PN Junction

Diode

pn-juntion-Diode
Basics of p-n junction?

A p-n junction is the metallurgical boundary between the n

and p-regions of a semiconductor crystal.

P-n junctions consist of two semiconductor regions of opposite

type. Such junctions show a pronounced rectifying behavior.
They are also called p-n diodes in analogy with vacuum diodes.

The p-n junction is a versatile element, which can be used as a

rectifier, as an isolation structure and as a voltage-dependent
capacitor. In addition, they can be used as solar cells,
photodiodes, light emitting diodes and even laser diodes. They
are also an essential part of Metal-Oxide-Silicon Field-Effects-
Transistors (MOSFETs) and Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs).
A p-n junction consists of two semiconductor regions with opposite
doping type as shown in Figure. The region on the left is p-type with
an acceptor density Na, while the region on the right is n-type with a
donor density Nd. The dopants are assumed to be shallow, so that
the electron (hole) density in the n-type (p-type) region is
approximately equal to the donor (acceptor) density.

Cross-section of a p-n junction

pn-juntion-Diode
We will assume, unless stated otherwise, that the doped
regions are uniformly doped and that the transition between
the two regions is abrupt. We will refer to this structure as
an abrupt p-n junction.

Frequently we will deal with p-n junctions in which one side is

distinctly higher-doped than the other. We will find that in
such a case only the low-doped region needs to be
considered, since it primarily determines the device
characteristics. We will refer to such a structure as a one-
sided abrupt p-n junction.
The junction is biased with a voltage Va as shown in Figure.
We will call the junction forward-biased if a positive voltage
is applied to the p-doped region and reversed-biased if a
negative voltage is applied to the p-doped region. The
contact to the p-type region is also called the anode, while
the contact to the n-type region is called the cathode, in
reference to the anions or positive carriers and cations or
negative carriers in each of these regions.
Flatband diagram
The principle of operation will be explained using a gedanken experiment, an
experiment, which is in principle possible but not necessarily executable in
practice. We imagine that one can bring both semiconductor regions together,
aligning both the conduction and valence band energies of each region. This
yields the so-called flatband diagram shown in Figure.

Energy band diagram of a p-n junction (a) before and (b) after merging the
n-type and p-type regions
Note that this does not automatically align the Fermi
energies, EF,n and EF,p. Also, note that this flatband diagram
is not an equilibrium diagram since both electrons and
holes can lower their energy by crossing the junction.
A motion of electrons and holes is therefore expected
before thermal equilibrium is obtained. The diagram shown
in Figure (b) is called a flatband diagram. This name refers
to the horizontal band edges. It also implies that there is no
field and no net charge in the semiconductor.

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At Thermal Equilibrium
A short time after the junction is
established and thermal equilibrium is
achieved, charge carriers in the vicinity of
the junction will neutralize each other
(electrons combining with holes), leaving
the unneutralized negatively ionized
acceptors, Na- , in the p-region and
unneutralized positively ionized donors,
Nd+ , in the n-region. This region of
ionized donors and acceptors creates a
space charge and its region is called the
depletion region.

The edge of the depletion region given by -xp on the p-side and +xn on the n-side.
the ionized donors and acceptors are located in substitutional lattice sites and
Cannot move in the electric field. The concentration of these donors and
acceptors are selected to give the p-n junction desired device properties

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Energy Band Diagram at Thermal Equilibrium
At thermal equilibrium

dE f
=0
dx
i.e. the Fermi level in the p- and n- type
semiconductors must be equal. This
requirement for constant Fermi level
pushes Drift
the n-type semiconductor Fermi level
down to be constant with the p-type Diffusio
semiconductor Fermi level, as shown in n
the diagram. The amount the bands are
bent is the difference In work function. Diffusio
n
Drift
The depletion width xd, where xd = xp + xn may
be calculated from

2e æ 1 1 ö
xd = çç + + - ÷÷Vbi Energy band diagram of a p-n junction in
q è N d N a ø While
thermal equilibrium
in thermal equilibrium no external voltage is applied
between the n-type and p-type material, there is an internal
potential, f, which is caused by the workfunction difference
between the n-type and p-type
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Junction Potential

Impurity distribution illustrating the space charge region

The build-in potential may

Electric field variation be expressed as:

with distance, x
kT N a- N d+
Vbi = ln
q ni2
Potential variation
with distance, x Where,

kT
= VT = 26mV
q
At T=300K

K – Boltzman constant
VT = Thermal voltage
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The built-in potential

The built-in potential in a semiconductor equals the potential across the

depletion region in thermal equilibrium. Since thermal equilibrium implies
that the Fermi energy is constant throughout the p-n diode, the built-in
potential equals the difference between the Fermi energies, EFn and EFp,
divided by the electronic charge.
It also equals the sum of the bulk potentials of each region, fn and fp,
since the bulk potential quantifies the distance between the Fermi energy
and the intrinsic energy. This yields the following expression for the built-
in potential.

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Semiconductor Diode
No Applied Voltage
A semiconductor diode is created by joining the n-type semiconductor to a p-type
semiconductor.

In the absence of a
bias voltage across
the diode, the net
flow of charge is one
direction is zero. Bias is
the term used when an
external DC voltage
is applied

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Biasing the Junction Diode
Forward Bias Reverse Bias

When an external voltage VD is applied as When an external voltage VD is applied as

shown, with - terminal to n-side and shown, with + terminal to n-side and –
+terminal to p-side, it forms a forward bias terminal to p-side, the free charge carriers
configuration. In this setup, electrons and will be attracted away by the voltage
holes will be pressured to recombined with source. This will effectively increase the
the ions near the boundary, effectively depletion region within the diode. This
reducing the width and causing a heavy widening of the depletion region will create
majority carrier flow across the junction. too great a barrier for the majority carriers
As Vd increases, the depletion width to overcome, effectively reducing the
decrease until a flood of majority carriers carrier flow to zero. The number of minority
start passing through. Is remains carriers will not be affected. This
unchanged. configuration is called reverse Bias. This
small current flow during reverse bias is
æ VD nVT ö called the reverse saturation current, Is.
I D = I s çç e - 1÷÷ n~1
è ø
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We now consider a p-n diode with an applied bias voltage, Va. A forward bias
corresponds to applying a positive voltage to the anode (the p-type region)
relative to the cathode (the n-type region). A reverse bias corresponds to a
negative voltage applied to the cathode. Both bias modes are illustrated with
Figure. The applied voltage is proportional to the difference between the
Fermi energy in the n-type and p-type quasi-neutral regions.

As a negative voltage is applied,

the potential across the
semiconductor increases and so
does the depletion layer width. As
a positive voltage is applied, the
potential across the
semiconductor decreases and
with it the depletion layer width.
The total potential across the
semiconductor equals the built-in
potential minus the applied
voltage, or: Energy band diagram of a p-n junction under reverse and forward
bias

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Electrostatic analysis of a p-n diode

The electrostatic analysis of a p-n diode is of interest since it provides

knowledge about the charge density and the electric field in the depletion
region. It is also required to obtain the capacitance-voltage characteristics of
the diode. The analysis is very similar to that of a metal-semiconductor
junction. A key difference is that a p-n diode contains two depletion regions
of opposite type.

pn-juntion-Diode
What Are Diodes Made Out Of?

• Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge) are the two most Si Si Si

common single elements that are used to make Diodes. +4 +4 +4

A compound that is commonly used is Gallium

Arsenide (GaAs), especially in the case of LEDs Si Si Si
because of it’s large bandgap. +4 +4 +4

• Silicon and Germanium are both group 4 elements,

Si Si Si
meaning they have 4 valence electrons. Their +4 +4 +4
structure allows them to grow in a shape called the
diamond lattice.
• Gallium is a group 3 element while Arsenide is a group The diagram above shows the
5 element. When put together as a compound, GaAs 2D structure of the Si crystal.
creates a zincblend lattice structure. The light green lines
represent the electronic
• In both the diamond lattice and zincblend lattice, each bonds made when the valence
atom shares its valence electrons with its four closest electrons are shared. Each Si
neighbors. This sharing of electrons is what ultimately atom shares one electron with
each of its four closest
allows diodes to be build. When dopants from groups neighbors so that its valence
3 or 5 (in most cases) are added to Si, Ge or GaAs it band will have a full 8
changes the properties of the material so we are able electrons.
to make the P- and N-type materials that become the
diode.
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N-Type Material:
When extra valence electrons are introduced into
a material such as silicon an n-type material is
produced. The extra valence electrons are
+4 +4 +4 introduced by putting impurities or dopants into
the silicon. The dopants used to create an n-type
material are Group V elements. The most
+4 +5 +4 commonly used dopants from Group V are
arsenic, antimony and phosphorus.
The 2D diagram to the left shows the extra
+4 +4 +4 electron that will be present when a Group V
dopant is introduced to a material such as silicon.
This extra electron is very mobile.

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P-Type Material:
P-type material is produced when the dopant that
is introduced is from Group III. Group III
elements have only 3 valence electrons and
+4 +4 +4 therefore there is an electron missing. This
creates a hole (h+), or a positive charge that can
move around in the material. Commonly used
Group III dopants are aluminum, boron, and
+4 +3 +4
gallium.
The 2D diagram to the left shows the hole that
+4 +4 +4 will be present when a Group III dopant is
introduced to a material such as silicon. This
hole is quite mobile in the same way the extra
electron is mobile in a n-type material.

pn-juntion-Diode
 The PN Junction
Steady State1

Metallurgical
Junction
Na Nd

- - - - - - + + + + + +
- - - - - - + + + + + +
P - - - - - - + + + + + + n
- - - - - - + + + + + +

- - - - - - + + + + + +

Space Charge
ionized Region ionized
acceptors donors

E-Field
_ _
+ +
h+ drift = h+ diffusion e- diffusion = e- drift
pn-juntion-Diode
 The PN Junction
Metallurgical
Steady State
Na Junction Nd

- - - - - + + + + +
When no external source
P - - - - - + + + + + is connected to the pn
n
- - - - - + + + + + junction, diffusion and
+ + + + +
- - - - -
Space Charge
drift balance each other
ionized
acceptors
Region ionized out for both the holes
donors
E-Field and electrons
_ _
+ +
h+ drift = h+ diffusion e- diffusion = e- drift

Space Charge Region: Also called the depletion region. This region includes
the net positively and negatively charged regions. The space charge region
does not have any free carriers. The width of the space charge region is
denoted by W in pn junction formula’s.

Metallurgical Junction: The interface where the p- and n-type materials meet.

Na & Nd: Represent the amount of negative and positive doping in number of
carriers per centimeter cubed. Usually in the range of 1015 to 1020.
pn-juntion-Diode
 The Biased PN Junction
Metal
Contact
“Ohmic
_
Contact” +
(Rs~0)
Applied
P Electric Field n

_
+
Vapplied
The pn junction is considered biased when an external voltage is applied.
There are two types of biasing: Forward bias and Reverse bias.
These are described on then next slide.
pn-juntion-Diode
 The Biased PN Junction

Forward Bias: In forward bias the depletion region shrinks slightly in width. With
this shrinking the energy required for charge carriers to cross the
depletion region decreases exponentially. Therefore, as the
Vapplied > 0 applied voltage increases, current starts to flow across the
junction. The barrier potential of the diode is the voltage at which
appreciable current starts to flow through the diode. The barrier
potential varies for different materials.

Reverse Bias: Under reverse bias the depletion region widens. This causes the
electric field produced by the ions to cancel out the applied
reverse bias voltage. A small leakage current, Is (saturation
Vapplied < 0 current) flows under reverse bias conditions. This saturation
current is made up of electron-hole pairs being produced in the
depletion region. Saturation current is sometimes referred to as
scale current because of it’s relationship to junction temperature.

pn-juntion-Diode
 Properties of Diodes
Figure 1.10 – The Diode Transconductance Curve2
ID (mA) • VD = Bias Voltage
• ID = Current through
Diode. ID is Negative
for Reverse Bias and
Positive for Forward
IS Bias
VBR • IS = Saturation
Current
~Vf VD
• VBR = Breakdown
Voltage
• Vf = Barrier Potential
Voltage

(nA) pn-juntion-Diode
 Properties of Diodes
The Shockley Equation
• The transconductance curve on the previous slide is characterized by the
following equation:

ID = IS(eVD/hVT – 1)
• As described in the last slide, ID is the current through the diode, IS is the
saturation current and VD is the applied biasing voltage.
• VT is the thermal equivalent voltage and is approximately 26 mV at room
temperature. The equation to find VT at various temperatures is:
VT = kT
q
k = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K T = temperature in Kelvin q = 1.6 x 10-19 C
• h is the emission coefficient for the diode. It is determined by the way the diode
is constructed. It somewhat varies with diode current. For a silicon diode h is
around 2 for low currents and goes down to about 1 at higher currents

pn-juntion-Diode
 Diode Circuit Models
The Ideal Diode The diode is designed to allow current to flow in
Model only one direction. The perfect diode would be a
perfect conductor in one direction (forward bias)
and a perfect insulator in the other direction
(reverse bias). In many situations, using the ideal
diode approximation is acceptable.

Example: Assume the diode in the circuit below is ideal. Determine the
value of ID if a) VA = 5 volts (forward bias) and b) VA = -5 volts (reverse
bias)

RS = 50 W a) With VA > 0 the diode is in forward bias

and is acting like a perfect conductor so:
ID ID = VA/RS = 5 V / 50 W = 100 mA
+ b) With VA < 0 the diode is in reverse bias
VA
_ and is acting like a perfect insulator,
therefore no current can flow and ID = 0.
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 Diode Circuit Models
The Ideal Diode with This model is more accurate than the simple
Barrier Potential ideal diode model because it includes the
approximate barrier potential voltage.
+ Remember the barrier potential voltage is the
Vf voltage at which appreciable current starts to
flow.
Example: To be more accurate than just using the ideal diode model
include the barrier potential. Assume Vf = 0.3 volts (typical for a
germanium diode) Determine the value of ID if VA = 5 volts (forward bias).

RS = 50 W
With VA > 0 the diode is in forward bias
and is acting like a perfect conductor
ID so write a KVL equation to find ID:
+ 0 = VA – IDRS - Vf
VA
_ + ID = VA - Vf = 4.7 V = 94 mA
Vf
RS 50 W
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 Diode Circuit Models
The Ideal Diode This model is the most accurate of the three. It includes a
with Barrier linear forward resistance that is calculated from the slope of
the linear portion of the transconductance curve. However,
Potential and this is usually not necessary since the RF (forward
Linear Forward resistance) value is pretty constant. For low-power
Resistance germanium and silicon diodes the RF value is usually in the
2 to 5 ohms range, while higher power diodes have a RF
value closer to 1 ohm.

ID
+
Vf RF Linear Portion of
transconductance
curve

Δ ID
RF = Δ VD
Δ ID
VD
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ΔVD
 Diode Circuit Models
The Ideal Diode Example: Assume the diode is a low-power diode
with Barrier with a forward resistance value of 5 ohms. The
Potential and barrier potential voltage is still: Vf = 0.3 volts (typical
Linear Forward for a germanium diode) Determine the value of ID if
VA = 5 volts.
Resistance

RS = 50 W

ID Once again, write a KVL equation

+ for the circuit:
VA
_ + 0 = VA – IDRS - Vf - IDRF
Vf
ID = VA - Vf = 5 – 0.3 = 85.5 mA
RS + RF 50 + 5
RF

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 Diode Circuit Models
Values of ID for the Three Different Diode Circuit Models

Ideal Diode
Ideal Diode
Model with
Model with
Ideal Diode Barrier
Barrier
Model Potential and
Potential
Linear Forward
Voltage
Resistance

ID 100 mA 94 mA 85.5 mA

These are the values found in the examples on previous slides

where the applied voltage was 5 volts, the barrier potential was
0.3 volts and the linear forward resistance value was assumed to
be 5 ohms. pn-juntion-Diode
 The Q Point
The operating point or Q point of the diode is the quiescent or no-
signal condition. The Q point is obtained graphically and is really only
needed when the applied voltage is very close to the diode’s barrier
potential voltage. The example 3 below that is continued on the next
slide, shows how the Q point is determined using the
transconductance curve and the load line.
First the load line is found by substituting in
different values of Vf into the equation for ID using
RS = 1000 W the ideal diode with barrier potential model for the
diode. With RS at 1000 ohms the value of RF
ID wouldn’t have much impact on the results.
+ ID = VA – V f
VA RS
= 6V _ +
Vf Using V f values of 0 volts and 1.4 volts we obtain
ID values of 6 mA and 4.6 mA respectively. Next
we will draw the line connecting these two points
on the graph with the transconductance curve.
This line is the load line.
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 The Q Point
The
ID (mA) transconductance
curve below is for a
12
Silicon diode. The
Q point in this
10 example is located
at 0.7 V and 5.3 mA.
8
Q Point: The intersection of the
load line and the
6 transconductance curve.
5.3
4.6
4

VD (Volts)
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
0.7
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 Dynamic Resistance
The dynamic resistance of the diode is mathematically determined
as the inverse of the slope of the transconductance curve.
Therefore, the equation for dynamic resistance is:
rF = hVT
ID
The dynamic resistance is used in determining the voltage drop
across the diode in the situation where a voltage source is
supplying a sinusoidal signal with a dc offset.
The ac component of the diode voltage is found using the
following equation:
vF = vac rF
rF + RS
The voltage drop through the diode is a combination of the ac and
dc components and is equal to:
VDpn-juntion-Diode
= Vf + vF
 Dynamic Resistance
Example: Use the same circuit used for the Q point example but change
the voltage source so it is an ac source with a dc offset. The source
voltage is now, vin = 6 + sin(wt) Volts. It is a silicon diode so the barrier
potential voltage is still 0.7 volts.
RS = 1000 W The DC component of the circuit is the
same as the previous example and
therefore ID = 6V – 0.7 V = 5.2 mA
ID
1000 W
+
rF = hVT = 1 * 26 mV = 4.9 W
vin
+ ID 5.3 mA
Vf
h = 1 is a good approximation if the dc
current is greater than 1 mA as it is in this
example.
vF = vac rF = sin(wt) V 4.9 W = 4.88 sin(wt) mV
rF + RS 4.9 W + 1000 W
Therefore, VD = 700 + 4.9 sin (wt) mV (the voltage drop across the
pn-juntion-Diode
diode)
 Types of Diodes and Their Uses

PN Junction Are used to allow current to flow in one direction

Diodes: while blocking current flow in the opposite
direction. The pn junction diode is the typical diode
that has been used in the previous circuits.

A K P n
Schematic Symbol for a PN Representative Structure for
Junction Diode a PN Junction Diode

Zener Diodes: Are specifically designed to operate under reverse

breakdown conditions. These diodes have a very
accurate and specific reverse breakdown voltage.

A K

Schematic Symbol for a

Zener Diode pn-juntion-Diode
 Types of Diodes and Their Uses

Schottky These diodes are designed to have a very fast

Diodes: switching time which makes them a great diode for
digital circuit applications. They are very common
in computers because of their ability to be switched
A K on and off so quickly.

Schematic Symbol for a

Schottky Diode

Shockley The Shockley diode is a four-layer diode while other

Diodes: diodes are normally made with only two layers.
These types of diodes are generally used to control
the average power delivered to a load.

A K

Schematic Symbol for a

four-layer Shockley Diode
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 Types of Diodes and Their Uses

Light-Emitting Light-emitting diodes are designed with a very large

Diodes: bandgap so movement of carriers across their
depletion region emits photons of light energy.
Lower bandgap LEDs (Light-Emitting Diodes) emit
infrared radiation, while LEDs with higher bandgap
energy emit visible light. Many stop lights are now
starting to use LEDs because they are extremely
bright and last longer than regular bulbs for a
relatively low cost.

The arrows in the LED

A K representation indicate
emitted light.
Schematic Symbol for a
Light-Emitting Diode

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 Types of Diodes and Their Uses

Photodiodes: While LEDs emit light, Photodiodes are sensitive to

received light. They are constructed so their pn
junction can be exposed to the outside through a
clear window or lens.
A K In Photoconductive mode the saturation current
increases in proportion to the intensity of the
received light. This type of diode is used in CD
l players.
A K
In Photovoltaic mode, when the pn junction is
exposed to a certain wavelength of light, the diode
Schematic Symbols for generates voltage and can be used as an energy
Photodiodes source. This type of diode is used in the
production of solar power.

pn-juntion-Diode
 References
Dailey, Denton. Electronic Devices and Circuits, Discrete and Integrated. Prentice Hall, New
Jersey: 2001. (pp 2-37, 752-753)
2 Figure 1.10. The diode transconductance curve, pg. 7
Figure 1.15. Determination of the average forward resistance of a diode, pg 11
3 Example from pages 13-14
Liou, J.J. and Yuan, J.S. Semiconductor Device Physics and Simulation. Plenum Press,
New York: 1998.
Neamen, Donald. Semiconductor Physics & Devices. Basic Principles. McGraw-Hill,
Boston: 1997. (pp 1-15, 211-234)
1 Figure 6.2. The space charge region, the electric field, and the forces acting on
the charged carriers, pg 213.

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