c, b), b
Path p = a, (a, b), b, (b, d), d, (d, c), c
Length of p = 3

4
Definition 3.4. Let G be a graph. If for all x and y ∈ V (G) there exist a x − y
path, we say that G is connected. Otherwise, we say that G is disconnected.
Example:

Connected Graph

b c

Disconnected Graph

b c

5
Definition 3.5. Let x and y ∈ V (G). The distance between x and
y denoted as d(x, y) is defined as the length of the shortest x − y
path. If no such path exist, d(x, y) = ∞.

Definition 3.6. Let G be a connected graph and x ∈ V (G). The

eccentricity of x denoted as (x) is defined as the sup{d(x, y) for
all y ∈ V (G).
Definition 3.7. Let G be a graph. and Let B = {(x) such that x is
in V (G)}. Define the diameter of G denoted as diam(G) = sup{B}
similarly, define the radius of G denoted as r(G) = inf {B}. If
G = ∅, r(G) = diam(G) = 0.
Example: Consider the graph G

B J

then,
d(B, E) = 1. d(B, N ) = 1. d(B, J) = 2.
d(E, B) = 1. d(E, N ) = 1. d(E, J) = 1.
d(N, B) = 1. d(N, E) = 1. d(N, J) = 1.
d(J, E) = 1. d(J, N ) = 1. d(J, B) = 2.
Hence,
(B) = (J) = 2.
(E) = (N ) = 1.
and
diam(G) = 2.
r(G) = 1.

6
 3.2 Definitions from Abstract Algebra

Definition 3.8. A binary operation * on a set S is a function mapping

S × S into S. We say that S is closed under ∗ if for each a, b ∈ S there exist
(a, b) ∈ S × S. We will denote the element ∗((a, b)) of S by a ∗ b.
Definition 3.9. A Group (G, ∗) is a set G closed under the binary operation
∗ such that the following axioms are satisfied:

i For all a, b, c ∈ G,
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c)
* is associative
ii There is an element e ∈ G such that for all x ∈ G,
x ∗ e = e ∗ x = x.
identity element e for *
iii Corresponding to each a ∈ G there exist an element a0 ∈ G such that
a ∗ a0 = a0 ∗ a = e.
inverse a’ of a

If G is finite, then G is a finite group otherwise R is an infinite group. For

ease of notation we write (G, ∗) = G.
Definition 3.10. Let G be a group and let a, b ∈ G. If
a ∗ b = ba
then we say that G is an abelian group.
Definition 3.11. A Ring (R, +, ·) is a set R together with two binary operations
+ and ·, which we call addition and multiplication respectively, defined on R
such that the following axioms are satisfied:

i (R, +) is an abelian group.

ii M ultiplication is associative.
iii For all a, b, c ∈ R, the left distributive law
a · (b + c) = (a · b + a · c).
right distributive law
(a + b) · c = (a · c + b · c).
hold. If R is finite, then R is a finite ring otherwise R is an infinite ring.

For ease of notation we write (R, +, ·) = R.

7
Definition 3.12. Let R be a ring. If multiplication is commutative, we say
that R is a commutative ring. If R under multiplication has an identity
element, R is a ring with unity. The multiplicative identity element is called
the unity. If R satisfies both the above properties, R is called a commutative
ring with unity. We also write the additive identity as 0 and the multiplicative
identity as 1.
Definition 3.13. Let a and b be non zero elements of a ring R. If a · b = 0,
then a and b are zero divisors of R.
Definition 3.14. Let R be a ring with unity. An element x ∈ R is a unit if
there exist a y in R such that x · y = 1. We say that x and y are associates.

8
 3.3 The integers modulo n

Definition 3.15. A relation ∼ on a set S is a subset of S × S. We say that

∼ is reflexive if for all x ∈ S, x ∼ x. We say that ∼ is symmetric if for all
x, y ∈ S, if x ∼ y then y ∼ x. We say that ∼ is transitive if for all x, y, z ∈ S,
if x ∼ y and y ∼ z then x ∼ z. If ∼ satisfies all of the above properties, we say
that ∼ is a equivalence relation.

Definition 3.16. Let a, b ∈ Z with b 6= 0, then there exist unique q, r ∈ Z such

that
a = bq + r with 0 ≤ r < b.
We call q the quotient and r the remainder. If r = 0, we say that b divides
a and we write b|a.
Definition 3.17. Let p ∈ Z p > 1. We say that p is a prime number if and
only if the set {x ∈ Z such that x|p} only contains p and 1.

Theorem 3.1 (Fundamental theorem of arithmetic). Let n ∈ Z. Then n

can be written as n = p1 r1 p2 r2 p3 r1 ...pk rk where pi , i = 1, 2, ...k are all prime
numbers. Furthermore, the factorization is unique.

Proof.
Proof will be left to the reader as an exercise.
Definition 3.18. let a, b ∈ Z. The greatest common divisor of a and b denoted
as gcd(a, b) = sup{x ∈ Z such that x|a and x|b}.

Definition 3.19 (Euler totient ϕ function). Let n = p1 r1 p2 r2 p3 r1 ...pk rk ∈

Z∗ . The Euler totient function of n denoted as
ϕ(n) = |{y ∈ Z∗ such that gcd(n, y) = 1} f or y < x|.
1 1 1 1
ϕ(n) = n(1 − )(1 − )(1 − )...(1 − ).
p1 p2 p3 pk
Definition 3.20. Let a, b, n ∈ Z. We say that a and b are
congruent modulo n and we write a ≡ b (mod n) if and only if n|(a − b).

Theorem 3.2. Let a, b, c, n ∈ Z where n 6= 0. Then,

1. a ≡ a (mod n)
2. If a ≡ b (mod n) then b ≡ a (mod n)

3. If a ≡ b (mod n) and b ≡ c (mod n) then a ≡ c (mod n)

In other words, ≡ is an equivalence relation.

9
Proof.
Proof will be left for the reader as an exercise.
Definition 3.21. Let a, n ∈ Z with n > 0. The congruence class of a
modulo n denoted as [a], is the set

[a] = {z ∈ Z such that a ≡ z (mod n)}.

Remark 3.1. In general,

[a] = {a, a ± n, a ± 2n, a ± 3n, ...}

Example 3.1. If n = 2 we have

[0] = {0, ±2, ±4, ±6, ...}.

[1] = {±1, ±3, ±5, ±7, ...}.

If n = 5 we have

[0] = {0, ±5, ±10, ±15, ...}

[1] = {1, 1 ± 5, 1 ± 10, 1 ± 15, ...}

Definition 3.22. The set of all congruence classes modulo n is denoted by

Zn is defined as

Zn = {[0], [1], [2], ..., [n − 1]}

10
Theorem 3.3. The set Zn together with binary operations ”+” and ”·” defined
as follows:
If [a], [b] ∈ Zn
[a] + [b] = [a + b]
and
[a] · [b] = [a · b].
is a commutative ring with unity, where [0] is the additive identity while [1] is
the multiplicative identity. For ease of notation, we write [a] · [b] = [a][b].

Proof.
The proof will be left to the reader as an excercise.
Theorem 3.4. Let [x], [y] ∈ Zn . Then [x][y] = [0] if and only if n|xy. Consequently
if [a] ∈ Zn , [a] = [0] if and only if n|a.

Proof.
Proof will be left to the reader as an exercise.
Theorem 3.5. Let a andn ∈ Z such that gcd(a, n) = 1. For any b ∈ Z, If
n|ab, then n|b.

Proof.
Proof will be left to the reader as an exercise.
Theorem 3.6. Let [a] 6= [0] ∈ Zn . Then [a] is a zero divisor if and only if
gcd(a, n) = d where d ∈ Z such that d > 1. We will denote the set of all [a]
such that [a] is a zero divisor as Ω(Zn ).

Proof.
First, we will prove indirectly. Let [a] 6= [0] ∈ Zn and [a] is a zero divisor. For
the sake of a contradiction assume that gcd(a, n) = 1.
Since [a] is a zero divisor then there exist [b] 6= [0] ∈ Zn such that [a][b] =
[0] then [ab] = [0]. Using Theorem 3.4 and Theorem 3.5 we have n|ab then n|b.
Therefore [b] = [0] a contradiction, hence gcd(a, n) = d where d ∈ Z such that
d > 1.
On the other hand, Assume gcd(a, n) = d where d ∈ Z such that d > 1. Since
d|n, Let [b] ∈ Zn , b 6= [0] and [b] = nd then, [a][b] = [ab] = [a nd ] = [n ad ] but since
d|a then ad ∈ Z. Therefore n|ab then, [a][b] = [0] Hence, [a] is a zero divisor.

11
Theorem 3.7. Let [a] 6= [0] ∈ Zn . Then [a] is either a zero divisor or a unit.

Proof.
Let [a] 6= [0] ∈ Zn . We will argue by contradiction. Suppose [a] is both a zero
divisor and a unit. Therefore therefore [a]−1 exist and there is a [b] 6= [0] ∈ Zn
such that

[a][b] = [0]. multiplying [a]−1 on both sides

[a]−1 [a][b] = [a]−1 [0]
[b] = [0]

A contradiction. Therefore the theorem holds.

Corollary 3.7.1. Let [a] 6= [0] ∈ Zn . If gcd(a, n) = 1 then [a] is a unit.

Proof.
This follows from Theorem 3.6 and Theorem 3.7.

12
 3.4 The Zero divisor graph of Zn

Definition 3.23. The zero divisor graph of Zn , denoted as Γ(Zn ), is a simple

graph where V (Γ(Zn )) is the set of zero divisors of Zn , denoted as Ω(Zn ) and
if [x], [y] ∈ V (Γ(Zn )), ([x], [y]) ∈ E(Γ(Zn )) if and only if [x][y] = 0 or simply if
n|xy as integers. We will denote E(Γ(Zn )) as ω(Zn ).
Proposition 3.1. Let n be any positive integer then, |Ω(Zn )| = n − ϕ(n) − 1.

Proof.
Note that in Zn , an element x is either a zero divisor or a unit and x is a unit
if and only if gcd(x, n) = 1. By the definition of ϕ(n), it counts the number
of positive integers less than n that is relatively prime to n. In other words,
ϕ(n) counts the number of units in Zn . Since we know that an element in Zn
is either a zero divisor or a unit and we are only considering the zero divisors
of Zn as vertices, so [0] is not included on the vertex set and hence |Ω(Zn )| =
n − ϕ(n) − 1.
Proposition 3.2. Γ(Zn ) = ∅ if and only if n = 4. Moreover r(Γ(Zn ) = 0).

Proof.
If n = 1 then |Ω(Zn )| = 1 − ϕ(1) − 1 = 1 − 0 − 1 = 0 therefore Γ(Zn ) does not
exist since by definition of a graph, the vertex set can not be empty.
If n = p, then |Ω(Zn )| = p − ϕ(p) − 1 = p − [p(1 − p1 )] − 1 = p − (p − 1) − 1 =
p − p + 1 − 1 = 0 therefore Ω(Zn ) = ∅ and by definition of a graph, the vertex
set can not be empty and hence Γ(Zn ) does not exist.
If n = 4, clearly Ω(Zn ) = [2] a singleton, hence ω(Zn ) = ∅
therefore Γ(Zn ) = ∅ moreover r(Γ(Zn ) = 0.
If n = pk where k=2 and n > 4 then [p], [2p] ∈ Ω(Zn ) and [p][2p] = [2p2 ] =
[2][0] = [0] then ([p], [2p]) ∈ ω(Zn ) meaning atleast one edge exists and hence
Γ(Zn 6= ∅.
If n = pk where k > 2 then [p], [pk−1 ] ∈ Ω(Zn ) and [p][pk−1 ] = [p(pk−1 )] =
[pk ] = [0] therefore ([p], [pk−1 ]) ∈ ω(Zn ) meaning atleast one edge exists, hence
Γ(Zn ) 6= ∅.
If n = pq where gcd(p, q) = 1 then [p], [q] ∈ Ω(Zn ) and [p][q] = [pq] = [n] = [0]
therefore ([p], [q]) ∈ ω(Zn ) meaning atleast one edge exists, hence
Γ(Zn ) 6= ∅.

13
Proposition 3.3. Let [x] and[y] be associates then, N[x] = N[y] .

Example: 32 · 2 = 18

8 10

4 14

2 16

6 12

3 15

Γ(Z18 )

14
Proof.
Without loss of generality, assume [x] = [u][y] where [u] is a unit and let [z] be
any other vertex. We will argue by contracdiction, suppose that [x] is adjacent
to [z] but [z] is not adjacent to [y] then [x][z] = [0] but since [x] = [u][y] then
[x][z] = [u][y][z] = [u][yz] = [0] but [u] is a unit then it will forced that [yz] = [0]
which is a contradiction to our assumption that [y] is not adjacent to [z] therefore
the theorem holds.
Proposition 3.4. Let n > 4 and n = pk , where p is prime and k ∈ Z such
that k > 1. Then, r(Γ(Zn )) = 1.

Example: 24 = 16

6 10

2 14

4 12

Γ(Z16 )

15
Proof.
We claim that as integers, the vertices of Γ(Zn ) are equal to the multiples of
p that are less than pk . Let’s define the set A = {p, 2p, 3p, ..., (pk−1 − 1)(p)}.
Clearly, |A| = pk−1 − 1 and for all x ∈ A, gcd(n, x) > 1 that means every x ∈ A
is a vertex of Γ(Zn ). To prove our claim, we need to show that |Ω(Zn )| = pk−1 −1.
Using Proposition 3.1, we have
k
|Ω(Zn )| = pk − ϕ(pk ) − 1 = pk − [pk (1 − p1 )] − 1 = pk − (pk − pp ) − 1 =
pk − pk + pk−1 − 1 = pk−1 − 1.
Now, Using our definition of congruence classes we have Ω(Zn ) = {[p], [2p], [3p], .., [(pk−1 − 1)(p)]}.
Notice that we can write
[pk−1 ] = [p][pk−2 ] therefore, [pk−1 ] ∈ Ω(Zn ). Denote [pk−1 ] = [x] and let a
vertex
[y] = [p][β] where 1 ≤ β ≤ pk−1 − 1 be a distinct vertex from [x] then,
[x][y] = [pk−1 ][p][β] = [pk ][β] = [0][β] = [0]. Therefore ([x], [y]) ∈ ω(Zn ) and
since [y] is arbitrarily chosen, it implies that [x] is adjacent to any other vertex
in the graph. It follows that ([x]) = 1. Hence, r(Γ(Zn )) = 1.

16
 List of References

[1] A F irst Course in Abstract Algebra, 7th Edition by John B. Fraleigh

[2] Acyclic Zero Divisor Graph of Zn by Bauyon and Linao

[3] Structure in Zero Divisor Graphs of Commutative Rings by P. Livingston

[4] Constructing Zero Divisor Graphs by A. Wickbolt, A. Terry and Carlos

Lopez

17