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Microeconomics, 10e (Parkin) Chapter 15 Oligopoly 1 What is Oligopoly?
1) An oligopoly is a market
structure in which there are A) only a few buyers but many sellers. B) only a few sellers selling either an
identical or differentiated product. C) many sellers selling a differentiated product. D) a few products
sold by many sellers. Answer: B Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition,
Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 2) Which of the following is a distinguishing characteristic of
oligopoly? A) A small number of firms compete. B) No one firm's actions directly affect the actions of the
other firms. C) Firms are free to enter and exit the industry. D) Natural barriers cannot prevent the entry
of new firms. Answer: A Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter
15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 3) When only a small number of producers compete with each other is a
defining characteristic of A) inelastic supply. B) monopolistic competition. C) efficient competition. D)
oligopoly. Answer: D Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15
AACSB: Reflective Thinking 1 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4) In oligopolistic markets, A)
there are many firms. B) there are no barriers to entry. C) there are only a few firms. D) all firms are
price takers. Answer: C Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15
AACSB: Reflective Thinking 5) A market structure in which a small number of firms compete is called
________. A) a monopoly B) a small-number market C) an oligopoly D) monopolistic competition
Answer: C Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB:
Reflective Thinking 6) The key feature of an oligopoly is that there A) are many buyers and sellers. B) is
one seller. C) exists product differentiation. D) are only a few sellers. Answer: D Topic: Oligopoly Skill:
Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 7) In an oligopoly
A) there are only a few firms. B) there is no product differentiation. C) there is free entry and exit. D)
firms' decisions are unrelated to each other. Answer: A Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question
history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 2 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education,
Inc. 8) A market structure in which a small number of producers compete against each other is A)
monopolistic competition. B) oligopoly. C) monopoly. D) perfect competition. Answer: B Topic: Oligopoly
Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 9) If firms in
an industry differentiated their products and made economic profits in the shortrun, what other
characteristic would be important to determine if this is an oligopoly or a monopolistically competitive
market? A) The number of firms in the market. B) The number of close substitutes for the good being
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 1 DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF PRESSURE VESSEL BY JIMIT
VYAS AND MAHAVIR SOLANKI GUIDED BY : MR BHAVESH PATEL U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Page 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Certainly, help and encouragement from others are always appreciated,
but in different times, such magnanimity is valued even more. This said, this Dissertation would never
have been completed without the generous help and support that I received from numerous people
along the way. I wish to express my deepest thanks and gratitude to my elite guide Mr Bhavesh P Patel,
Mechanical Engineering Dept., U.V. Patel College of Engg., Mehsana, for his invaluable guidance and
advice, without that the Dissertation would not have appear in present shape. He also motivated me at
every moment during entire dissertation. I also hearty thankful and express deep sense of gratitude to
Mr. Bhavesh Prajapati, senior manager at GMM Pflauder, for giving opportunity to undertake a
dissertation in the industry and furnishing the details and help. Special thanks to Mr. Ankit Prajapati,
Design Engineer, at GMM Pflauder, for his keen interest and guidance in carrying out the work. I wish to
thank the principal Dr. J. L. Juneja and all the staff members of Mechatronics & Mechanical Dept., U. V.
Patel College of Engg., especially to , Prof. J. M. Prajapati, Prof. J. P. Patel, Prof. V. B. Patel, for their co-
operation, guidance and support during the work. Jimit Vyas & Mahavir Solanki
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 3 ASTRACT The significance of the title of the project comes
to front with designing structure of the pressure vessel for static loading and its assessment by Ansys , is
basically a project concerned with design of different pressure vessel elements such as shell, Dish end
,operating manhole ,support leg based on standards and codes ; and evolution of shell and dish end
Microeconomics, 10e (Parkin) Chapter 15 Oligopoly 1 What is Oligopoly? 1) An oligopoly is a market
analysed by means of ansys .The key feature included in the project is to check the behaviour of
pressure vessel in case of fluctuating load .The [procedural step includes various aspects such as
selecting the material based on ASME codes ,and then designing on the standards procedures with
referring standard manuals based on ASME .Further we have included the different manufacturing
methods practice by the industries and different aspects of it . And step by step approaches to the NTD
method practice by the industries followed with standards and also included within the report work.
This will be making a clear picture f this method among the reader . conclusively, this modus operandi of
design based on technical standard and codes ., can be employed on practical design of pressure vessel
as per required by the industry or the problem statement given associated to the field of pressure
vessel. U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 4 INTRODUTION: The pressure vessels (i.e. cylinder
or tanks) are used to store fluids under pressure. The fluid being stored may undergo a change of state
inside the pressure vessel as in case of steam boilers or it may combine with other reagents as in a
chemical plant. The pressure vessels are designed with great care because rupture of pressure vessels
means an explosion which may cause loss of life and property. The material of pressure vessels may be
brittle such that cast iron or ductile such as mild steel. Cylindrical or spherical pressure vessels (e.g.,
hydraulic cylinders, gun barrels, pipes, boilers and tanks) are commonly used in industry to carry both
liquids and gases under pressure. When the pressure vessel is exposed to this pressure, the material
comprising the vessel is subjected to pressure loading, and hence stresses, from all directions. The
normal stresses resulting from this pressure are functions of the radius of the element under
consideration, the shape of the pressure vessel (i.e., open ended cylinder, closed end cylinder, or
sphere) as well as the applied pressure. Two types of analysis are commonly applied to pressure vessels.
The most common method is based on a simple mechanics approach and is applicable to “thin wall”
pressure vessels which by definition have a ratio of inner radius, r, to wall thickness, t, of r/t≥10. The
second method is based on elasticity solution and is always applicable regardless of the r/t ratio and can
be referred to as the solution for “thick wall” pressure vessels. Both types of analysis are discussed here,
although for most engineering applications, the thin wall pressure vessel can be used.
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 5 Classification of Pressure Vessels Unfired Cylindrical
Pressure Vessels (Classification Based on IS 2825-1969) a) Class 1 : Vessels that are to contain lethal or
toxic substances. Vessels designed for the operation below -20 C and Vessels intended for any other
operation not stipulated in the code. b) Class 2: vessels which do not fall in the scope of clas1 and class 3
are to be termed as class2 vessels. The maximum thickness of shell is limited to 38 mm. c) class 3: there
are vessels for relatively light duties having plate thickness not in excess of 16 mm, and they are built for
working pressures at temperatures not exceeding 250 c and unfired . class3 vessels are not
recommended for services at temperatutre below 0c. U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 6
Categories Of Welded Joints The term categories specifies the location of the joint in a vessels, but not
the type of joint. These categories are intended for specifying the special requirements regarding the
joint type and degree of inspection. IS-2825 specifies 4 categories of welds. (Refer fig.) a) category A:
longitudinal welded joints within the main sheet, communicating chambers ,nozzles and any welded
joints within a formed or flat head. b) Category B: circumferential welded joints with in the main shell,
communicating chambers, nozzles and transitions in diameter including joints between the transtations
and a cylinder at either the large of small end, circumferential welded joints connecting from heads to
main shells to nozzles and to communicating chambers. c) Category c: welded joints connecting flanges,
tubes sheets and flat heads to main shells , to formed heads , to nozzles or to communicating chambers
and any welded joints connecting one side plate to another side plate of a flat sided vessel. d) Category
d: welded joints connecting communicating chambers or nozzles to main sheels ,to heads and to flat
sided vessels and those joints connecting nozzles to communicating chambers.
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 7 STRESS Types of Stresses Tensile Compressive Shear
Bending Bearing Axial Discontinuity Membrane Tensile Principal Thermal Tangential Load induced Strain
induced Circumferential Longitudinal Radial Normal Classes of stress z Primary Stress { General: z
Primary general membrane stress Pm z Primary general bending stress Pb { Primary local stress, PL z
Secondary stress: { Secondary membrane stress. Qm { Secondary bending stress Qb z Peak stress. F
Definition and Examples z PRIMARY GENERAL STRESS: z These stress act over a full cross section of the
vessel. Primary stress are generally due to internal or external pressure or produced by sustained
external forces and moments. Primary general stress are divided into membrane and
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 8 bending stresses. Calculated value of a primary bending
stress may be allowed to go higher than that of a primary membrane stress. z Primary general
membrane stress, Pm z Circumferential and longitudinal stress due to pressure. z Compressive and
tensile axial stresses due to wind. z Longitudinal stress due to the bending of the horizontal vessel over
the saddles. z Membrane stress in the centre of the flat head. z Membrane stress in the nozzle wall
within the area of reinforcement due to pressure or external loads. z Axial compression due to weight. z
Primary general bending stress, Pb z Bending stress in the centre of a flat head or crown of a dished
head. z Bending stress in a shallow conical head. z Bending stress in the ligaments of closely spaced
openings. LOCAL PRIMARY MEMBRANE STESS, PL z Pm+ membrane stress at local discontinuities: {
Head-shell juncture { Cone-cylinder juncture { Nozzle-shell juncture { Shell-flange juncture { Head-skirt
juncture { Shell-stiffening ring juncture z Pm+ membrane stresses from local sustained loads: { Support
legs { Nozzle loads { Beam supports { Major attachments SECONDARY STRESS z Secondary membrane
stress Qm z Axial stress at the juncture of a flange and the hub of the flange z Thermal stresses.
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 9 z Membrane stress in the knuckle area of the head. z
Membrane stress due to local relenting loads. z Secondary bending stress, Qb z Bending stress at the
gross structural discontinuity: nozzle, lugs, etc., (relenting loadings only). z The nonuniform portion of
the stress distribution in a thick-walled vessels due to internal pressure. z The stress variation of the
radial stress due to internal pressure in thick-walled vessels. z Discontinuity stresses at stiffening or
support ring. z Peak Stress F z Stress at the corner of discontinuity. z Thermal stress in a wall caused by a
sudden change in the surface temperature. z Thermal stresses in cladding or weld overlay. z Stress due
to notch effect. (stress concentration). LOADINGS z Loadings or forces are the “causes” of stress in
pressure vessels. Loadings may be applied over a large portion (general area) of the vessel or over a
local area of the vessel. General and local loads can produce membrane and bending stresses. These
stresses are additive and define the overall state of stress in the vessel or component. z The stresses
applied more or less continuously and uniformly across an entire section of the vessel are primary
stresses. z The stresses due to pressure and wind are primary membrane stresses. z O the other hand,
the stresses from the inward radial load could be either a primary local stress or secondary stress. It is
primary local stress if it is produced from an unrelenting load or a secondary stress if produced by a
relenting load. U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 10 z If it is a primary stress, the stress will be
redistributed; if it is a secondary stress, the load will relax once slight deformation occurs. z Basically
each combination of stresses ( stress categories will have different allowables, i.e., z Primary stress: Pm
< SE z Primary membrane local (PL): z PL=Pm+ PL < 1.5SE z Primary membrane + secondary (Q): z Pm+Q<
3SE Loading can be outlined as follows: z Categories of loadings { General loads—Applied more or less
continuously across a vessel section. z Pressure loads—Internal or external pressure (design, operating,
hydrotest, and hydrostatic head of liquid). z Moment loads—Due to wind, seismic, erection,
transportation. z Compressive/tensile loads—Due to dead weight, installed equipment, ladders,
platforms, piping and vessel contents. z Thermal loads—Hot box design of skirt-head attachment. { Local
loads—Due to reactions from supports, internal, attached Piping, attached equipment, i.e., platforms,
mixers, etc. z a. Radial load—Inward or Outward. z b. Shear load—Longitudinal or circumferential. z c.
Torsional load. z d. Tangential load. z e. Moment load—Longitudinal or circumferential. z f. Thermal
load. U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 11 Types of Loadings z 1) Steady loads—Long-term
duration, continuous. z a. Internal/external pressure. z b. Dead weight. z c. Vessel contents. z d. Loading
due to attached piping and equipment. z e. Loadings to and from vessel supports. z f. Thermal loads. z g.
Wind Loads Types of Loadings z 1) Non-steady loads- Short-term duration, Variable. { Shop and field
hydro-test { Earthquake { Erection { Transportation { Upset, emergency { Thermal Loads { Startup, shut
down FAILURE IN PRESSURE VESSELS z Categories of Failures: z Material--Improper Selection of
materials; defects in material. z Design—Incorrect design data; inaccurate or incorrect design methods;
inadequate shop testing. z Fabrication – Poor quality control; improper or insufficient fabrication
procedures including welding; heat treatment or forming methods.
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 12 z Service—Change of service condition by the user;
inexperienced operations or maintenance personnel; upset conditions. Some types of services which
requires special attention both for selection of materials, design details, and fabrication methods are as
follows: { Lethal { Fatigue (cyclic) { Brittle (low temperature) { High Temperature { High shock or
vibration { Vessel contents z Hydrogen z Ammonia z Compressed air z Caustic z Chlorides z TYPES OF
FAILURES z Elastic deformation—Elastic instability or elastic buckling, vessel geometry, and stiffness as
well as properties of materials are protecting against buckling. z Brittle fracture—Can occur at low or
intermediate temperature. Brittle fractures have occurred in vessels made of low carbon steel in the 40-
50 F range during hydrotest where minor flaws exist. z Excessive plastic deformation—The primary and
secondary stress limits as outlined in ASME Section VIII, Division 2, are intended to prevent excessive
plastic deformation and incremental collapse. z Stress rupture—Creep deformation as a result of fatigue
or cyclic loading, i.e., progressive fracture. Creep is a time-dependent phenomenon, whereas fatigue is a
cyclic-dependent phenomenon o TYPES OF FAILURES o Plastic instability—Incremental collapse;
incremental collapse is cyclic strain accumulation or cumulative cyclic deformation. Cumulative damage
leads to instability of vessel by plastic deformation. U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 13 o
High Strain—Low cyclic fatigue is strain-governed and occurs mainly in lowerstrength/high-ductile
materials. o Stress corrosion—It is well know that chlorides cause stress corrosion cracking in stainless
steels; likewise caustic service can cause stress corrosion cracking in carbon steel. Materials selection is
critical in these services. o Corrosion fatigue—Occurs when corrosive and fatigue effects occur
simultaneously. Corrosion can reduce fatigue life by pitting the surface and propagating cracks. Material
selection and fatigue properties are the major considerations. SPECIAL PROBLEMS z Thick Walled
Pressure Vessels z Mono-bloc- Solid vessel wall. z Multilayer—Begins with a core about ½ in. thick and
successive layers are applied. Each layer is vented (except the core) and welded individually with no
overlapping welds. z Multi-wall—Begins with a core about ½ in. to 2 in. thick. Outer layers about the
same thickness are successive “ shrunk fit” over the core. This creates compressive stress in the core,
which is relaxed during pressurization. The process of compressing layers is called auto-frettage from
the French word meaning “selfhooping.” z Multilayer auto-frettage—Begins with a core about ½ in.
thick. Bands or forged rings are slipped outside and then the core is expanded hydraulically. The core is
stressed into plastic range but below ultimate strength. The outer rings are maintained at a margin
below yield strength. The elastic deformation residual in U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 14
the outer bands induces compressive stress in the core, which is relaxed during pressurization. z Wire
wrapped vessels: Begin with inner core of thickness less than required for pressure. Core is wrapped
with steel cables in tension until the desired autofrettage is achieved. z Coil wrapped vessels: Begin with
a core that is subsequently wrapped or coiled with a thin steel sheet until the desired thickness is
obtained. Only two longitudinal welds are used, one attaching the sheet to the core and the final
closures weld. Vessels 5 to 6 ft in diameter for pressure up to 5000psi have been made in this manner. z
THERMAL STRESS z Whenever the expansion or contraction that would occur normally as a result of
heating or cooling an object is prevented, thermal stresses are developed. The stress is always caused by
some form of mechanical restrain. z Thermal stresses are “secondary stresses” because they are self-
limiting. Thermal stresses will not cause failure by rupture. They can however, cause failure due to
excessive deformations. DISCONTINUITY STRESSES Vessel sections of different thickness, material,
diameter and change in directions would all have different displacements if allowed to expand freely.
However, since they are connected in a continuous structure, they must deflect and rotate together.
The stresses in the respective parts at or near the juncture are called discontinuity stresses.
Discontinuity stresses are “ secondary stresses” and are self-limiting. Discontinuity stresses do become
an important factor in fatigue design where cyclic loading is a consideration. z FATIGUE ANALYSIS z
When a vessel is subject to repeated loading that could cause failure by the development of a
progressive fracture, the vessel is in cyclic service. z Fatigue analysis can also be a result of thermal
vibrations as well as other loadings. U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 15 z In fatigue service
the localized stresses at abrupt changes in section, such as at a head junction or nozzle opening,
misalignment, defects in construction, and thermal gradients are the significant stresses. NOZZLE
REINFORCEMENT Fig : nozzle reinforcement „ Limits. a. No reinforcement other than that inherent in
the construction is required for nozzles. „ 3-in. pipe size and smaller in vessel walls 3/8 in. and less. „ 2-
in. pipe size and smaller in vessel walls greater than 3/8 in. b. Normal reinforcement methods apply to
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 16 „ Vessels 60-in. diameter and less-1/2 the vessel
diameter but not to exceed 20 in. „ Vessels greater than 60-in. diameter-1/3 the vessel diameter but not
to exceed 40.in a. 1b, reinforcement shall be in accordance with para. 1-7 of ASME Code. 2. Strength It is
advisable but not mandatory for reinforcing pad material to be the same as the vessel material. a. If a
higher strength material is used, either in the pad or in the nozzle neck, no additional credit may be
taken for the higher strength. 3. Thickness It is recommended that pad be not less then 75% nor more
than 150% of the part to which they are attached. 4. Width „ While no minimum is stated, it is
recommended that re-pads be atleast 2in wide. 5. Forming: „ Reinforcing pads should be formed as
closely to the contour of the vessel as possible. While normally put on the outside of the vessel, re-pads
can also be put inside providing they do not interfere with the vessel’s operation. 8. Openings in flat
heads: Reinforcements for the openings in the flats heads and blind flanges shall be as follows a.
Openings < ½ head diameter- area to be replaced equals 0.5(tr), or thickness of head or flange may be
increased by: Doubling C value Using C=0.75 Increasing head thickness by 1.414 b. Openings>1/2 head
diameter –shall be designed as a bolted flange connection. 9. Openings in torispherical heads.
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 17 „ When a nozzle openings and all its reinforcement fall
within the dished portion, the required thickness of head for reinforcement purpose shall be computed
using M=1 10. Openings in elliptical heads When a nozzle openings and all its reinforcement fall within
0.8 D of an elliptical head, the required thickness of the head for reinforcement purpose shall be equal
to the thickness required for a seamless sphere of radius K(D). 11. General Reinforcement should be
calculated in the corroded condition assuming maximum tolerance (minimum t) 12. Openings through
seams. a. Openings that have been reinforcement may located in a welded joint. ASME code, division 1,
does not allow a welded joint to have two different weld joint efficiencies 13. Re-pads over seams If at
all possible, pads should not cover weld seams. When unavoidable, the seam should be ground flush
before attaching the pad. 14. Openings near seams Small nozzles ( for which the code does not require,
the reinforcement to be checked) shall not be located closer than ½ in. to the edge of a main seam. 15.
External pressures. Reinforcement required for openings subject to external pressure only or when
longitudinal compression governs shall only be 50 % of that required for internal pressure and tr, is
thickness required for external pressure 16. Ligaments When there is a series of closely spaced openings
in a vessel shell and it is impractical to reinforce each opening, the construction is acceptable, provided
the efficiency of the ligaments between the holes is acceptable. 17. Multiple openings:
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 18 a. For two openings closer than 2 times the average
diameters and where limits of reinforcement overlap, the area between the openings shall meet the
following 1. Must have a combined area equal to the sum of the two areas 2. No portion of the cross-
section shall apply to more than one openings. 3. Any overlap area shall be proportional between the
two openings by the ratio of the diameters. b. When more than two openings are to be provided with
combined reinforcement: 17 b. When more than two openings are to be provided with combined
reinforcement: 1. The minimum distance between the two centers is 1 1/3 the average diameters. 2.
The area of reinforcement between the two nozzle shall be atleast 50% of the area required for the two
openings. c. Multiple openings may be reinforced s an opening equal in diameter to that of a circle
circumscribing the multiple openings. 18. Plane of reinforcement. A correction factor f may be used for “
integrally reinforced” nozzle to compensate for differences in stress from longitudinal to circumferential
axis of the vessel. Value of f vary from 1.0 for the longitudinal axis to 0.5 for circumferential.
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 19 CHAPTER 2 ENGINEERING GUIDELINES FOR DESIGN OF
PRESSURE VESSELS U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 20 Engineering Design Guidelines For
Pressure Vessels 1.0 SCOPE This specification covers the design basis for following equipment: - Vessels -
Columns - Reactors - Spheres - Storage Tanks - Steel silos, Bins. Hoppers - Steel Flare Stacks 2.0 CODES
AND STANDARDS The following codes and standards shall be followed unless otherwise specified: ASME
SEC. VIII DIV.1 / For Pressure vessels IS: 2825 ASME SEC. VIII DIV.2 For Pressure vessels (Selectively for
high pressure / high thickness / critical service) ASME SEC. VIII DIV.2 For Storage Spheres ASME SEC. VIII
DIV.3 For Pressure vessels (Selectively for high pressure) API 650 / IS: 803 For Storage Tanks. API 620 For
Low Pressure Storage Tanks, U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 21 API 620 / BS 7777
Cryogenic Storage Tanks (Double Wall) ASME SEC. VIIIDIV.1 For workmanship of Vessels not categorized
under any other code. ISO R831/ IBR For Steam producing, steam storage catch water vessels,
condensate flash drums and similar vessels IS: 9178 / DIN 1055 For Silos Hoppers and Bins BS: 4994 /
ASME SEC X FRP vessels / tanks.` ASME: B 96.1 Welded Aluminium Alloy Storage Tanks. ASME SEC.II For
material specification ASTM / IS For material specification (Tanks) IS: 875 / SITE DATA For wind load
consideration IS: 1893 / SITE DATA For seismic design consideration ASME SEC. IX For welding. WRC
BULLETIN# 107, 297 / PD 5500 For Local load / stress analysis 3.0 DESIGN CRITERIA Equipment shall be
designed in compliance with the latest design code requirements, and applicable standards/
Specifications. U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 22 4.0 MINIMUM SHELL/HEAD THICKNESS
Minimum thickness shall be as given below a) For carbon and low alloy steel vessels- 6mm (Including
corrosion allowance not exceeding 3.0mm), but not less than that calculated as per following: FOR
DIAMETERS LESS THAN 2400mm Wall thickness = Dia/1000 +1.5 + Corrosion Allowance FOR DIAMETERS
2400mm AND ABOVE Wall thickness = Dia/1000 +2.5 + Corrosion Allowance All dimension are in mm. b)
For stainless steel vessel and high alloy vessels -3 mm, but not less than that calculated as per following
for diameter more than 1500mm. Wall thickness (mm) = Dia/1000 + 2.5 Corrosion Allowance, if any shall
be added to minimum thickness. c) Tangent to Tangent height (H) to Diameter (D) ratio (H/D) greater
than 5 shall be considered as column and designed accordingly. d) For carbon and low alloy steel
columns / towers -8mm (including corrosion allowance not exceeding 3.0mm. e) For stainless steel and
high alloy columns / towers -5mm. Corrosion allowance, if any, shall be added to minimum thickness.
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 23 5.0 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 5.1 Vessel sizing All
Columns Based on inside diameter All Clad/Lined Vessels Based on inside diameter Vessels
(Thickness>50mm) Based on inside diameter All Other Vessels Based on outside diameter Tanks &
Spheres Based on inside diameter 5.2 Vessel End Closures : - Unless otherwise specified Deep
Torispherical Dished End or 2:1 Ellipsoidal Dished End as per IS - 4049 shall be used for pressure vessels.
Seamless dished end shall be used for specific services whenever specified by process licensor. -
Hemispherical Ends shall be considered when the thickness of shell exceeds 70mm. - Flat Covers may be
used for atmospheric vessels - Pipe Caps may be used for vessels diameter < 600mm having no internals.
- Flanged Covers shall be used for Vessels /Columns of Diameter < 900mm having internals. - All columns
below 900mm shall be provided with intermediate body flanges. Numbers of Intermediate flanges shall
be decided based on column height and type of internals 5.3 Pressure Pressure for each vessel shall be
specified in the following manner: 5.3.1 Operating Pressure Maximum pressure likely to occur any time
during the lifetime of the vessel 5.3.2 Design Pressure a) When operating pressure is up to 70 Kg./cm2 g
, Design pressure shall be equal to operating pressure plus 10% ( minimum 1Kg./cm2 g ).
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 24 b) When operating pressure is over 70 Kg./cm2 g ,
Design pressure shall be equal to operating pressure plus 5% ( minimum 7 Kg./cm2g). c) Design pressure
calculated above shall be at the top of vertical vessel or at the highest point of horizontal vessel. d) The
design pressure at any lower point is to be determined by adding the maximum operating liquid head
and any pressure gradient within the vessel. e) Vessels operating under vacuum / partial vacuum shall
be designed for an external pressure of 1.055 Kg./cm2 g. f) Vessels shall be designed for steam out
conditions if specified on process data sheet. 5.3.3 Test Pressure a) Pressure Vessels shall be
hydrostatically tested in the fabricators shop to 1.5 /1.3/ 1.25 (depending on design code) times the
design pressure corrected for temperature. b) In addition, all vertical vessels / columns shall be designed
so as to permit site testing of the vessel at a pressure of 1.5/ 1.3 / 1.25 (depending on design code)
times the design pressure measured at the top with the vessel in the vertical position and completely
filled with water. The design shall be based on fully corroded condition. c) Vessels open to atmosphere
shall be tested by filling with water to the top. d) 1. Pressure Chambers of combination units that have
been designed to operate independently shall be hydrostatically tested to code test pressure as
separate vessels i.e. each chamber shall be tested without pressure in the adjacent chamber. 2. When
pressure chambers of combination units have their common elements designed for maximum
differential pressure the common elements shall be subjected to 1.5/ 1.3 times the differential pressure.
3. Coils shall be tested separately to code test pressure. e) Unless otherwise specified in applicable
design code allowable stress during hydro test in tension shall not exceed 90% of yield point. f) Storage
tanks shall be tested as per applicable code and specifications. U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Page 25 5.4 Temperature Temperature for each vessel shall be specified in the following manner: 5.4.1
Operating Temperature Maximum / minimum temperature likely to occur any during the lifetime of
vessel. 5.4.2 Design temperature a) For vessels operating at 0 C and over: Design temperature shall be
equal to maximum operating temperature plus 15 0 C. b) For Vessels operating below 0 C: Design
temperature shall be equal to lowest operating temperature. c) Minimum Design Metal Temperature
(MDMT) shall be lower of minimum atmospheric temperature and minimum operating temperature. 5.5
Corrosion allowance : Unless otherwise specified by Process Licensor, minimum corrosion allowance
shall be considered as follows : - Carbon Steel, low alloy steel column, Vessels, Spheres : 1.5 mm - Clad /
Lined vessel: Nil - Storage Tank, shell and bottom : 1.5 mm - Storage tank, Fixed roof / Floating Roof : Nil
For alloy lined or clad vessels, no corrosion allowance is required on the base metal. The cladding or
lining material (in no case less than 1.5 mm thickness) shall be considered for corrosion allowance.
Cladding or lining thickness shall not be included in strength calculations. Corrosion allowance for flange
faces of Girth / Body flanges shall be considered equal to that specified for vessel.
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 26 5.6 Wind Consideration Wind load shall be calculated on
the basis of IS : 875 / site data. a) Drag coefficient for cylindrical vessels shall be 0.7 minimum. b) Drag
coefficient for spherical vessel shall be 0.6 minimum. 5.7 Earthquake Consideration : Earthquake load
shall be calculated in accordance with IS : 1893 / site data if specially developed and available 5.8
Capacity 5.8.1 Tank Capacity shall be specified as Nominal capacity and stored capacity Nominal capacity
for fixed roof tanks be volume of cylindrical shell. Nominal capacity for floating roof tanks shall be
volume of cylindrical shell minus free board volume. Stored capacity shall be 90% of Nominal capacity.
5.8.2 Sphere Stored capacity shall be 85% of nominal capacity. 5.9 Manholes : a) Vessels and columns
with diameter between 900 and 1000 mm shall be provided with 450 NB manhole. Vessels and columns
with diameter greater than 1000mm shall be provided with 500 NB manhole. However, if required
vessels and columns with diameter 1200mm and above may be provided with 600NB manhole. b) For
storage tanks minimum number of manholes (Size 500mm) shall be as follows: Tank Diameter Shell Roof
Dia. < 8m 1 1 U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 27 > 8m dia. < 36 dia 2 2 Dia. > 36m 4 2
Floating roofs (pontoon or double deck type) shall be provided with manholes to inspect the entire
interior of the roofs. Size of manhole shall be 500 mm minimum. 5.10 Floating Roof : 5.10.1 Unless
otherwise specified floating roof shall be of following construction. Tank Diameter Type of Roof 12 M <
Double Deck Type >12 M < 60M Pontoon Type > 60M Double Deck Type 5.10.2 Floating roof design shall
be in fabricators scope having proven track record. Foam seal of proven make shall be provided unless
otherwise specified. 5.11 Nozzle size : Unless otherwise specified - Minimum nozzle Size : 40 NB -
Minimum Nozzle Size, Column : 50 NB - Safety Valve Nozzle : Based on I.D. - Self Reinforced Nozzle Neck
: Based on I.D. 5.11.1 a) All nozzles and man-ways including self-reinforced type shall be 'set in' type and
attached to vessel with full penetration welds. b) Self reinforced nozzles up to 80mm NB may be 'set on'
type. 5.12 Flanges U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 28 5.12.1 Unless otherwise specified
nozzle flanges up to 600NB shall be as per ASME /ANSI B16.5 and above 600 NB shall be as per ASME
/ANSI B 16.47 (SERIES 'B') 5.12.2 For nozzles 100 NB and below, only weld neck flange shall be used. Slip
on flanges may be used for nozzles above 100NB in Class 150 rating only. All flanges above Class 150
rating shall be weld neck type 5.12.3 Slip on flanges shall not be used in Lethal, Hydrogen, caustic,
severe cyclic service and corrosive service (where corrosion allowance is in excess of 3mm). 5.13
Internals : Removable internals shall be bolted type and bolting shall be stainless steel Type 304, unless
specified otherwise. 5.14 Spares : Gaskets : Two sets for each installed gasket. Fasteners: 10 %
(Minimum two in each size) of installed fasteners. Sight/Light Glass: 4 sets for each installed glass. 5.15
Vent/Drain Connections: Vessel shall be provided with one number each, vent/drain connection as per
following : VESSEL VOLUME, m3 VENT SIZE, NB (mm) DRAIN SIZE, NB (mm) 6.0 and smaller 40 40 6.0 to
17.0 40 50 17.0 to 71.0 50 80 71.0 and larger 80 100 U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 29
5.16 Pipe Davit : Vertical Vessel / Column having safety valve size > 80 NB and or having internals, shall
be provided with pipe davit per relevant standard. 6.0 INSULATION THICKNESS : As indicated on process
data sheet by process licensor 7.0 PAINTING As per Standard Specification, unless otherwise stated. 8.0
MATERIAL SELECTION : Material of various parts of equipment shall be selected per process data sheet
guidelines and proper care shall be taken for the points as given in Annexure- I or as specified. 9.0
SPECIAL CONSIDERATION FOR TALL COLUMN DESIGN Mechanical design of self supporting Tall Column /
Tower shall be carried out for various load combinations as per Annexure-II 10.0 STATUTORY
PROVISIONS : National laws and statutory provisions together with any local byelaws for the state shall
be complied with. Annexure : I 1. PRESSURE VESSEL STEEL PLATES ARE PURCHASED TO THE
REQUIREMENT OF THE STANDARD ASME SA-20, WHICH REQUIRES TESTING OF INDIVIDUAL PLATES FOR
LOW TEMPERATURE SERVICE. CARBON STEEL MATERIAL IS ORDERED TO MEET THE IMPACT
REQUIREMENTS OF SUPPLEMENT OF STANDARD ASME SA 20. TYPICAL
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 30 MATERIAL SPECIFICATION IS AS FOLLOWS SA 516 GR.60.
NORMALISED TO MEET IMPACT REQUIREMENTS PER SUPPLEMENT SS OF SA 20 AT-50F 2. ALL
PERMANENT ATTACHMENTS WELDED DIRECTLY TO 9 % NICKEL STEEL SHOULD BE OF THE SAME
MATERIAL OR OF AN AUSTENTIC STAINLESS STEEL TYPE WHICH CANNOT BE HARDENED BY HEAT
TREATMENT. 3. CHECK FOR IMPACT TESTING REQUIREMENT AS PER UCS-66 FOR COINCIDENT
TEMPERATURE AND PART THICKNESS. 4. SELECTION OF STAINLESS STEEL MATERIAL SHALL BE BASED ON
PROCESS RECOMMENDATION/PROCESS LICENSOR. 5. ATMOSPHERIC/LOW PRESSURE STORAGE TANKS.
MATERIAL SHALL BE SELECTED AS PER API 650 /API 620 AS APPLICABLE. 6. MATERIALS FOR CAUSTIC
SERVICE SOUR SERVICE OR SOUR + HIC SHALL BE SELECTED BASED ON SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATION OF
PROCESS LICENSOR. 7. MATERIAL FOR PRESSURE VESSELS DESIGNED ACCORDING TO ASME SECTION VIII
DIVISION 2 SHALL BE GIVEN SPECIAL CONSIDERATION AS PER CODE. 8. ALL PIPES SHALL BE OF SEAMLESS
CONSTRUCTION. 9. NONFERROUS MATERIAL AND SUPER ALLOYS SHALL BE SELECTED BASED ON
SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATION. U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 31 10. MATERIAL FOR
VESSEL /COLUMN SKIRT SHALL BE THE SAME MATERIAL AS OF VESSEL/ COLUMN SHELL FOR THE UPPER
PART WITH A MINIMUM OF 500MM. Annexure -II DESIGN PHILOSOPHY OF TALL COLUMNS Mechanical
design of self-supporting tall column and its anchorage block shall be carried out considering
combination of various loads. 1.0 Loadings The loadings to be considered in designing a self-supporting
tall column/tower shall include: 1.1 Internal and or external design pressure specified on process data
sheets. 1.2 Self weight of column inclusive of piping, platforms, ladders, manholes, nozzles, trays,
welded and removable attachments, insulation and operating liquid etc. The weight of attachments to
be considered shall be as per Table -1 enclosed Other loading as specified in UG-22 of ASME Code Sec,
VIII Div.1. wherever applicable. 1.3 Seismic forces and moments shall be computed in accordance with IS
1893 (latest edition). Unless otherwise specified importance factor and damping coefficient shall be
considered as 2 and 2% respectively. 1.4 Basic wind pressure and wind velocity (including that due to
winds of short duration as in squalls) for the computation of forces / moments and dynamic analysis
respectively shall be in accordance with IS 875 (latest edition). Additional wind loading on column due to
external attachments like platforms, ladders piping and attached equipment should be given due
consideration. 1.5 Loadings resulting in localised and gross stresses due to attachment or mounting of
reflux / reboiler / condenser etc. U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 32 2.0 Loading Condition
Analysis shall be carries out for following conditions : 2.1 Erection Condition: Column (un-corroded)
erected on foundation without insulation, platforms, trays etc. but with welded attachments plus full
wind on column. 2.2 Operation Condition: Column (in corroded condition) under design pressure,
including welded items, trays removable internals, piping, platforms, ladder, reboiler mounted on
column, insulating and operating liquid etc. plus full wind on insulated column with all other projections
open to wind, or earthquake force. 2.3 Test Condition: Column (in corroded condition) under test
pressure filled with water plus 33% of specified wind load on uninsulated column considered. 2.4
EARTHQUAKE AND WIND SHALL BE CONSIDERED NOT ACTING CONCURRENTLY 3.0 Deflection of Column
Maximum allowable deflection at top of column shall be equal to height of the column divided by 200.
3.1 If the deflection of column exceeds the above allowable limit the thickness of skirt shall be increased
as first trial up to a maximum value equal to the column thickness and this exercise shall be stopped if
the deflection falls within allowable limit. 3.2 If the above step is inadequate, skirt shall be gradually
flared to reduce the deflection. Flaring of skirt shall be stopped if the deflection falls within limits or half
angle of cone reaches maximum limit of 9 deg. 3.3 If the above two steps prove inadequate in limiting
the deflection within allowable limits, the thickness of shell courses shall be increased one starting from
bottom course above skirt and proceeding upwards till the deflection falls within allowable limits.
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 33 4.0 Stress Limits The stresses due to pressure weight
wind / seismic loads shall be combined using maximum principle stress theory for ASME Section VIII Div.
I. Thicknesses are accordingly chosen to keep the within limits as per Table-2. 5.0 Skirt Support Base
Base supporting including base plate, anchor chairs compression ring, foundation bolting etc. shall be
designed based on overturning moment (greater of seismic or wind). A minimum number of 8
foundation bolts shall be provided. Numbers of foundation bolts shall be in multiple of four. 6.0
Minimum Hydrotest Pressure Minimum Hydrotest Pressure (in Horizontal position) shall be equal to 1.3
x design pressure x temperature correction factor as specified in ASME Code Section VIII Div. I (Clause
UG-99) at top of column. 7.0 Dynamic Analysis Dynamic analysis of each column shall be carried out for
stability under transverse wind induced vibrations as per standard design practice. The recommended
magnification amplitude shall be limited to tower diameter divided by five. TABLE-1 DETAILS AND
WEIGHT OF COLUMN ATTACHMENT 1. Shape factor for shell (for wind force calculation) : 0.7 2. Weight
of trays (with liquid) to be considered. : 120 Kg./m2 3. Weight of plain Ladder: 15 Kg./m 4. Weight of
caged ladder: 37 Kg./m 5 Equivalent projection to be considered for wind load on caged ladder : 300 mm
6. Distance of platform below each manhole : Approx. 1000 mm U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Page 34 7. Maximum distance between consecutive platform : 5000 mm 8. Projection of Platform :
900mm up to 1meter dia. column; 1200 mm for column dia.> 1 meter, from column insulation surface.
9. Equivalent height of platform (for wind load computation) : 1000 mm 10. Weight of platforms : 170
Kg./m2 . 11. Platform shall be considered all around TABLE -2 ALLOWABLE STRESSES FOR COMBINED
LOADING VESSEL CONDITION / TEMP./ CONDITIONS TYPE OF STRESSES ERECTION OPERATING TEST NEW
OR CORRODED NEW CORRODED CORRODED TEMPERATURE AMBIENT DESIGN AMBIENT LONGITUDINAL
KxSxE KxSxE 0.90xY.PxE LONGITUDINAL COMPRESSIVE STRESS KxB KxB B Where S = Basic allowable
Tensile Stress as per Clause UG 23 (a) of ASME Code Sec. VIII Div.1. B = 'B' value calculated as per Clause
UG-23 (b). E = Weld joint efficiency of circumferential weld, depending on extent of radiography.
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 35 K = Factor for increasing basic allowable value when
wind or seismic load is present, 1.2 as per ASME Sec VIII Div 1. Note : Allowable stresses in skirt to shell
joint shall be as per following : a) 0.49S, if joint is shear type. b) 0.70S, if joint is compression type.
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 36 CHAPTER 3 DESIGN PROCEDURE AND CALUCULATION
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 37 DESIGN THEORY Circumferential or Hoop Stress A tensile
stress acting in a direction tangential to the circumference is called Circumferential or Hoop Stress. In
other words, it is on longitudinal section(or on the cylinder walls). Let, p = Intensity of internal pressure,
d = Internal diameter of the cylinder shell, l = length of cylinder, t = Thickness of the shell, and σt1= hoop
stress for the material of the cylinder. Now, We know that total force on a longitudinal section of the
shell = Intensity of pressure × projected Area = p × d × l …..i and the total resisting force acting on the
cylinder walls = σt1 × 2t × l ….(Q of two section) …ii From equation (i) and (ii) , we have
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 38 σt1 × 2t × l = p × d × l or σt1= p d 2t × or t = t1 p d 2 × σ
…..ii Longitudinal Stress A tensile stress acting in a direction of the axis is called longitudinal stress. In
other words, it is a tensile stress acting on the transverse or circumferential section. Fig of Longitudinal
stress Let σt 2 = Longitudinal stress. In this case, the total force acting on the transverse section =
Intensity of pressure × Cross- sectional Area = p × 4 π (d)² ………i and total resisting force = σt 2 × πd.t
………ii From equation (i) and (ii), we have σt 2 × πd.t = p × 4 π (d) ² σt 2 = p d 4t × or t = t 2 p d 4 × σ
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 39 Design of Shell Due to Internal Pressure As discussed in
article on thin vessel are cylindrical pressure vessel is subjected to tangential (σ t ) and longitudinal (σ L )
stresses. 2 i i t P D t σ × = and 4 i i L P D t σ × = where D= mean diameter = Di + t Rule The design pressure
is taken as 5% to 10% more than internal pressure, where as the test pressure is taken as 30% more than
internal pressure. Considering the joint efficiency, The thickness of shell can be found by following
procedure, ( ) 2 P Dt i i t η σ × + × = 2 ( ) i i η ×× = × + σ tP Dt 2( ) i i i P D t η σ P × = × − Design of Elliptical
Head: Elliptical heads are suitable for cylinders subjected to pressures over 1.5 MPa. The shallow
forming reduces manufacturing cost. It’s thickness can be calculated by the following equation:
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 40 t = 2 i i p d W σ J where, i d = Major axis of ellipse W=
Stress intensification factor 1 2 (2 ) 6 W k = + Where , k = Major Axis Diameter Major Axis Diameter = i
0.5d c Rule > Generally, k = 2 ( how ever k should not be greater than 2.6) 1 2 (2 2 ) 6 W = + = 1 2 Pi di W
t σ J ⋅ ⋅ = ⋅ ⋅ Design of Manhole Let, i d = internal dia. Of nozzle d = i d + 2 CA where, CA = corrosion
Allowance in mm t = Actual thickness of shell in mm tr = require thickness as per calculation in mm. tn =
Actual thickness of nozzle trn = Required thickness as per calculation in mm 2 rn Pi Di Pi t σ η × = ××−
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 41 1actual h = Height of the nozzle above the shell in mm
2actual h = Height of the nozzle below the shell in mm h1 = Height till where the effect of the nozzle
persists above the shell in mm h2 = Height till where the effect of the nozzle persists below the shell in
mm To calculate h1 and h2 consider a term ‘h’ h = 2.5 ( t – CA) or h = 2.5 ( tn – CA) (whichever is smaller)
h1 = h or 1actual h (whichever is smaller) h2 = h or 2actual h (whichever is smaller) X = Distance where
the effect of the nozzle persists in mm on each side of the centre line X = d. or X = i d 2 + t + tn -3CA
(whichever is maximum) op d = outer dia. Of Reinforcing Pad in mm ip d = inner dia. Of Reinforcing Pad
in mm pt = Thickness of Reinforcing Pad in mm U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 42 Area
Calculation Area pertaining to material removed, A = d ×tr Excess area in the Shell, A1 = (2X – d ) ( t – tr –
CA) Excess area in the Nozzle, A2 = 2h1(tn – trn – CA) Excess area in the nozzle inside the shell A3 = 2 h2
(tn – 2CA) Area Required, Ar = ( op d - ip d ) pt Area required, Ar = A – ( A1 + A2 + A3) When Ar = 0 or
negative, no reinforcement is necessary as the vessel thickness self compensates. Design of Leg: A) Legs
support In certain cases, legs can be made detachable to the vessel. These legs can be bolted to plates.
The design for leg supports is similar to that for bracket support. If the legs are welded to the shell, then
the shear stresses in the weld will be given by: 2 2 12 2 0.707 W o W W W w P KPH D mm tLn τ ∑ = = ×× ×
0.707 W W W W tLn τ ∑ = ×× × Where, W t = Weld Height LW = Weld Length. These types of supports
are suitable only for small vessels as there is a concentrated local stress at the joint. B) Wind Load Wind
load can be estimated as : P = K P w1 1 H D o This equation is valid for heights upto 20m. Beyond 20m,
the wind pressure is higher and hence for heights above 20m. P KP H D w o 2 22 = Generally, P1 lies
between 400 N/ 2 mm and P2 may be upto 2000 N/ 2 m . Therefore, the bending moment due to wind
at the base will be U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 43 (IF H ≤ 20 m) M = w P h w1 1 2 (IF H>
20m) M = w P h w1 1 2 + P ( w 2 1 h + 2 h 2 ) Therefore, bending stress will be, σbw = Mw z Where Z=
section Modulus The wind load would create tensile stress on the wind side and compressive on the
other side. U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 44 Design Calculation 1) Thickness of cylinder
Given data Internal pressure (P) = 0.588 MPa Internal Diameter (Di) = 496mm Corrosion Allowance (CA)
= Nil. Joint Efficiency for shell = 1. As per Equation, 2 Pi Di t σ η Pi × = ××− + CA (0.588) (496) 2 137 1
0.588 t × = × ×− (Q CA is NIL) = 1.066 ∴ t = 1.066mm 2) Elliptical Head 1 2 (2 ) 6 W k = + where , k = Major
Axis Diameter Major Axis Diameter = i 0.5d c k = 2 Rule > Generally, k = 2 ( how ever k should not be
greater than 2.6) 1 2 (2 2 ) 6 W = + = 1 2 Pi di W t σ J ⋅ ⋅ = ⋅ ⋅ where,
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 45 di = Major axis of ellipse = 496mm W = Stress
intensification factor = 1 2 Pi di W t σ J ⋅ ⋅ = ⋅ ⋅ 0.588 496 1 2 137 1 t × × = × × = 1.06 mm ∴ t = 1.06 mm 3)
Design Of Manhole INLET NOZZLE (N1) GIVEN DATA Internal pressure (Pi) = 0.588 N/ 2 mm Internal
diameter (Di) = 496 mm Thickness (t) = 6 mm. CA = NIL Joint Efficiency (η ) = 1 Internal diameter of
nozzle (di) = 254.51 mm d = di + CA = 254.51 mm. tr = require thickness = 1.066 mm. tn = Actual
thickness of nozzle = 9.27 mm. trn = Required thickness as per calculation in mm. 1 0.588 254.51 A 2 137
1 0.588 × = × ×− 2 rn Pi Di Pi t σ η × = × × − 0.588 254.51 2 137 1 0.588 t rn × = × ×−
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 46 = 0.547 mm. t rn = 0.547 mm. Area Calculation Area
Pertaining to material removed, A = d ×tr = 254.51× 1.066 = 271.3 2 mm Excess area in the shell, A1 =
(2X – d ) ( t – tr –CA) Generally, X = d = 254.51 mm. X = di + t + tn -3CA 2 = 254.51 + 6 +9.27 – 0 2 =
142.52 mm. ( Take X whichever maximum) Therefore, A = (2×254.51-254.51)(6-1.066-0) = 1255.75 2 mm
Excess area in the nozzle, A2 = 2h1(tn – trn – CA) h = 2.5 ( t – CA) or h = 2.5 ( tn – CA) = 2.5 ×6 = 2.5 (9.27)
= 15mm = 23.175 mm ( Take X whichever smaller) h1 = h2 = h = 15 mm. Therefore, A2 = 2×15 ( 9.27 –
0.547 – 0) = 261.69 2 mm Excess area in the nozzle inside the shell A3 = 2 h2 (tn – 2CA) = 2× 15 ( 9.27-0)
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 47 = 278.1 2 mm Area required Ar = A – ( A1 + A2 + A3) = -
1524.24 As Ar is –ve or zero reinforcement is not necessary. 4) Design of leg Wind load Here , K =
Coefficient depending on shape factor = 0.7 P1 = Wind pressure = 730 N/ 2 mm H = Height of the vessel
above foundation =2413 mm D = Outer Diameter Of Vessels o Wind load can be estimated as : P = K P
w1 1 H D o = 0.7×730×2.413×0.508 = 626.38 N (IF H ≤ 20 m) M = w P h w1 1 2 (IF H> 20m) M = w P h w1
1 2 + P ( w 2 1 h + 2 h 2 ) Here we use , M = w P h w1 1 2 = 626.38 × 1206.47 = 755.41 N.m Here we use I-
Section, Therefore, Z = section Modulus Z = 3 3 1 1 bh bh 6h − U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Page 48 = 3 3 4t(5t) 3t(3t) 6(5t) − = 13.96 3 t Therefore, Bending Stress will be , σbw = Mw z (as σbw =
350 N/mm²) 350× 6 10 = 3 755.41 13.96t t = 5.36 × 3 10− m ∴ L = 123 3 + 123 3 + 1834 = 1916 mm
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 49 SUMMARY INTERNAL DIAMETER (Di) 496mm SHELL
LENGTH (L) 1734mm THICKNESS (t) 6mm HEAD THICKNESS (t) 6mm HEIGHT
(h) 173mm MAN HOLE DIAMETER OF OPENING (di) 254.51 THICKNESS OF NOZZLE
(tn) 9.27 REINFORCEMENT AS AREA CALCULATED IS ‐ve RF PAD IS NOT REQUIRED PAD
LEG THICKNESS OF LEGS 5 .36mm U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Page 50 DESIGN APPROCH 2 BY ASME CODES U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 51 DESIGN
THEORY PRESSURE VESSEL HEAD DESIGN UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE THICKNESS OF HEADS/
CLOSURES: ELLIPSOIDAL HEAD: t = P.Di / (2SE- 0.2P) + CA OTHERS; t = P.K.Di/ (2SE-0.2P) + CA K
=CONSTANT BASED ON THE RATIO OF MAJOR & MINOR AXIS (D/2H) “VALUES OF FACTOR K” ” D/2H 3.0
2.8 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.2 2.1 2.0 K 1.83 1.64 1.46 1.37 1.29 1.14 1.07 1.00 D/2H 1.8 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.2 1.0 K 0.87
0.76 0.71 0.66 0.57 0.50 TORISPHERICAL HEAD: t = 0.885 PL/ (SE-0.1P) + CA FOR KNUCKLE RADIUS, r =
6% OF CROWN RADIUS (L) t =PLM/ (2S.E- 0.2P) + CA where L=CROWN RADIUS M=CONSTANT BASED ON
RATIO OF CROWN AND KNUCLE RADIUS(L/r) U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 52 “VALUES
OF FACTOR M” ” L/r 1.0 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.0 M 1.00 1.06 1.10 1.15 1.18 1.22 1.25 L/r 5.0 6.0 7.0
8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 M 1.31 1.36 1.41 1.46 1.50 1.54 1.58 L/r 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 16.67 M 1.62 1.65
1.69 1.72 1.75 1.77 z (USE NEAREST VALUE OF L/r; INTERPOLATION UNNECESSARY) z NOTE: –
MAXIMUM RATIO ALLOWED BY UG-32 (j) WHEN L EQUALS THE OUTSIDE DIAMETER OF THE SKIRT OF
THE HEAD. KNUCKLE RADIUS, r SHALL NOT BE LESS THAN 3t. z CONICAL HEAD: t = PDi/ 2 COS α (SE-0.6P)
+ CA α = half apex angle z HEMISPHERICAL HEAD: t = P.Ri/ (2SE- 0.2P) + CA z FLAT HEADS & COVERS (UG-
34) CIRCULAR COVER/ HEADS t = Di * SQRT(CP/SE) + CA Where C = Factor, dependent on joint geometry
of head cover to shell (range 0.1 – 0.33) z OBROUND/ NON-CIRCULAR HEADS (INCLUDING SQUARE/
RECTANGULAR) U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 53 t = Di * SQRT(Z*CP/SE) + CA where Z =
3.4 - (2.4 d / D) PRESSURE VESSEL SHELL COMPONENT DESIGN UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE z Pressure
Vessel Definition: – Containers of Pressure z Internal z External – Pressure Source z External z
Application of Heat z Code Coverage: – Subsections z Rule, Guidelines, Specifications – Mandatory
Appendices z Specific Important Subjects to Supplement Subsections – Non-Mandatory Appendices z
Additional Information, Suggested Good Practices z Inclusions: – Unfired Steam Boilers/ Generators z
Evaporators z Heat Exchangers – Direct Fired Vessels z Gas Fired Jacketed Steam Kettles(Jacket Pressure
less than 50 PSI) z Additional Interpretation: U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 54 – The code
rules may not cover all designs & constructions procedures. z Such additional design & construction
procedure may be adopted which are safe and acceptable. – Field fabrication are acceptable. – Other
standards for components are acceptable z Guidelines for Designed Thickness (To be adopted): – (1/16)”
excluding corrosion allowance for shell & head (Min.) – The above will not apply to heat transfer surface
– (1/4)” min. for unfired steam boiler shell – (3/32)” min. excluding corrosion allowance for compressed
air/ steam/ water service(for CS/AS) – Corrosion allowance shall be based on experience/ field data(No
value/ code recommended). THICKNESS CALCULATIONS UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE, CYLINDRICAL
SHELL: Circumferential stress: t = P.Ri / (SE- 0.6P) + CA Longitudinal stress: t = P.Ri / (2SE+0.4P) + CA
SPHERICAL SHELL: t = P.Ri / (2SE- 0.2P) + CA CONICAL SECTION: (INTERNAL PRESSURE) t =P.Di/
2COSα(SE- 0.6P) + CA z Stress Calculation UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE, CYLINDRICAL SHELL:
Circumferential stress: U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 55 Sc = P (Ri + 0.6t)/ Et Longitudinal
stress: Sl = P (Ri - 0.4t)/ 2Et SPHERICAL SHELL: Sc = P (Ri + 0.2t)/ 2Et CONICAL SHELL SECTION: Sc =P (Di +
1.2 tCOSα)/2Et COSα Sl =P (Di – 0.8tCOSα)/4Et COSα U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 56
ANALYSIS OF PRESSURE VESSEL Project Author jimit and mahavir Subject shell analysis Prepared For
project report Project Created Sunday, May 25, 2008 at 10:04:27 PM Project Last Modified Sunday, May
25, 2008 at 10:04:27 PM U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 57 1 Introduction The ANSYS CAE
(Computer-Aided Engineering) software program was used in conjunction with 3D CAD (Computer-
Aided Design) solid geometry to simulate the behavior of mechanical bodies under thermal/structural
loading conditions. ANSYS automated FEA (Finite Element Analysis) technologies from ANSYS, Inc. to
generate the results listed in this report. Each scenario presented below represents one complete
engineering simulation. The definition of a simulation includes known factors about a design such as
material properties per body, contact behavior between bodies (in an assembly), and types and
magnitudes of loading conditions. The results of a simulation provide insight into how the bodies may
perform and how the design might be improved. Multiple scenarios allow comparison of results given
different loading conditions, materials or geometric configurations. Convergence and alert criteria may
be defined for any of the results and can serve as guides for evaluating the quality of calculated results
and the acceptability of values in the context of known design requirements. ƒ Solution history provides
a means of assessing the quality of results by examining how values change during successive iterations
of solution refinement. Convergence criteria sets a specific limit on the allowable change in a result
between iterations. A result meeting this criteria is said to be "converged". ƒ Alert criteria define
"allowable" ranges for result values. Alert ranges typically represent known aspects of the design
specification. All values are presented in the "SI Metric (m, kg, N, °C, s, V, A)" unit system. Notice Do not
accept or reject a design based solely on the data presented in this report. Evaluate designs by
considering this information in conjunction with experimental test data and the practical experience of
design engineers and analysts. A quality approach to engineering design usually mandates physical
testing as the final means of validating structural integrity to a measured precision.
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 58 2. Scenario 1 2.1. "Model" "Model" obtains geometry
from the Pro/ENGINEER® part "H:\shaell and cylinder\SHEEL.PRT.2". ƒ The bounding box for the model
measures 1.73 by 0.52 by 0.52 m along the global x, y and z axes, respectively. ƒ The model has a total
mass of 109.69 kg. ƒ The model has a total volume of 1.4×10-2 m³. Table 2.1.1. Bodies Name Material
Nonlinear Material Effects Bounding Box(m) Mass (kg) Volume (m³) Nodes Elements "SHEEL" "Structural
Steel" Yes 1.73, 0.52, 0.52 109.69 1.4×10-2 4968 684 2.1.1. Mesh ƒ "Mesh", associated with "Model" has
an overall relevance of 0. ƒ "Mesh" contains 4968 nodes and 684 elements. No mesh controls specified.
2.2. "Environment" Simulation Type is set to Static Analysis Type is set to Static Structural "Environment"
contains all loading conditions defined for "Model" in this scenario. 2.2.1. Structural Loading Table
3.2.1.1. Structural Loads Name Type Magnitude Vector Reaction Force Reaction Force Vector Reaction
Moment Reaction Moment Vector "Pressure" Pressure 600,000.0 Pa N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 2.2.2.
Structural Supports Table 3.2.2.1. Structural Supports Name Type Reaction Force Reaction Force Vector
Reaction Moment Reaction Moment Vector "Fixed Support" Fixed Surface 1.71×10-3 N [-1.71×10-3 N x,
1.16×10-7 N y, 3.67×10-9 N z] 1.81×10-5 N·m [1.81×10-5 N·m x, 3.16×10-9 N·m y, 1.06×10-7 N·m z]
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 59 2.3. "Solution" Solver Type is set to Program Controlled
Weak Springs is set to Program Controlled Large Deflection is set to Off "Solution" contains the
calculated response for "Model" given loading conditions defined in "Environment". ƒ Thermal
expansion calculations use a constant reference temperature of 22.0 °C for "SHEEL". Theoretically, at a
uniform temperature of 22.0 °C no strain results from thermal expansion or contraction. 2.3.1.
Structural Results Table 3.3.1.1. Values Name Figure Scope Minimum Maximum Minimum Occurs On
Maximum Occurs On Alert Criteria "Equivalent Stress" A1.1 "Model" 8.6×106 Pa 3.5×107 Pa SHEEL
SHEEL None "Maximum Shear Stress" None "Model" 4.96×106 Pa 1.87×107 Pa SHEEL SHEEL None "Total
Deformation" A1.2 "Model" 0.0 m 4.27×10-5 m SHEEL SHEEL None ƒ Convergence tracking not enabled.
2.3.2. Equivalent Stress Safety Table 3.3.2.1. Definition Name Stress Limit "Stress Tool" Yield strength
per material. Table 3.3.2.2. Results Name Scope Type Minimum Alert Criteria "Stress Tool" "Model"
Safety Factor 7.13 None "Stress Tool" "Model" Safety Margin 6.13 None ƒ Convergence tracking not
enabled. 2.3.3. Shear Stress Safety Table 3.3.3.1. Definition Name Shear Limit Shear Factor
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 60 "Stress Tool 2" Yield strength per material. 0.5 Table
3.3.3.2. Results Name Scope Type Minimum Alert Criteria "Stress Tool 2" "Model" Safety Factor 6.69
None "Stress Tool 2" "Model" Safety Margin 5.69 None ƒ Convergence tracking not enabled. stress
Figure A1.1. "Equivalent Stress" Contours U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 61 Scenario 1
Figures deformation Figure A1.2. "Total Deformation" Contours U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Page 62 AppendicesA1. A2. Definition of "Structural Steel" Table A2.1. "Structural Steel" Constant
Properties Name Value Compressive Ultimate Strength 0.0 Pa Compressive Yield Strength 2.5×108 Pa
Density 7,850.0 kg/m³ Poisson's Ratio 0.3 Tensile Yield Strength 2.5×108 Pa Tensile Ultimate Strength
4.6×108 Pa Young's Modulus 2.0×1011 Pa Thermal Expansion 1.2×10-5 1/°C Specific Heat 434.0 J/kg·°C
Thermal Conductivity 60.5 W/m·°C Relative Permeability 10,000.0 Resistivity 1.7×10-7 Ohm·m Table
A2.2. Alternating Stress U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 63 Mean Value 0.0 Table A2.3.
"Alternating Stress" Cycles Alternating Stress 10.0 4.0×109 Pa 20.0 2.83×109 Pa 50.0 1.9×109 Pa 100.0
1.41×109 Pa 200.0 1.07×109 Pa 2,000.0 4.41×108 Pa 10,000.0 2.62×108 Pa 20,000.0 2.14×108 Pa
100,000.0 1.38×108 Pa 200,000.0 1.14×108 Pa 1,000,000.0 8.62×107 Pa Table A2.4. Strain-Life
Parameters Table A2.5. "Strain-Life Parameters" Strength Coefficient 9.2×108 Pa Strength Exponent -
0.11 Ductility Coefficient 0.21 U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 64 Ductility Exponent -0.47
Cyclic Strength Coefficient 1.0×109 Pa Cyclic Strain Hardening Exponent 0.2
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 65 Project Author Jimit vyas and mahavir solanki Subject
Ellipsoidal dish end Prepared for project analysis First Saved Sunday, May 25, 2008 Last Saved Sunday,
May 25, 2008 Product Version 11.0 Release U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 66 Contents •
Model o Geometry ƒ ELIPTICALHEAD o Mesh ƒ CFX-Mesh Method o Static Structural ƒ Analysis Settings
ƒ Loads ƒ Solution ƒ Solution Information ƒ Results ƒ Max Equivalent Stress ƒ Results ƒ Max Shear Stress
ƒ Results • Material Data o Structural Steel Units TABLE 1 Unit System Metric (m, kg, N, °C, s, V, A) Angle
Degrees Rotational Velocity rad/s Model Geometry TABLE 3 Model > Geometry > Parts Object Name
ELIPTICALHEAD State Meshed Graphics Properties Visible Yes Transparency 1 Definition Suppressed No
Material Structural Steel Stiffness Behavior Flexible Nonlinear Material Effects Yes Bounding Box Length
X 0.508 m Length Y 0.508 m Length Z 0.173 m U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 67 Properties
Volume 1.9271e-003 m³ Mass 15.128 kg Centroid X -8.1168e-017 m Centroid Y 1.0962e-017 m Centroid
Z -3.7996e-002 m Moment of Inertia Ip1 0.34417 kg·m² Moment of Inertia Ip2 0.343 kg·m² Moment of
Inertia Ip3 0.6178 kg·m² Statistics Nodes 2289 Elements 6232 Mesh TABLE 4 Model > Mesh Object Name
Mesh State Solved Defaults Physics Preference CFD Relevance 0 Advanced Relevance Center Fine
Element Size Default Shape Checking CFD Solid Element Midside Nodes Dropped Straight Sided
Elements Initial Size Seed Active Assembly Smoothing Medium Transition Slow Statistics Nodes 2289
Elements 6232 TABLE 5 Model > Mesh > Mesh Controls Object Name CFX-Mesh Method State Fully
Defined Scope Scoping Method Geometry Selection Geometry 1 Body Definition Suppressed No Method
CFX-Mesh Element Midside Nodes Dropped Static Structural U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Page 68 TABLE 6 Model > Analysis Object Name Static Structural State Fully Defined Definition Physics
Type Structural Analysis Type Static Structural Options Reference Temp 22. °C TABLE 8 Model > Static
Structural > Loads Object Name Pressure Fixed Support 2 State Fully Defined Scope Scoping Method
Geometry Selection Geometry 4 Faces 1 Face Definition Define By Normal To Type Pressure Fixed
Support Magnitude 6.e+005 Pa (ramped) Suppressed No FIGURE 1 Model > Static Structural > Pressure
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 69 Solution TABLE 9 Model > Static Structural > Solution
Object Name Solution State Solved Adaptive Mesh Refinement Max Refinement Loops 1. Refinement
Depth 2. TABLE 10 Model > Static Structural > Solution > Solution Information Object Name Solution
Information State Solved Solution Information Solution Output Solver Output Newton-Raphson
Residuals 0 Update Interval 2.5 s Display Points All TABLE 11 Model > Static Structural > Solution >
Results Object Name Equivalent Stress Maximum Shear Stress Total Deformation State Solved Scope
Geometry All Bodies Definition Type Equivalent (von-Mises) Stress Maximum Shear Stress Total
Deformation Display Time End Time Results Minimum 3.101e+006 Pa 1.6131e+006 Pa 0. m Maximum
3.1378e+007 Pa 1.6963e+007 Pa 4.1032e-005 m Information Time 1. s Load Step 1 Substep 1 Iteration
Number 1 FIGURE 2 Model > Static Structural > Solution > Equivalent Stress > Figure equivalent stress
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 70 FIGURE 3 Model > Static Structural > Solution >
Maximum Shear Stress > Figure maximum shear stress U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 71
TABLE 12 Model > Static Structural > Solution > Stress Safety Tools Object Name Max Equivalent Stress
State Solved Definition Theory Max Equivalent Stress Stress Limit Type Tensile Yield Per Material TABLE
13 Model > Static Structural > Solution > Max Equivalent Stress > Results Object Name Safety Factor
Safety Margin State Solved Scope Geometry All Bodies Definition Type Safety Factor Safety Margin
Display Time End Time Results Minimum 7.9674 6.9674 U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 72
Information Time 1. s Load Step 1 Substep 1 Iteration Number 1 TABLE 14 Model > Static Structural >
Solution > Stress Safety Tools Object Name Max Shear Stress State Solved Definition Theory Max Shear
Stress Factor 0.5 Stress Limit Type Tensile Yield Per Material TABLE 15 Model > Static Structural >
Solution > Max Shear Stress > Results Object Name Safety Factor Safety Margin State Solved Scope
Geometry All Bodies Definition Type Safety Factor Safety Margin Display Time End Time Results
Minimum 7.369 6.369 Information Time 1. s Load Step 1 Substep 1 Iteration Number 1 Material Data
Structural Steel TABLE 16 Structural Steel > Constants Structural Young's Modulus 2.e+011 Pa Poisson's
Ratio 0.3 Density 7850. kg/m³ Thermal Expansion 1.2e-005 1/°C Tensile Yield Strength 2.5e+008 Pa
Compressive Yield Strength 2.5e+008 Pa Tensile Ultimate Strength 4.6e+008 Pa Compressive Ultimate
Strength 0. Pa Thermal U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 73 Thermal Conductivity 60.5
W/m·°C Specific Heat 434. J/kg·°C Electromagnetics Relative Permeability 10000 Resistivity 1.7e-007
Ohm·m FIGURE 4 Structural Steel > Alternating Stress TABLE 17 Structural Steel > Alternating Stress >
Property Attributes Interpolation Log-Log Mean Curve Type Mean Stress TABLE 18 Structural Steel >
Alternating Stress > Alternating Stress Curve Data Mean Value Pa 0. TABLE 19 Structural Steel >
Alternating Stress > Alternating Stress vs. Cycles Cycles Alternating Stress Pa 10. 3.999e+009 20.
2.827e+009 50. 1.896e+009 100. 1.413e+009 U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 74 200.
1.069e+009 2000. 4.41e+008 10000 2.62e+008 20000 2.14e+008 1.e+005 1.38e+008 2.e+005 1.14e+008
1.e+006 8.62e+007 FIGURE 5 Structural Steel > Strain-Life Parameters TABLE 20 Structural Steel > Strain-
Life Parameters > Property Attributes Display Curve Type Strain-Life TABLE 21 Structural Steel > Strain-
Life Parameters > Strain-Life Parameters Strength Coefficient Pa 9.2e+008 Strength Exponent -0.106
Ductility Coefficient 0.213 Ductility Exponent -0.47 Cyclic Strength Coefficient Pa 1.e+009 Cyclic Strain
Hardening Exponent 0.2 U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 75 FATIGUE ANALYSIS Project
Author JIMIT AND MAHAVIR Subject FATIGUE ANALYSIS Prepared for DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF
PRESSURE VESSEL First Saved Monday, March 17, 2008 Last Saved Tuesday, March 18, 2008 Product
Version 11.0 Release U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 76 Contents • Model o Geometry ƒ
FATIGUEANALYSIS o Mesh o Static Structural ƒ Analysis Settings ƒ Loads ƒ Solution ƒ Solution
Information ƒ Results ƒ Max Equivalent Stress ƒ Results ƒ Max Shear Stress ƒ Results ƒ Fatigue Tool ƒ
Results ƒ Result Charts ƒ goodman stress life rl ƒ Results • Material Data o Structural Steel 2 Units TABLE
1 Unit System Metric (m, kg, N, °C, s, V, A) Angle Degrees Rotational Velocity rad/s
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 77 Model Geometry TABLE Model > Geometry Object
Name Geometry State Fully Defined Definition Source
D:\pressurevesselanalysis\fatigueanalysis\FATIGUEANALYSIS.PRT.3 Type ProEngineer Length Unit
Millimeters Element Control Program Controlled Display Style Part Color Bounding Box Length X 0.762 m
Length Y 0.782 m Length Z 2.08 m Properties Volume 0.30847 m³ Mass 2421.5 kg Statistics Bodies 1
Active Bodies 1 Nodes 12181 Elements 6191 TABLE Model > Geometry > Parts Object Name
FATIGUEANALYSIS State Meshed U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 78 Graphics Properties
Visible Yes Transparency 1 Definition Suppressed No Material Structural Steel 2 Stiffness Behavior
Flexible Nonlinear Material Effects Yes Bounding Box Length X 0.762 m Length Y 0.782 m Length Z 2.08
m Properties Volume 0.30847 m³ Mass 2421.5 kg Centroid X -2.3696e-003 m Centroid Y 2.1709e-003 m
Centroid Z -8.3295e-004 m Moment of Inertia Ip1 522.75 kg·m² Moment of Inertia Ip2 522.8 kg·m²
Moment of Inertia Ip3 80.459 kg·m² Statistics Nodes 12181 Elements 6191 Common Decisions to Both
Types of Fatigue Analysis Once the decision on which type of fatigue analysis to perform, Stress Life or
Strain Life, there are 4 other topics upon which your fatigue results are dependent upon. Input decisions
that are common to both types of fatigue analyses are listed below: • Loading Type • Mean Stress
Effects U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 79 • Multiaxial Stress Correction • Fatigue
Modification Factor Within Mean Stress Effects, the available options are quite different. In the
following ections, we will explore all of these additional decisions. These input decision trees for both
Stress Life and Strain Life are outlined in Figures 1 and 2. fatigue analysis in both predicted life and types
of post processing available. We will look at each of these choices in detail below. Mesh TABLE Model >
Mesh Object Name Mesh State Solved Defaults Physics Preference Mechanical Relevance 0 Advanced
Relevance Center Coarse Element Size Default Shape Checking Standard Mechanical Solid Element
Midside Nodes Program Controlled Straight Sided Elements No Initial Size Seed Active Assembly
Smoothing Low Transition Fast Statistics Nodes 12181 Elements 6191
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 80 Static Structural TABLE Model > Analysis Object Name
Static Structural State Fully Defined Definition Physics Type Structural Analysis Type Static Structural
Options Reference Temp 22. °C TABLE Model > Static Structural > Analysis Settings Object Name Analysis
Settings State Fully Defined Step Controls Number Of Steps 1. Current Step Number 1. Step End Time 1.
s Program Controlled TABLE Model > Static Structural > Loads Object Name Pressure Fixed Support State
Fully Defined Scope Scoping Method Geometry Selection Geometry 10 Faces 2 Faces Definition Define
By Normal To Type Pressure Fixed Support Magnitude -6.e+005 Pa (ramped) Suppressed No
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 81 FIGURE Model > Static Structural > Pressure Solution
TABLE Model > Static Structural > Solution Object Name Solution State Obsolete Adaptive Mesh
Refinement Max Refinement Loops 1. Refinement Depth 2. TABLE Model > Static Structural > Solution >
Solution Information Object Name Solution Information State Not Solved Solution Information Solution
Output Solver Output U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 82 Newton-Raphson Residuals 0
Update Interval 2.5 s Display Points All TABLE Model > Static Structural > Solution > Results Object Name
Equivalent Stress Maximum Shear Stress Total Deformation State Solved Scope Geometry All Bodies
Definition Type Equivalent (von-Mises) Stress Maximum Shear Stress Total Deformation Display Time
End Time Results Minimum 4.7782 Pa 2.757 Pa 0. m Maximum 6.4722e+007 Pa 3.5341e+007 Pa
4.4133e-004 m Information Time 1. s Load Step 1 Substep 1 Iteration Number 1 TABLE Model > Static
Structural > Solution > Stress Safety Tools Object Name Max Equivalent Stress State Solved Definition
Theory Max Equivalent Stress Stress Limit Type Tensile Yield Per Material TABLE Model > Static
Structural > Solution > Max Equivalent Stress > Results Object Name Safety Factor Safety Margin State
Solved Scope U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 83 Geometry All Bodies Definition Type Safety
Factor Safety Margin Display Time End Time Results Minimum 3.8627 2.8627 Information Time 1. s Load
Step 1 Substep 1 Iteration Number 1 TABLE Model > Static Structural > Solution > Stress Safety Tools
Object Name Max Shear Stress State Solved Definition Theory Max Shear Stress Factor 0.5 Stress Limit
Type Tensile Yield Per Material TABLE Model > Static Structural > Solution > Max Shear Stress > Results
Object Name Safety Factor Safety Margin State Solved Scope Geometry All Bodies Definition Type Safety
Factor Safety Margin Display Time End Time Results Minimum 3.537 2.537 Information Time 1. s
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 84 Load Step 1 Substep 1 Iteration Number 1 TABLE Model
> Static Structural > Solution > Fatigue Tools Object Name Fatigue Tool State Solved Materials Fatigue
Strength Factor (Kf) 1. Loading Type History Data History Data Location C:\Program Files\Ansys
Inc\v110\AISOL\CommonFiles\Language\enus\EngineeringData\Load Histories\sampleHistory2.dat
Scale Factor 5.e-003 Definition Display Time End Time Options Analysis Type Stress Life Mean Stress
Theory Goodman Stress Component Equivalent (Von Mises) Bin Size 32 Use Quick Rainflow Counting Yes
Infinite Life 1.e+009 cycles Maximum Data Points To Plot 5000. Life Units Units Name cycles 1 block is
equal to 1.e+006 cycles Non-constant amplitude, Proportional Loading
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 85 Non-constant amplitude, proportional loading also
needs only one set of FE results. But instead of using a single load ratio to calculate alternating and
mean values, the load ratio varies over time. Think of this as coupling an FE analysis with strain-gauge
results collected over a given time interval. Since loading is proportional, the critical fatigue location can
be found by looking at a single set of FE results. However, the fatigue loading which causes the
maximum damage cannot easily be seen. Thus, cumulative damage calculations (including cycle
counting such as Rainflow and damage summation such as Miner’s rule) need to be done to determine
the total amount of fatigue damage and which cycle combinations cause thatdamage. Cycle counting is
a means to reduce a complex load history into a number of events, which can be compared to the
available constant amplitude test data. Non-constantAmplitude, proportional loading within the ANSYS
Fatigue Module uses a “quick counting” technique to substantially reduce runtime and memory. In quick
counting, alternating andmean stresses are sorted into bins before partial damage is calculated. Without
quick counting, data is not sorted into bins until after partial damages are found. The accuracy of quick
counting is usually very good if a proper number of bins are used when counting. The bin size defines
how many divisions the cycle counting history should be organized into for the history data loading type.
Strictly speaking, bin size specifies the number of divisions of the rainflow matrix. A larger bin size has
greater precision but will take longer to solve and use more memory. Bin size defaults to 32, meaning
that the Rainflow Matrix is 32 x 32 in dimension. For Stress Life, another available option when
conducting a variable amplitude fatigue analysis is the ability to set the value used for infinite life. In
constant amplitude loading, if the alternating stress is lower than the lowest alternating stress on the
fatigue curve, the fatigue tool will use the life at the last point. This provides for an added level of safety
because many materials do not exhibit an endurance limit. However, in non-constant amplitude loading,
cycles with very small alternating stresses may be present and may incorrectly predict too much damage
if the number of the small stress cycles is high enough. To help control this, the user can set the infinite
life value that will be used if the alternating stress is beyond the limit of the SN curve. Setting a higher
value will make small stress cycles less damaging if they occur many times. The Rainflow and damage
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 86 matrix results can be helpful in determining the effects
of small stress cycles in your loading history. FIGURE Model > Static Structural > Solution > Fatigue Tool
FIGURE Model > Static Structural > Solution > Fatigue Tool U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Page 87 TABLE Model > Static Structural > Solution > Fatigue Tool > Results Object Name Life Safety
Factor Damage State Solved Scope Geometry All Bodies Definition Type Life Safety Factor Damage
Design Life 1.e+009 cycles Results Minimum 2.e+007 cycles 0. Maximum 50. TABLE Model > Static
Structural > Solution > Fatigue Tool > Result Charts U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 88
Object Name Rainflow Matrix Damage Matrix State Solved Scope Geometry All Bodies Options Chart
Viewing Style Three Dimensional Results Minimum Range 0. Pa Maximum Range 1.9246e+008 Pa
Minimum Mean -3.2328e+008 Pa Maximum Mean 6.1628e+007 Pa Definition Design Life 1.e+009 cycles
FIGURE Model > Static Structural > Solution > Fatigue Tool > Rainflow Matrix Rainflow Matrix Chart
Rainflow Matrix Chart is a plot of the rainflow matrix at the critical location. This result is onlyapplicable
for non-constant amplitude loading where rainflow counting is needed. This result may be scoped. In
this 3-D histogram, alternating and mean stress is divided into bins and plotted. The Z-axis corresponds
to the number of counts for a given alternating and mean stress bin. This result gives the user a measure
of the composition of a loading history. (Such as if most of the alternating stress cycles occur at a
negative mean stress.) From the rainflow matrix figure, the user can see that most of the alternating
stresses have a positive mean stress and that in this case the majority of alternating stresses are quite
low. U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 89 FIGURE Model > Static Structural > Solution >
Fatigue Tool > Damage Matrix Damage Matrix Chart Damage Matrix Chart is a plot of the damage matrix
at the critical location on the model. This result is only applicable for non-constant amplitude loading
where rainflow counting is needed. This result may be scoped. This result is similar to the rainflow
matrix except that the percent damage that each of the Rainflow bin cause is plotted as the Z-axis. As
can be seen from the \corresponding damage matrix for the above rainflow matrix, in this particular
case although most of the counts occur at the lower stress amplitudes, most of the damage occurs at
the higher stress amplitudes. U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 90 TABLE Model > Static
Structural > Solution > Fatigue Tools Object Name goodman stress life rl State Solved Materials Fatigue
Strength Factor (Kf) 1. Loading Type Fully Reversed Scale Factor 1. Definition Display Time End Time
Options Analysis Type Stress Life Mean Stress Theory Goodman U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Page 91 Stress Component Equivalent (Von Mises) Life Units Units Name cycles 1 cycle is equal to
1.e+006 cycles Types of Cyclic Loading Unlike static stress, which is analyzed with calculations for a
single stress state, fatigue damage occurs when stress at a point changes over time. There are
essentially four classes of fatigue loading, with the ANSYS Fatigue Module currently supporting the first
three: • Constant amplitude, proportional loading • Constant amplitude, non-proportional loading •
Non-constant amplitude, proportional loading • Non-constant amplitude, non-proportional loading In
the above descriptions, the amplitude identifier is readily understood. Is the loading a variant of a sine
wave with a single load ratio or does the loading vary perhaps erratically, with the load ratio changing
with time? The second identifier, proportionality, describes whether the changing load causes the
principal stress axes to change. If the principal stress axes do not change, then it is proportional loading.
If the principal stress axes do change, then the cycles cannot be counted simply and it is non-
proportional loading. Constant amplitude, Proportional Loading Constant amplitude, proportional
loading is the classic, “back of the envelope” calculation describing whether the load has a constant
maximum value or continually varies with time. Loading is of constant amplitude because only one set of
FE stress results along with a loading ratio is required to calculate the alternating and mean values.
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 92 The loading ratio is defined as the ratio of the second
load to the first load (LR = L2/L1). Loading is proportional since only one set of FE results are needed
(principal stress axes do not change over time). Common types of constant amplitude loading are fully
reversed (apply a load, then apply an equal and opposite load; a load ratio of -1) and zero-based (apply a
load then remove it; a load ratio of 0). Since loading is proportional, looking at a single set of FE results
can identify critical fatigue locations. Likewise, since there are only two loadings, no cycle counting or
cumulative damage calculations need to be done. FIGURE Model > Static Structural > Solution >
goodman stress life rl Value of Infinite Life Another available option when conducting a variable
amplitude fatigue analysis is the ability to set the value used for infinite life. In constant amplitude
loading, if the alternating stress is lower than the lowest alternating stress on the fatigue curve, the
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 93 fatigue tool will use the life at the last point. This
provides for an added level of safety because many materials do not exhibit an endurance limit.
However, in non-constant amplitude loading, cycles with very small alternating stresses may be present
and may incorrectly predict too much damage if the number of the small stress cycles is high enough. To
help control this, the user can set the infinite life value that will be used if the alternating stress is
beyond the limit of the SN curve. Setting a higher value will make small stress cycles less damaging if
they occur many times. The rainflow and damage matrix results can be helpful in determining the
effects of small stress cycles in your loading history. The rainflow and damage matrices shown in Figure
13 illustrates the possible effects of infinite life. Both damage matrices came from the same loading (and
thus same rainflow matrix), but the first damage matrix was calculated with an infinite life if 1e6 cycles
and the second was calculated with an infinite life of 1e9 cycles. FIGURE Model > Static Structural >
Solution > goodman stress life rl TABLE Model > Static Structural > Solution > goodman stress life rl >
Results Object Name Life Damage Safety Factor Equivalent Alternating Stress State Solved Scope
Geometry All Bodies Definition Type Life Damage Safety Factor Equivalent Alternating Stress Design Life
1.e+009 cycles U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 94 Results Minimum 1.e+012 cycles 8.895
4.7782 Pa Maximum 1.e-003 6.4722e+007 Pa Material Data Structural Steel 2 TABLE Structural Steel 2 >
Constants Structural Young's Modulus 2.e+011 Pa Poisson's Ratio 0.3 Density 7850. kg/m³ Thermal
Expansion 1.2e-005 1/°C Tensile Yield Strength 2.5e+008 Pa Compressive Yield Strength 2.5e+008 Pa
Tensile Ultimate Strength 4.6e+008 Pa Compressive Ultimate Strength 0. Pa Thermal Thermal
Conductivity 60.5 W/m·°C Specific Heat 434. J/kg·°C Electromagnetics Relative Permeability 10000
Resistivity 1.7e-007 Ohm·m U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 95 FIGURE Structural Steel 2 >
Alternating Stress TABLE Structural Steel 2 > Alternating Stress > Property Attributes Interpolation Log-
Log Mean Curve Type Mean Stress U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 96 TABLE Structural
Steel 2 > Alternating Stress > Alternating Stress vs. Cycles Cycles Alternating Stress Pa 10. 3.999e+009 20.
2.827e+009 50. 1.896e+009 100. 1.413e+009 200. 1.069e+009 2000. 4.41e+008 10000 2.62e+008 20000
2.14e+008 1.e+005 1.38e+008 2.e+005 1.14e+008 1.e+006 8.62e+007 FIGURE Structural Steel 2 > Strain-
Life Parameters U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 97 TABLE Structural Steel 2 > Strain-Life
Parameters > Property Attributes Display Curve Type Strain-Life TABLE Structural Steel 2 > Strain-Life
Parameters > Strain-Life Parameters Strength Coefficient Pa 9.2e+008 Strength Exponent -0.106 Ductility
Coefficient 0.213 Ductility Exponent -0.47 Cyclic Strength Coefficient Pa 1.e+009 Cyclic Strain Hardening
Exponent 0.2 U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 98 Wind analysis Contents 1. File Report Table
1 File Information for windanalysiscfx11_001 2. Mesh Report Table 2 Mesh Information for
windanalysiscfx11_001 3. Physics Report Table 3 Domain Physics for windanalysiscfx11_001 Table 4
Boundary Physics for windanalysiscfx11_001 4. Solution Report Table 5 Boundary Flows for
windanalysiscfx11_001 5. User Data Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Fig: Wind analysis
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 99 1. File Report Table 1. File Information for
windanalysiscfx11_001 Case windanalysiscfx11_001 File Path
D:/pressurevesselanalysis/windanalysiscfx11_001.res File Date 15 March 2008 File Time 03:46:08 PM
File Type CFX5 File Version 11.0 Fluids Air at 25 C Solids None Particles None Figure 2. pressure
distributation on face of vessel U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 100 2. Mesh Report Table 2.
Mesh Information for windanalysiscfx11_001 Domain Nodes Elements pressurevessel 7338 28308 Figure
3. streamline and pressure representation U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 101 3. Physics
Report Table 3. Domain Physics for windanalysiscfx11_001 Name Location Type Materials Models
pressurevessel B4 Fluid Air at 25 C Heat Transfer Model = Isothermal Turbulence Model = SST Turbulent
Wall Functions = Automatic Buoyancy Model = Non Buoyant Domain Motion = Stationary Table 4.
Boundary Physics for windanalysiscfx11_001 Domain Name Location Type Settings pressurevessel inlet
inlet Inlet Flow Regime = Subsonic Normal Speed = 47 [m s^-1] Mass And Momentum = Normal Speed
Eddy Length Scale = 0.1 [m] Fractional Intensity = 0.05 Turbulence = Intensity and Length Scale
pressurevessel outlet outlet Outlet Flow Regime = Subsonic Mass And Momentum = Static Pressure
Relative Pressure = 0 [Pa] pressurevessel symp symp Symmetry pressurevessel body body Wall Wall
Influence On Flow = No Slip pressurevessel freewalls freewalls Wall Wall Influence On Flow = Free Slip
pressurevessel pressurevessel Default F41.4, F45.4 Wall Wall Influence On Flow = No Slip
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 102 4. Solution Report Table 5. Boundary Flows for
windanalysiscfx11_001 Momentum Location Type Mass Flow X Y Z body Boundary 0.0000e+00 -
1.7561e+03 2.7605e+02 -8.3776e+01 freewalls Boundary 0.0000e+00 -1.4953e+02 0.0000e+00
0.0000e+00 inlet Boundary 1.7405e+02 -5.1811e-07 -8.5229e+03 1.5579e-06 outlet Boundary -
1.7405e+02 1.3129e+01 8.1929e+03 -2.3151e+00 pressurevessel Default Boundary 0.0000e+00 -
1.9325e-02 5.4447e+01 8.5967e+01 symp Boundary 0.0000e+00 1.8922e+03 0.0000e+00 0.0000e+00 By
interpolation we get: for 41 m/s of wind speed the wind pressure is 730 N/m2 and from the standard
wind load table we compare the result which is very accurate. U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Page 103 INTRODUCTION TO GLASS LINING Introduction of Glass lining (Glasteel) In recent years,
because of the expansion of the chemical process and pharmaceutical industries world-wide and
increased concerns for safety and quality control, Pfaudler began investigating new approaches in glass
development that would lead to a glass composition that could be made available to all users of glass-
lined equipment. U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 104 Together with the chemical process
industry and with the co-operation of Pfaudler divisions around the world, Pfaudler established the
criteria for a new composition: A non-crystalline structure. Increased resistance to acid and alkali
corrosion. High resistance to impact. High resistance to thermally induced stresses. A formulation that
could be easily produced by all Pfaudler manufacturing plants. The result is Glasteel 9100®, Pfaudler's
first "international glass", offering an unmatched combination of corrosion resistance, impact strength,
thermal shock resistance, nonadherence and heat transfer efficiency. Now GMM Pfaudler customers,
regardless of where their processing operations are located, can purchase a single glass system and be
assured of getting the same high quality worldwide. With Glasteel 9100 ®, GMM Pfaudler sets a
standard the world can depend on. glass. However, these are very recipe sensitive and general
statements cannot usually be made. An exception to this are chemistries that involve the element silicon
(Si), especially when ionised, e.g. Si, SiO. Relatively small amounts of dissolved SiO can be highly
effective in reducing the corrosion rate of the Glasteel 9100 system, thereby greatly extending its usage
range. It has also been shown that colloidal silica additions to recipes containing the highly corrosive
fluorine ion (F-) can drastically reduce the corrosive rate. U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Page 105 Water Pure Water Pure water in the liquid phase is not very aggressive. Its behaviour
resembles highly diluted acid and corrodes only the surface layer of the glass ("ion exchange process").
At 170°C, a corrosion rate of 0.1 mm/year can be expected. But because this water is an unbuffered, pH-
unstable system, even a slight alkalization can change the situation. If there is a shift toward higher pH
values, the isocorrosion curves for diluted alkaline solutions have to be consulted for orientation
purposes. Glasteel 9100 ® is highly resistant to condensing water vapour. However, to counter the
possible danger of the condensate shifting to an alkaline pH, it is recommended that the vessel contents
be slightly acidified with a volatile acid, e.g. hydrochloric or acetic acid. It is also highly recommended
that the unjacketed top head be insulated or heat traced to reduce condensation formation. Agueous
Neutral pHMedia With these type media, e.g. tap water, salt solutions, corrosion rate depends greatly
on the type and quantity of the dissolved substance. Carbonates and phosphates usually increase the
rate while alcohols and some ionic species, e.g. A13+, Zn2+ Ca2+, may reduce it. Alkalis As alkali
concentration rises, corrosion rate increases. Also, the temperature gradient for alkaline glass corrosion,
is steeper. The result is that concentrated alkalis require a more definite setting of the temperature
limits. The corrosion rate of concentrated alkaline solutions cannot be expressed by the pH value alone.
For aqueous solutions of alkaline materials with a pH value of 14, the particular concentration must also
be considered to establish appropriate operating temperatures. Other factors affecting alkaline
corrosion are the specific reaction and the dissolving ability of the chemical, the influence of the nature
and amount of other dissolved substances and agitation. U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Page 106 Isocorrosion curves for sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, sodium carbonate and
ammonia take into account technically relevant parameters influencing the rate of corrosion; for
example, the volume/ surface area ratio, inhibition effects by calcium ions, alkaline concentration and
temperature. Under actual operating conditions, even very slight contamination (tap water in sodium
hydroxide, for example) can cause major changes in the rate of corrosion. Other factors, such as product
velocity and splash zone, can affect the corrosion rate as well. Due to these interactive complexities,
meaningful testing is strongly advised. To eliminate the influence of the testing equipment on the rate of
corrosion, procedures are carried out in polypropylene bottles. For solutions above the boiling point,
autoclaves with PTFE inserts were used. By comparing the results with control experiments, it is proven
that the testing equipment does not have an inhibiting effect. Pfaudler Ultra-Glas 6500 ® 1 . Extends the
range of Glasteel® applications. 2. Allows safe and easy handling of high temperature processes never
before approved for Glasteel equipment. 3. Provides potential for reduced cycle time compared to
conventional vessel glass. 4. Provides extended thermal shock protection for faster heating and cooling.
5. Provides increased operating safety margin through its enhanced thermal protection. 6. Is ideal for
the higher temperatures required by today's chemical process applications.
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 107 The features of GMM Pfaudler Ultra-Glas 6500 ® are
the result of changes in glass composition and material preparation, altered applications and firing
procedures, as well as changes in equipment design and materials of construction. These changes
permit trouble-free application of the required high-stress coating and provide the highly corrosive-
resistant glass-lined surface for which Pfaudler has been respected for years. Technical details of
corrosion rates in common chemicals and thermal operation limits are available on request.
Temperature Limits Although Ultra-Glas 6500 ® has a high degree of helpful compressive stress in the
glass layer there are definite limits to the level of thermal stress which the glass can withstand without
incurring damage: Only two thermal conditions must be considered when determining the temperature
limits: A. Introduction of media into a vessel. B. Introduction of media into a jacket. CAUTION: "Safe"
operating temperatures vary with conditions. Because so many variables are involved, temperature
ranges are given only as a guide. Where in practical, operation below the maximum and above the
minimum is recommended. Contact Pfaudler for details. Type 4300 Glass Coatings Type 4300 ® glass
coatings represent a new aspect of this tradition and are designed to bridge a perceived gap in the
application range. GMM Pfaudler Type 4300 ® glass is still an acidic type of glass, but its primary
application is based on improved alkali resistance. Type 4300 glass coatings are advisable wherever
alkaline conditions prevail during the U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 108 cycle, or as a
result of concentration and temperature, or where concentration and/or temperature conditions
exceed permissible limits for conventional glass. In addition, Type 4300 ® glass coatings are advisable
where any of the following conditions exist: Protection of alkaline products against metal
contamination. Danger of discoloration of alkaline products due to incorporation of metals. Stabilization
of high-molecular alkalis sensitive to metal contact. Inadequate redox stability of the vessel material in
the alkaline range. Compared to our world renowned standard glass, Type 4300 ® has three times better
alkali resistance. This means that higher process temperatures can be used, or that, under otherwise
equal conditions, these glass coatings will have three times the life expectations. The Type 4300 ® glass
does make a slight concession in the area of acid resistance. Although it is adequate for mild service, it is
not recommended for aggressive acid conditions. Corrosion Resistance For pure acids and bases most
commonly used in the chemical industry , technically relevant parameters influencing the rate of
corrosion (for example, the volume/surface area ratio, inhibition effects, concentration, and
temperature) are considered. In practical operation these materials are always encountered with liquid
additives, dissolved substances or gases which may have positive or negative effects on resistance. We
therefore recommend performing corrosion tests or contacting a Pfaudler consultant to assure material
suitability for individual processes. The Need For PPG U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 109
When the requirements of the Bulk Drug industry were studied recently, in context of the stringent
requirements of GMP and FDA, the need for a different glass was evident. Two of the requirements of
the pharmaceutical industry are increased purity in order to comply with the FDA and GMP
requirements and alternating alkali/acid operation. The process equipment of the chemical and
pharmaceutical industries has so far been very similar - especially in terms of glasslined reactors and
components. In light of the survey, Pfaudler's response was a novel glass tailored to the needs of
manufacturing pharmaceutical products, vitamins and fine chemicals.
U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 110 Appendix U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Page 111 U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 112 U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Page 113 U V PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 114 ¾BIBLOGRAPHY ¾ Dennis Moss ¾ Hiadri
Farzdak ¾ C.S Sharma ¾ Somnath chatopadhay For Ansys : Tutorials of cfx 11.0 Microeconomics, 10e
(Parkin) Chapter 15 Oligopoly 1 What is Oligopoly? 1) An oligopoly is a market structure in which there
are A) only a few buyers but many sellers. B) only a few sellers selling either an identical or
differentiated product. C) many sellers selling a differentiated product. D) a few products sold by many
sellers. Answer: B Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15
AACSB: Reflective Thinking 2) Which of the following is a distinguishing characteristic of oligopoly? A) A
small number of firms compete. B) No one firm's actions directly affect the actions of the other firms. C)
Firms are free to enter and exit the industry. D) Natural barriers cannot prevent the entry of new firms.
Answer: A Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB:
Reflective Thinking 3) When only a small number of producers compete with each other is a defining
characteristic of A) inelastic supply. B) monopolistic competition. C) efficient competition. D) oligopoly.
Answer: D Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB:
Reflective Thinking 1 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4) In oligopolistic markets, A) there are
many firms. B) there are no barriers to entry. C) there are only a few firms. D) all firms are price takers.
Reflective Thinking 5) A market structure in which a small number of firms compete is called ________.
A) a monopoly B) a small-number market C) an oligopoly D) monopolistic competition Answer: C Topic:
Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 6)
The key feature of an oligopoly is that there A) are many buyers and sellers. B) is one seller. C) exists
product differentiation. D) are only a few sellers. Answer: D Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question
history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 7) In an oligopoly A) there are only a
few firms. B) there is no product differentiation. C) there is free entry and exit. D) firms' decisions are
unrelated to each other. Answer: A Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition,
Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 2 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8) A market structure
in which a small number of producers compete against each other is A) monopolistic competition. B)
oligopoly. C) monopoly. D) perfect competition. Answer: B Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question
history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 9) If firms in an industry differentiated
their products and made economic profits in the shortrun, what other characteristic would be important
to determine if this is an oligopoly or a monopolistically competitive market? A) The number of firms in
the market. B) The number of close substitutes for the good being produced. C) The number of buyers in
the market. D) If the good being sold is a normal or inferior good. Answer: A Topic: Oligopoly Skill:
Recognition Question history: New 10th edition AACSB: Reflective Thinking 10) The distinguishing
features of oligopoly are ________ and a ________ in the industry. A) barriers to entry; large number of
firms B) no barriers to entry; few firms C) barriers to entry; few firms D) no barriers to entry; large
number of firms Answer: C Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition,
Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 11) Oligopoly is A) like monopoly because there are barriers to
entry. B) like perfect competition because oligopoly firms all sell homogeneous goods. C) like
monopolistic competition because oligopoly firms all sell differentiated goods D) like perfect
competition because there are many firms in the industry Answer: A Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition
Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 3 Copyright © 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. 12) Which of the following is a distinguishing characteristic of oligopoly? A) A large
number of firms compete. B) No one firm's actions directly affect the actions of the other firms. C) Firms
are free to enter and exit the industry. D) Natural or legal barriers prevent the entry of new firms.
Reflective Thinking 13) Which of the following is a defining characteristic of oligopoly? A) barriers to
entry B) selling a homogeneous good C) selling a differentiated good D) collusion Answer: A Topic:
Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking
14) Natural oligopoly is a situation where A) the level of demand can support only a few firms. B) there is
only one firm. C) there are only two firms. D) there are legal barriers to entry. Answer: A Topic: Natural
15) A natural oligopoly can form A) if there are economies of scale B) only if firms sell a differentiated
good C) only if firms sell a homogeneous good D) if there is only one firm in the industry Answer: A
Topic: Natural Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB:
Reflective Thinking 4 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 16) In a small town the level of demand
is capable of supporting only two gas stations. This market is A) a natural duopoly. B) perfectly
competitive because a homogeneous good is being sold. C) operating as if it was a monopoly. D) an
example of monopolistic competition. Answer: A Topic: Natural Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question
history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 17) One difference between oligopoly
and monopolistic competition is that A) a monopolistically competitive industry has fewer firms. B) in
monopolistic competition, the products are identical. C) monopolistic competition has barriers to entry.
D) fewer firms compete in oligopoly than in monopolistic competition. Answer: D Topic: Oligopoly Skill:
Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 18) Which of the
following is a distinguishing characteristic of oligopoly? A) A large number of firms compete. B) Each
firm's actions influence the profits of all the other firms. C) Firms are free to enter and exit the industry.
D) Natural barriers cannot prevent the entry of new firms. Answer: B Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition
Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 19) Consider a market in
which each firm must predict the price and quantity decisions of other firms, as well as how those price
and quantity decisions will affect the first firm's revenue and profit. This market is best described as A)
an oligopoly. B) monopolistic competition. C) a monopoly. D) perfect competition. Answer: A Topic:
Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: Modified 10th edition AACSB: Reflective Thinking 5
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 20) In ________ market structure, a firm's output depends
________. A) an oligopoly; only on its own marginal revenue and marginal cost curves B) a
monopolistically competitive; in part on its competitors' price and quantity decisions C) an oligopoly; in
part on its competitors' price and quantity decisions D) a monopolistically competitive; only on its
marginal revenue curve Answer: C Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition,
Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 21) If firms in an industry make output decisions that are partially
based on the price and output decisions of their competitors, then these firms are in ________ market
have ________ with the other firms in the market. A) an oligopoly; interdependence B) an oligopoly; no
interdependence C) an oligopoly or monopolistically competitive; interdependence D) a monopolistically
competitive; no interdependence Answer: A Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: New
10th edition AACSB: Reflective Thinking 22) Of the following market structures, which has the fewest
number of firms competing against each other? A) monopolistic competition B) oligopoly C) perfect
competition D) Both answers A and C are correct. Answer: B Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question
history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 23) A duopoly occurs when ________.
A) there are only two producers of a particular good competing in the same market B) there are two
producers of two goods competing in an oligopoly market C) there are numerous producers of two
goods competing in a competitive market D) the one producer of two goods sells the goods in a
monopoly market Answer: A Topic: Duopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition,
Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 6 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 24) A duopoly is a
form of A) perfect competition. B) monopolistic competition. C) oligopoly. D) monopoly. Answer: C
Topic: Duopoly Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective
Thinking In the figure, D is the demand curve for taxi rides in a town, and ATC is the average total cost
curve of a taxi company. 25) In the scenario above, the market is: A) A natural duopoly B) A natural
oligopoly with three firms C) A natural monopoly D) Monopolistically competitive Answer: A Topic:
Duopoly Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 7
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 26) In an oligopoly market, the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index is
usually: A) Greater than 1,000 B) Below 1,000 C) Between 100 and 1,000 D) Between 200 and 2,000
Reflective Thinking 27) An market in which the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) is 1,250 is considered
to be A) an oligopoly. B) monopolistically competitive. C) a monopoly. D) perfectly competitive. Answer:
A Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: New 10th edition AACSB: Reflective Thinking 28)
In the market for batteries, the four largest firms earn 90% of the total revenue and there are 35 firms in
the industry. This industry is best described as A) oligopoly B) monopoly C) monopolistic competition D)
perfect competition Answer: A Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition,
Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 29) Of the following, the best example of oligopoly is A) wheat
farming. B) the restaurant industry. C) the cigarette industry. D) the clothing industry. Answer: C Topic:
Oligopoly Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 8
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 30) When producers agree to restrict output, raise the price,
and increase profits, the agreement is called ________. A) a pricing agreement B) an oligopoly
agreement C) a collusive agreement D) a monopoly agreement Answer: C Topic: Cartel Skill: Recognition
Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 31) ________ is a group of
firms that have colluded to limit their output and raise their price. A) A cartel B) An oligopoly C) A
strategy D) A duopoly Answer: A Topic: Cartel Skill: Recognition Question history: Modified 10th edition
AACSB: Reflective Thinking 32) Which of the following is characteristic of oligopoly, but NOT of
monopolistic competition? A) The choices made by one firm have a significant effect on other firms. B)
Each firm faces a downward-sloping demand curve. C) Firms are profit-maximizers. D) There is more
than one firm in the industry. Answer: A Topic: Study Guide Question, Oligopoly Skill: Conceptual
Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 33) A monopolistically
competitive firm is like an oligopolistic firm insofar as A) both face perfectly elastic demand. B) both can
earn an economic profit in the long run. C) both have MR curves that lie beneath their demand curves.
D) neither is protected by high barriers to entry. Answer: C Topic: Study Guide Question, Oligopoly Skill:
Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 9 Copyright ©
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 2 Oligopoly Games 1) Game theory is most useful for analyzing A) perfect
competition. B) monopolistic competition. C) oligopoly. D) monopoly. Answer: C Topic: Game Theory
Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 2) Game
theory can be used for studying which of the following types of market structure? A) monopoly B)
monopolistic competition C) oligopoly D) perfect competition Answer: C Topic: Game Theory Skill:
Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 3) Game theory is
most useful for determining the outcome when ________. A) the market structure is oligopoly B)
monopolistic competition exists C) prison terms are involved D) the market is dominated by a monopoly
Answer: A Topic: Game Theory Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB:
Reflective Thinking 4) Game theory is used to explain firms' decisions in A) a monopoly. B) an oligopoly.
C) a perfectly competitive market. D) a monopolistically competitive market. Answer: B Topic: Game
Theory Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 10
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 5) Game theory is applicable to oligopoly behavior because
oligopolists A) use strategic behavior. B) ignore rival firms. C) are price takers. D) can only be profitable if
they collude. Answer: A Topic: Game Theory Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition,
Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 6) Game theory is distinctive in that its elements are A) costs,
prices, and profits. B) revenues, elasticity, and profits. C) rules, strategies, payoffs, and outcomes. D)
patents, copyrights, and barriers to entry. Answer: C Topic: What Is a Game? Skill: Recognition Question
history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 7) Which group of features is shared by
all games? A) rules, strategies, payoffs, outcome B) rules, profit, payoffs, outcome C) profit, strategies,
payoffs, cheating D) rules, cheating, payoffs, outcome Answer: A Topic: What Is a Game? Skill:
Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 8) Game theory is
a tool for studying ________. A) Nash behavior B) payoff dilemmas C) rational dilemmas D) strategic
behavior Answer: D Topic: Game Theory Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15
AACSB: Reflective Thinking 11 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 9) In game theory, strategies
include ________. A) all possible actions of each player B) only the winning action of each player C) all
possible actions and payoffs of each player D) the payoff matrix Answer: A Topic: Game Theory Skill:
Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 10) The prisoners'
dilemma describes a single-play game that features A) an outcome in which the participants collude. B) a
large number of rivals cooperating with each other. C) a situation in which one player has better odds
than the other. D) two players who are unable to communicate with each other. Answer: D Topic:
Prisoners' Dilemma Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective
Thinking 11) The simplest prisoners' dilemma is a game that, in part, requires A) two players who are
able to communicate with each other. B) two players who are unable to communicate with each other.
C) monopolistic competition. D) an oligopoly with one very large firm. Answer: B Topic: Prisoners'
Dilemma Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 12)
In the prisoners' dilemma game, each player A) has only one possible strategy. B) can choose from two
strategies. C) can choose from three strategies. D) can choose from four strategies. Answer: B Topic:
Prisoners' Dilemma Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective
Thinking 12 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 13) In a prisoner's dilemma game, each person
will pick A) their best outcome given what the other person will do B) their best outcome. C) their worse
outcome. D) their best outcome after consulting with the other person Answer: A Topic: Nash
Equilibrium Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking
14) In the prisoners' dilemma game, when each player takes the best possible action given the action of
the other player, ________. A) a competitive equilibrium is reached B) one player denies and one player
confesses C) both players deny D) a Nash equilibrium is reached Answer: D Topic: Prisoners' Dilemma
Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 15) The
outcome of a prisoners' dilemma game with a Nash equilibrium is that ________. A) both players deny
B) one player denies and one player confesses C) both players confess D) there is no equilibrium Answer:
C Topic: Prisoners' Dilemma Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB:
Reflective Thinking 16) In a prisoner's dilemma, the Nash equilibrium occurs where A) neither person
ends up with their best outcome B) both end up with their best outcome C) only one ends up with his
best outcome D) the one who goes first ends up with his best outcome Answer: A Topic: Prisoners'
Dilemma Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 13
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 17) The prisoners' dilemma has an equilibrium in which A)
both players deny. B) both players confess. C) the player who confesses wins. D) the player who denies
wins. Answer: B Topic: Prisoners' Dilemma Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter
15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 18) In a prisoners' dilemma game, which of the following strategies gives
the best outcome for both prisoners? A) Both deny (collusion). B) Both confess (not collude). C) One
confesses while the other denies. D) none of the above Answer: A Topic: Prisoners' Dilemma Skill:
Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 19) In a prisoners'
dilemma game, in the Nash equilibrium A) both players have another outcome that does not occur but is
more favorable. B) neither player has another outcome that does not occur and is more favorable. C)
one player has another outcome that does not occur and is more favorable. D) collusion would not alter
the outcome. Answer: A Topic: Prisoners' Dilemma Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition,
Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 20) The prisoners' dilemma has an equilibrium that is A) a Nash
equilibrium and both players confess. B) not a Nash equilibrium and both players confess. C) a Nash
equilibrium and both players deny. D) not a Nash equilibrium and both players deny. Answer: A Topic:
Prisoners' Dilemma Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective
Thinking 14 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 21) Ann and Lynn have been arrested by the
police, who have evidence that will convict them of robbing a bank. If convicted, each will receive a
sentence of 6 years for the robbery. During questioning, the police suspect that Ann and Lynn are
responsible for a series of bank robberies. If both confess to the series, each will receive 12 years in jail.
If only one confesses, she will receive 4 years and the one who does not confess will receive 14 years.
What is the equilibrium for this game? A) both confess B) Ann confesses and Lynn does not confess C)
Lynn confesses and Ann does not confess D) neither confess Answer: A Topic: Prisoners' Dilemma Skill:
Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 22) Consider the
prisoner's dilemma model where two criminals have two options (confess or deny), and each criminal
must make their decision without speaking to the other criminal first. If they both confess they each get
3 years, if only one confesses then he gets 1 and his partner gets 10, and if neither confesses then they
each get 0. They are in fact both guilty. In this game, the Nash equilibrium is where A) both confess B)
neither one confesses C) only one will confess D) it is impossible to say Answer: A Topic: Prisoners'
Dilemma Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 15
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Bob Confess Don't Confess Confess B: 10 years J: 10 years B:
20 years J: 1 year Joe Don't Confess B: 1 year J: 20 years B: 2 years J: 2 years 23) The table above displays
the possible outcomes for Bob and Joe, who have been arrested for armed robbery and car theft. Which
of the following is true? A) If Joe confesses, Bob should not confess. B) If Bob confesses, Joe should
confess. C) The dominant equilibrium is that Joe and Bob both serve 2 years. D) If Joe does not confess,
Bob should not confess. Answer: B Topic: Prisoners' Dilemma Skill: Conceptual Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills Player A Confess Don't confess Confess A: 3 years B:
3 years A: 10 years B: 1 year Player B Don't confess A: 1 year B: 10 years A: 2 years B: 2 years 24) The
table above shows the payoff matrix for a prisoners' dilemma game. The Nash equilibrium is that A) both
prisoners do not confess. B) both prisoners confess. C) prisoner A confesses while prisoner B does not
confess. D) prisoner A does not confess while prisoner B confesses. Answer: B Topic: Prisoners' Dilemma
Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 16 Copyright ©
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 25) The table above shows the payoff matrix for a prisoners' dilemma. In
the Nash equilibrium, A) both prisoners get 3 years in jail. B) both prisoners get 2 years in jail. C) both
prisoners get 1 year in jail. D) both prisoners get 10 years in jail. Answer: A Topic: Prisoners' Dilemma
Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 26) The problem
for the prisoners in the prisoners' dilemma game in the above table is that A) the Nash equilibrium is not
the best outcome. B) there is no equilibrium outcome. C) neither prisoner has a workable strategy. D)
None of the above answers is correct. Answer: A Topic: Prisoners' Dilemma Skill: Conceptual Question
history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills Firm 1 Sell Give away Sell 1: $3 2: $3 1: $4
2: -$1 Firm 2 Give away 1: -$1 2: $4 1: $2 2: $2 27) Two software firms have developed an identical new
software application. They are debating whether to give the new application away free and then sell
add-ons or sell the application at $30 a copy. The payoff matrix is above and the payoffs are profits in
millions of dollars. What is Firm 1's best strategy? A) Give away the application regardless of what Firm 2
does. B) Sell the application at $30 a copy regardless of what Firm 2 does. C) Give away the application
only if Firm 2 sells the application. D) Give away the application only if Firm 2 gives away the application.
Answer: A Topic: Game Theory Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB:
Analytical Skills 17 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 28) Two software firms have developed an
identical new software application. They are debating whether to give the new application away free
and then sell add-ons or sell the application at $30 a copy. The payoff matrix is above and the payoffs
are profits in millions of dollars. What is the Nash equilibrium of the game? A) Both Firm 1 and 2 will sell
the software application at $30 a copy. B) Both Firm 1 and 2 will give the software application away free.
C) Firm 1 will give the application away free and Firm 2 will sell it at $30. D) There is no Nash equilibrium
to this game. Answer: B Topic: Game Theory, Nash Equilibrium Skill: Analytical Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills Jane Advertise Don't advertise Advertise J: $6,000
B: $10,000 J: $3,000 B: $20,000 Bob Don't advertise J: $12,000 B: $5,000 J $10,000 B: $15,000 29) The
payoff matrix of economic profits above displays the possible outcomes for Bob and Jane who are
involved in game of whether or not to advertise. After each player chooses his or her best strategy and
sees the result, A) only Bob would like to change his decision. B) neither player would be willing to
change his or her decision unless the other player also changes his or her decision. C) if Jane does not
change her decision, Bob would like to change his. D) if Bob does not change his decision, Jane would
like to change hers. Answer: B Topic: Game Theory, Nash Equilibrium Skill: Analytical Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 18 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Firm A
R&D No R&D R & D A: $25 B: $15 A: -$3 B: $60 Firm B No R&D A: $60 B: -$3 A: $50 B: $35 30) Firms A
and B can conduct research and development (R&D) or not conduct it. R&D is costly but can increase the
quality of the product and increase sales. The payoff matrix is the economic profits of the two firms and
is given above, where the numbers are millions of dollars. A's best strategy is to A) conduct R&D
regardless of what B does. B) not conduct R&D regardless of what B does. C) conduct R&D only if B
conducts R&D. D) conduct R&D only if B does not conduction R&D. Answer: A Topic: Game Theory Skill:
Analytical Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 31) Firms A and B can
conduct research and development (R&D) or not conduct it. R&D is costly but can increase the quality of
the product and increase sales. The payoff matrix is the economic profits of the two firms and is given
above, where the numbers are millions of dollars. The Nash equilibrium occurs when A) both A and B
conduct R&D. B) only A conducts R&D. C) only B conducts R&D. D) neither A nor B conduct R&D.
Answer: A Topic: Game Theory, Nash Equilibrium Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous edition,
Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 19 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Disney Thanksgiving
release Christmas release Thanksgiving release D: $100 F: $80 D: $105 F: $95 Fox Christmas release D:
$110 F: $100 D: $95 F: $85 32) Disney and Fox must decide when to release their next films. The
revenues received by each studio depends in part on when the other studio releases its film. Each studio
can release its film at Thanksgiving or at Christmas. The revenues received by each studio, in millions of
dollars, are depicted in the payoff matrix above. Which of the following statements correctly describes
Fox's strategy given what Disney's release choice may be? A) If Disney chooses a Thanksgiving release,
Fox should choose a Christmas release. B) If Disney chooses a Christmas release, Fox should choose a
Thanksgiving release. C) Fox should release on Christmas regardless of what Disney does. D) Both
answers A and B are correct. Answer: D Topic: Game Theory Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous
edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 33) Disney and Fox must decide when to release their next
films. The revenues received by each studio depends in part on when the other studio releases its film.
Each studio can release its film at Thanksgiving or at Christmas. The revenues received by each studio, in
millions of dollars, are depicted in the payoff matrix above. Which of the following statements correctly
describes Disney's strategy given what Fox's release choice may be? A) If Fox chooses a Thanksgiving
release, Disney should choose a Christmas release. B) If Fox chooses a Christmas release, Disney should
choose a Thanksgiving release. C) Disney should release on Thanksgiving regardless of what Fox does. D)
Both answers A and B are correct. Answer: D Topic: Game Theory Skill: Analytical Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 20 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Dr.
Smith Advertise Don't advertise Advertise S: $80 J: $70 S: $60 J: $110 Dr. Jones Don't advertise S: $120 J:
$60 S: $100 J: $90 34) Libertyville has two optometrists, Dr. Smith and Dr. Jones. Each optometrist can
choose to advertise his service or not. The incomes of each optometrist, in thousands of dollars, are
given in the payoff matrix above. Which of the following statements correctly describes Dr. Smith's
strategy given what Dr. Jones may do? A) Dr. Smith should advertise no matter what Dr. Jones does. B)
Dr. Smith should not advertise no matter what Dr. Jones does. C) Dr. Smith should advertise only if Dr.
Jones doesn't advertise. D) Dr. Smith should advertise only if Dr. Jones advertises. Answer: A Topic:
Game Theory Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 35)
Libertyville has two optometrists, Dr. Smith and Dr. Jones. Each optometrist can choose to advertise his
service or not. The incomes of each optometrist, in thousands of dollars, are given in the payoff matrix
above. Which of the following statements correctly describes Dr. Jones' strategy given what Dr. Smith
may do? A) Dr. Jones should advertise no matter what Dr. Smith does. B) Dr. Jones should not advertise
no matter what Dr. Smith does. C) Dr. Jones should advertise only if Dr. Smith doesn't advertise. D) Dr.
Jones should advertise only if Dr. Smith advertises. Answer: A Topic: Game Theory Skill: Analytical
Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 21 Copyright © 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. 36) Libertyville has two optometrists, Dr. Smith and Dr. Jones. Each optometrist can
given in the payoff matrix above. Which of the following statements correctly categorizes the Nash
equilibrium for the game? A) The game has a Nash equilibrium in which both optometrists advertise. B)
The game has a Nash equilibrium in which both optometrists do not advertise. C) The game has a Nash
equilibrium in which Dr. Smith advertises and Dr. Jones does not advertise. D) The game has a Nash
equilibrium in which Dr. Smith does not advertise and Dr. Jones does advertise. Answer: A Topic: Nash
Equilibrium Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills
Student 1 Work Don't work Work 1: +10 2: +10 1: +5 2: +5 Student 2 Don't work1: +5 2: +50 1: 0 2: 0 37)
Two students are assigned a group project. Each has the option to work or not work to achieve a high
grade. The payoffs are shown in the above table. Student 1 should A) work only if student 2 works. B)
work regardless of the decision made by student 2. C) not work if student 2 works. D) not work
regardless of what student 2 decides. Answer: B Topic: Game Theory Skill: Analytical Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 38) For a Nash equilibrium to be possible, all
players must ________. A) be able to predict their outcomes associated with all possible actions of the
other players B) have a way to communicate with the other players C) have a strategy which allows for
collusion D) Both (A) and (B) Answer: A Topic: Nash Equilibrium Skill: Conceptual Question history: New
10th edition AACSB: Reflective Thinking 22 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 39) In an oligopoly
price-fixing game, each player tries to A) minimize the market shares of its opponents. B) maximize its
own market share. C) minimize the profits of its opponents. D) maximize its own profit. Answer: D Topic:
Price-Fixing Game Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective
Thinking 40) In the oligopoly price-fixing game, the payoffs are the A) profits of the firms. B) market
shares of the firms. C) sales of the firms. D) reputations of the firms. Answer: A Topic: Price-Fixing Game
Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 41) A group
of firms that has entered into a collusive agreement to restrict output and increase prices and profits is
called A) a compliance. B) a cartel. C) an oligopoly. D) a duopoly. Answer: B Topic: Cartel Skill:
Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 42) In what type
of market is a cartel possible? A) a market in which there are only a few firms and barriers to entry exist
B) a market in which firms sell a homogeneous good C) a market in which firms sell a differentiated good
D) a market in which there are many firms Answer: A Topic: Cartel Skill: Recognition Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 23 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
43) A cartel usually has a collusive agreement to A) restrict output. B) boost output. C) lower the price.
D) increase the number of firms in the industry. Answer: A Topic: Cartel Skill: Recognition Question
history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 44) A cartel is a group of firms that A)
produce differentiated products. B) produce products that are complements. C) agree to restrict output
to boost their profit. D) agree to boost output to boost their profit. Answer: C Topic: Cartel Skill:
Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 45) A cartel is a
group of firms which agree to A) behave competitively. B) raise the price of their product. C) lower the
price of their product. D) increase the amount they produce. Answer: B Topic: Cartel Skill: Recognition
Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 46) A cartel is an arrangement
A) to flood the market and eliminate competition. B) to steal industrial processes from rival firms. C)
among firms to decrease output and raise price. D) by the government to restrict imports. Answer: C
Topic: Cartel Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking
24 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 47) In the United States, a collusive agreement to restrict
output and increases prices is A) legal. B) the key tool used by oligopolists. C) illegal. D) the key tool used
by monopolistic competitors. Answer: C Topic: Cartel Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous
edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 48) Which of the following is true regarding a collusive
agreement? I. It is illegal in the United States. II. Two or more producers agree to restrict output or raise
prices. III. Firms' profits are never maximized under this sort of agreement. A) I and II B) I and III C) II and
III D) I, II and III Answer: A Topic: Cartel Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15
AACSB: Reflective Thinking 49) If two duopolists can collude successfully, then both will A) earn greater
profits than if they did not collude. B) price at marginal cost. C) price below average total cost. D) lower
their economic profits. Answer: A Topic: Colluding to Maximize Profits Skill: Conceptual Question
history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 50) If firms in a duopoly can successfully
collude, A) each firm can earn an economic profit. B) the industry, that is, both firms taken together, can
earn the maximum economic profit. C) the firms achieve a cooperative equilibrium. D) All of the above
answers are true. Answer: D Topic: Colluding to Maximize Profits Skill: Conceptual Question history:
51) If there is a collusive agreement in a duopoly to maximize profit, then the price will A) equal the
marginal cost of production. B) equal the average total cost of production. C) be the same as the price
set by a monopoly. D) be the same as the price set by a competitive industry. Answer: C Topic: Colluding
to Maximize Profits Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective
Thinking 52) The maximum economic profit that can be made by a duopoly that colludes is equal to the
________. A) economic profit made by duopolists who cheat B) normal profit made by an oligopoly C)
economic profit made by a monopoly D) normal profit made by firms in perfect competition Answer: C
Topic: Colluding to Maximize Profits Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15
AACSB: Reflective Thinking 53) Two firms, Alpha and Beta, produce identical computer hard drives. They
have identical costs, and the hard drives they produce are identical. The industry is a natural duopoly.
Alpha and Beta enter into a collusive agreement, according to which they split the market equally. If
both firms comply with the agreement, A) together they will operate in a way indistinguishable from a
monopoly. B) the price of a hard drive will be equal to marginal cost. C) each firm will make zero
economic profit. D) the oligopoly will produce more hard drives than a profit-maximizing monopoly
would produce. Answer: A Topic: Colluding to Maximize Profits Skill: Conceptual Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 26 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 54)
Two firms, Alpha and Beta, produce identical computer hard drives. They have identical costs, and the
hard drives they produce are identical. The industry is a natural duopoly. Alpha and Beta enter into a
collusive agreement, according to which they split the market equally. If both firms cheat on the
agreement so the market is the same as a competitive market, A) they will operate in a way
indistinguishable from a monopoly. B) each firm will make zero economic profit. C) each firm will
increase its economic profit. D) the price of a hard drive will be above marginal cost. Answer: B Topic:
Colluding to Maximize Profits Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB:
Analytical Skills 55) When two firms collude to maximize profit the total quantity produced by both firms
taken together is determined at the quantity where ________. A) excess capacity is minimized B)
industry marginal cost equals industry marginal revenue C) the price equals the industry's marginal cost
D) excess capacity is as large as possible zero Answer: B Topic: Colluding to Maximize Profits Skill:
Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 56) The maximum
total economic profit that can be made by colluding duopolists A) is less than the economic profit made
by a monopolist. B) equals the economic profit made by a monopolist. C) exceeds the economic profit
made by a monopolist. D) bears no necessary relation to the economic profit made by a monopolist.
Answer: B Topic: Colluding to Maximize Profits Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition,
Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 27 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 57) Two duopoly
firms that sell an identical good form a cartel. They decide to collude and fix the price of their good. In
this prisoners' dilemma type situation, the likely outcome is A) both will cheat. B) neither one will cheat.
C) only one will cheat. D) It is impossible to say. Answer: A Topic: Colluding to Maximize Profits Skill:
Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 58) Two duopoly
firms form a cartel. They decide to collude and fix the price of their good. Each individual firm will earn
the highest profit if A) it cheats and the other sticks with the agreement B) both stick with the
agreement C) it sticks with the agreement and the other cheats D) they both cheat Answer: A Topic:
Cartel; Incentive To Cheat Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB:
Reflective Thinking 59) Cartels are typically subject to cheating by their members because A) if the other
firms stick to the agreement, a firm can increase its profits by cutting its price. B) barriers to entry do not
exist so new entrants will join. C) the U.S. Justice Department will punish any cartel agreement before
the cartel has had a chance to operate. D) product differentiation allows the firms in the cartel to cheat.
Answer: A Topic: Cartel; Incentive To Cheat Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter
15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 60) Once a cartel determines the profit-maximizing price, A) each firm
faces the temptation to cheat by raising its price. B) each firm faces the temptation to cheat by lowering
its price. C) changes in the output of any member firm will not affect the market price. D) entry into the
industry by rival firms will not affect the profit of the cartel. Answer: B Topic: Cartel; Incentive To Cheat
Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 28 Copyright
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 61) In a cartel, A) each firm has an incentive to decrease its own
production below the level set by the cartel. B) the firms' marginal cost equals the price set by the
cartel. C) each firm has an incentive to lower its price below the level set by the cartel. D) each firm has
an incentive to raise its price above the level set by the cartel. Answer: C Topic: Cartel; Incentive To
Cheat Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 62) In
a collusive agreement between two duopolists in an oligopoly, each firm has an incentive to cheat on
the agreement because the firm's price A) exceeds its marginal cost. B) exceeds its marginal revenue. C)
is less than its average total cost. D) None of the above answers is correct. Answer: A Topic: Cartel;
Incentive To Cheat Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective
Thinking 63) A firm might be tempted to cheat on a collusive price-fixing agreement by setting a
________ price and producing ________ than agreed upon. A) lower; more B) lower; less C) higher;
more D) higher; less Answer: A Topic: Cartel; Incentive To Cheat Skill: Analytical Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 64) If both firms in a duopoly cheat on a
collusive agreement, the price ________ and both firms are ________. A) falls; better off B) rises; worse
off C) falls; worse off D) rises; better off Answer: C Topic: Cartel; Incentive To Cheat Skill: Conceptual
Education, Inc. 65) In a duopoly with a collusive agreement and in a one-time only game, a firm's profit
is largest if it ________ the agreement and if the other firm ________ the agreement. A) complies with;
complies with B) complies with; cheats on C) cheats on; complies with D) cheats on; cheats on Answer: C
Topic: Cartel; Incentive To Cheat Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB:
Reflective Thinking 66) The ABC Nail Company has entered into a collusive agreement with the other
firm in the industry, the DC Nail Company. What occurs in the nail industry if ABC decides to cheat on
the agreement? A) ABC lowers the price of its nails. B) The total industry output increases. C) The total
profits in the nail industry will decrease. D) All of the above answers are correct. Answer: D Topic: Cartel;
Thinking 67) In a duopoly game we observe the following payouts: if the two firms collude they will each
earn $50,000. If one firm cheats then he earns $60,000 and the other firm earns -$10,000. If both firms
cheat then they each earn zero economic profit. In this game what is the Nash equilibrium? A) Both
firms cheat. B) Only one firm will cheat. C) Neither firm will cheat. D) It is impossible to say. Answer: A
Topic: Nash Equilibrium Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical
Skills Suppose two firms, FastNet and SmartCast are the only fast Internet providers in a city. They have
identical costs and one firm's service is a perfect substitute for the other's. The industry is a natural
duopoly. Suppose that FastNet and SmartCast collude and agree to share the market equally. 30
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 68) In the scenario above, which of the following actions will
maximize the industry's economic profit? A) Both firms comply with the agreement. B) Both firms cheat
on the agreement, producing more than the agreed amount. C) One of the firms complies with the
agreement while the other firm cheats, producing more than the agreed amount. D) Because the firms
are colluding, the profit does not change regardless of whether the firms comply with agreement or
cheat on the agreement. Answer: A Topic: Colluding to Maximize Profits Skill: Conceptual Question
history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 69) In the scenario above, if both firms
cheat on the agreement, producing more than the agreed amount, then: A) Each firm makes zero
economic profit. B) The outcome is identical to a monopoly. C) The industry's economic profit is the
maximum profit that can be made by the duopoly. D) Each firm makes a greater economic profit than it
would make if it complied with the agreement. Answer: A Topic: Nash Equilibrium Skill: Conceptual
Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 70) In the scenario above, in Nash
equilibrium: A) Both firms cheat to produce more than the agreed amount. B) Both firms comply with
the agreement. C) One firm complies with the agreement while the other cheats to produce more than
the agreed amount. D) Both firms cheat to produce less than the agreed amount. Answer: A Topic: Nash
Equilibrium Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 31
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. American Cheat Comply Cheat A: $0 N: $0 A: -$2,000 N:
$4,000 National Comply A: $4,000 N: -$2,000 A: $3,000 N: $3,000 71) There are two can companies,
American and National, which have entered into a collusive agreement. The payoff matrix of economic
profits is above. If both firms cheat on the collusive agreement, what amount of economic profit is made
by American? A) $0 B) $3,000 C) $4,000 D) -$2,000 Answer: A Topic: Duopoly Payoff Matrix Skill:
Analytical Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 72) There are two can
companies, American and National, which have entered into a collusive agreement. The payoff matrix of
economic profits is above. If National is able to cheat on the agreement but American complies with the
agreement, what amount of economic profit is made by National? A) $2,000 B) $3,000 C) $4,000 D)
$6,000 Answer: C Topic: Duopoly Payoff Matrix Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous edition,
Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 32 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Sears Lower prices
Don't lower prices Lower prices S: $5 million W: $5 million S: $1 million W: $30 million Wal-Mart Don't
lower prices S: $30 million W: $1 million S: $20 million W: $20 million 73) Sears and Wal-Mart must
decide whether to lower their prices, based on the economic profits shown in the table above. Which of
the following is true? A) This situation is not a prisoners' dilemma. B) If Sears lowers its prices and Wal-
Mart does not, Sears will make a $20 million economic profit. C) If Wal-Mart lowers its prices, Sears
should keep its prices high. D) Both Sears and Wal-Mart would jointly be better off if they could each
keep their prices high. Answer: D Topic: Colluding to Maximize Profits Skill: Analytical Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 74) Refer to the payoffs in the table above. Sears
and Wal-Mart must decide whether to lower their prices based on the profits shown in the table. This
game has A) no Nash equilibrium. B) a Nash equilibrium: Sears keeps its prices high and Wal-Mart lowers
its prices. C) a Nash equilibrium: both Sears and Wal-Mart keep prices high. D) a Nash equilibrium: both
Sears and Wal-Mart lower prices. Answer: D Topic: Equilibrium of the Duopolists' Dilemma Skill:
Analytical Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 33 Copyright © 2012
Pearson Education, Inc. Firm A Monopoly price Competitive price Monopoly price A: $5 B: $5 A: $8 B: -
$1 Firm B Competitive price A: -$1 B: $8 A: $0 B: $0 75) The above payoff matrix shows the economic
profits (in millions of dollars) of two firms in a duopoly that have agreed to a cartel agreement to restrict
their output and set their prices equal to the monopoly price. Assuming the game is played once, the
equilibrium outcome is where A) both choose the monopoly price. B) both choose the competitive price.
C) firm A chooses the monopoly price and firm B chooses the competitive price. D) firm B chooses the
monopoly price and firm A chooses the competitive price. Answer: B Topic: Game Theory, Nash
Equilibrium Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills Oscar
Cheat Comply Cheat O: $1 M F: $1 M O: -$2 M F: $12 M Felix Comply O: $12 M F: -$2 M O: $10 M F: $10
M 76) Oscar and Felix are the only firms that clean offices in a large city. They agree to operate as a
cartel. The payoff matrix above gives the economic profit that each firm can make. If Felix cheats on the
agreement but Oscar complies, Felix makes an economic profit of ________ and Oscar makes an
economic profit of ________. A) $10 million; $10 million B) $1 million; $1 million C) -$2 million; $12
million D) $12 million; -$2 million Answer: D Topic: Game Theory Skill: Conceptual Question history:
Oscar and Felix are the only firms that clean offices in a large city. They agree to operate as a cartel. The
payoff matrix above shows the economic profit that each firm can make. If the game is played only once,
then ________. A) Felix and Oscar will each make $10 million economic profit B) Felix will comply and
Oscar will make $12 million economic profit C) Felix and Oscar will each make $1 million economic profit
D) Felix will cheat and Oscar will make -$2 million economic profit Answer: C Topic: Game Theory, Nash
Equilibrium Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 78)
payoff matrix shows the economic profit that each firm can make. If the game is played repeatedly and
Felix and Oscar both use a tit-for-tat strategy, then ________. A) Felix will make $10 million of economic
profit and Oscar will cheat B) Felix and Oscar will each make $1 million of economic profit C) Felix will
make -$2 million of economic profit and Oscar will cheat D) Felix and Oscar will each make $10 million of
economic profit Answer: D Topic: Game Theory Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous edition,
Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 35 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Gateway Cut price Hold
price Cut price G: $10 D: $10 G: $5 D: $20 Dell Hold price G: $20 D: $5 G: $15 D: $15 79) Dell and
Gateway must decide whether to lower their prices, based on the potential economic profits shown in
the payoff matrix above. (The profits are in millions of dollars.) In the Nash equilibrium, A) Dell keeps its
prices high and Gateway lowers its prices. B) both Dell and Gateway lower prices. C) Gateway keeps its
prices high and Dell lowers its prices. D) both Dell and Gateway keep prices high. Answer: B Topic: Game
Theory, Nash Equilibrium Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB:
Analytical Skills 80) Dell and Gateway must decide whether to lower their prices, based on the potential
economic profits shown in the payoff matrix above. (The profits are in millions of dollars.) In the Nash
equilibrium, Dell's profit is ________ million and Gateway's profit is ________ million. A) $10; $10 B)
$15; $15 C) $5; $20 D) $20; $5 Answer: A Topic: Game Theory, Nash Equilibrium Skill: Analytical
Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 81) Dell and Gateway must decide
whether to lower their prices, based on the potential economic profits shown in the payoff matrix
above. (The profits are in millions of dollars.) If the firms collude and don't cheat, Dell's profit is
________ million and Gateway's profit is ________ million. A) $10; $10 B) $15; $15 C) $5; $20 D) $20; $5
Answer: B Topic: Colluding to Maximize Profits Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous edition,
Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 36 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 82) A collusive
agreement between two duopolists is similar to the prisoners' dilemma because in both games A) the
best outcome is always achieved. B) each player's strategy depends on what the other player does. C)
the Nash equilibrium is not the best outcome for the players. D) All of the above answers are correct.
Answer: C Topic: Equilibrium of the Duopolists' Dilemma Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous
edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 83) Suppose two firms are trying to decide how much to
budget for research and development. Once a new discovery is made, each firm benefits regardless of
which firm developed the innovation. In this R&D game of chicken, the Nash equilibrium will be that A)
either both firms conduct the R&D or neither firm conducts the R&D. B) thone firm conducts the R&D
but which firm does the R&D cannot be determined. C) both firms conduct the R&D. D) neither firm
conducts the R&D. Answer: B Topic: Game Theory, An R&D Game Skill: Recognition Question history:
New 10th edition AACSB: Reflective Thinking 84) There are two firms that compete against each other
and each needs to decide if they will undertake research and development to improve their product.
The payoffs are as follows: If Firm 1 does undertake R&D then Firm 2 will earn $25 million if they also do
R&D or $50 million if not If Firm 1 does not undertake R&D then Firm 2 will earn $2 million if they do
R&D or $0 million if not If Firm 2 does undertake R&D then Firm 1 will earn $10 million if they also do
R&D or $0 million if not Regarding this game, which of the following is true? A) Only one will do R&D but
we cannot say which one. B) Both firms will do R&D. C) Both firms will not do R&D. D) Firm 1 will do R&D
and Firm 2 will not. Answer: A Firm 1 Undertake Not undertake Firm 2 Undertake 10, 25 20, 2 Not
undertake 2, 50 0, 0 37 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Topic: R & D Game Skill: Analytical
Education, Inc. 85) In an oligopoly with a collusive agreement, the total industry profits will be smallest
when A) all firms comply with the agreement. B) one firm cheats on the agreement and the other firms
do not cheat. C) all firms cheat on the agreement. D) the firms act as a monopoly. Answer: C Topic:
Study Guide Question, Equilibrium of the Duopolists' Dilemma Skill: Conceptual Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 86) When a cartel maximizes its profit, A) each
firm necessarily produces the same amount. B) the industry level of output is efficient. C) industry
marginal revenue equals industry marginal cost at the level of total output. D) total output is greater
than it would be without collusion. Answer: C Topic: Study Guide Question, Colluding to Maximize
Profits Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 3
Repeated Games and Sequential Games 1) In a repeated game, punishments that result in heavy
damages are an incentive for players to adopt the strategies that result in a ________ equilibrium. A)
contestable B) strategic C) cooperative D) winner-share-all Answer: C Topic: Cooperative Equilibrium
Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 2) An
equilibrium in game theory in which the players make and share the monopoly profit is called A) the
Nash equilibrium. B) the cooperative equilibrium. C) a contestable market equilibrium. D) limit pricing.
Answer: B Topic: Cooperative Equilibrium Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter
15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 39 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 3) From the social
perspective, a major criticism of oligopolies is that A) successful collusion leads to a monopoly-like
outcome. B) price wars usually break out. C) advertising hardly ever occurs. D) cartels are unstable.
Answer: A Topic: Repeated Games Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15
AACSB: Reflective Thinking 4) If a duopolists' collusive price-fixing game can be played repeatedly, A)
one possible equilibrium is that both firms cheat. B) players can signal their willingness to cooperate. C)
players can punish cheaters in the following game. D) All of the above answers are correct. Answer: D
Topic: Repeated Games Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB:
Reflective Thinking 5) A tit-for-tat strategy can be used in A) a single-play game or a repeated game. B) a
single-play game but not a repeated game. C) a repeated game but not a single-play game. D) neither a
repeated game nor a single-play game. Answer: C Topic: Repeated Games Skill: Analytical Question
history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 6) A trigger strategy can be used in A) a
single-play game or a repeated game. B) a single-play game but not a repeated game. C) a repeated
game but not a single-play game. D) neither a single-play game nor a repeated game. Answer: C Topic:
Repeated Games Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective
Thinking 40 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 7) A strategy in which a player cooperates in the
current period if the other player cooperated in the previous period, but the player cheats in the current
period if the other player cheated in the previous period is called a A) tit-for-tat strategy. B) trigger
strategy. C) duopoly strategy. D) dominant firm strategy. Answer: A Topic: Repeated Games Skill:
Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 8) A trigger
strategy is one in which a player A) cooperates in the current period if the other player cooperated in
the previous period, but cheats in the current period only if the other player cheated in the previous
period. B) cheats in the current period if the other player cooperated in the previous period, but
cooperates in the current period if the other player cheated in the previous period. C) cooperates in the
current period if the other player has always cooperated, but cheats forever if the other player ever
cheats. D) cheats in the current period if the other player has always cheated, but cooperates forever if
the other player has ever cooperated. Answer: C Topic: Repeated Games Skill: Recognition Question
history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 9) Sarah's Soothing Diapers, Inc. and
Orville's Odorless Diapers, Inc. are duopolists, who have agreed to collude. Orville has decided that he
will comply with the collusive agreement as long as Sarah cooperated in the previous period. But if Sarah
cheated in the previous period, Orville will punish Sarah by cheating in the current period. Orville's
strategy is referred to as a A) Nash strategy. B) tit-for-tat strategy. C) trigger strategy. D) monkey-see,
monkey-do strategy. Answer: B Topic: Repeated Games Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous
edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 41 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 10) A
cooperative equilibrium is most likely to arise in a A) single-play game with a large number of players. B)
single-play game without communication. C) repeated game with a large number of players. D) repeated
game with a small number of players. Answer: D Topic: Repeated Games Skill: Analytical Question
history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 11) Which of the following models is
the best to explain price wars? A) A repeated duopoly game B) A game of chicken C) Dominant firm
oligopoly D) A sequential entry game in a contestable market Answer: A Topic: Games and Price Wars
Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 12) With
barriers to the entry of new firms, A) a cartel is guaranteed to earn an economic profit. B) a cartel's
members have no incentive to cheat. C) the cartel might earn an economic profit. D) industry supply will
expand if the firms form a cartel. Answer: C Topic: Games and Price Wars Skill: Analytical Question
history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 13) Price wars are A) most likely when
there is a monopoly. B) most likely when there is oligopoly. C) most likely when there is perfect
competition. D) equally likely in the cases of monopoly, oligopoly, and perfect competition. Answer: B
Topic: Games and Price Wars Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB:
Reflective Thinking 42 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 14) A contestable market is similar to a
perfectly competitive market in that there A) are barriers to entry. B) are no barriers to entry. C) can be
only one firm in the market. D) will be no entry if the existing firm earns an economic profit. Answer: B
Topic: Contestable Market Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB:
Reflective Thinking 15) A market with one or a small number of firms but no barriers to entry is known
as A) a natural monopoly. B) a contestable market. C) a perfectly competitive market. D) monopolistic
competition. Answer: B Topic: Contestable Market Skill: Recognition Question history: Modified 10th
edition AACSB: Reflective Thinking 16) A market in which firms can enter and leave so easily that firms in
the market face competition from potential entrants is called a A) contestable market. B) cartel. C) limit
pricing market. D) monopolistic competition market. Answer: A Topic: Contestable Market Skill:
following statements is TRUE about contestable markets? A) There are significant barriers to entry. B)
Firms earn large economic profits. C) Each firm faces a perfectly elastic demand. D) There are few firms
in the industry. Answer: D Topic: Contestable Market Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous
contestable market is one in which A) one dominant firm sets the market price, and all other firms are
price takers. B) if a firm cuts its price, all other firms will follow the price cut. C) one or a small number of
firms operate, but faces competition from potential entrants. D) a group of firms enter into an
agreement to restrict output and raise prices. Answer: C Topic: Contestable Market Skill: Recognition
Question history: Modified 10th edition AACSB: Reflective Thinking 19) A contestable market is one in
which there are A) one or a few firms and entry into the market is costly. B) one or a few firms and entry
into the market is not costly. C) many firms and entry into the market is costly. D) many firms and entry
into the market is not costly. Answer: B Topic: Contestable Market Skill: Recognition Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 20) Of the following, the best example of firm
that might operate in a contestable market is a A) cable TV company. B) wheat farmer. C) ship owner
operating on a major waterway. D) private college operating in a state with many public colleges.
Answer: C Topic: Contestable Market Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15
AACSB: Reflective Thinking 21) In a contestable market the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index is ________ and
the market behaves as if it is ________. A) low; perfectly competitive B) low; a monopoly C) high;
perfectly competitive D) high; a monopoly Answer: C Topic: Contestable Market Skill: Conceptual
Education, Inc. 22) In a sequential contestable market game: A) A small number of firms can behave like
firms in perfect competition. B) The outcome is always a monopoly equilibrium. C) The dominant firm
always makes a monopoly profit, while other firms make zero economic profits. D) A firm that enters the
market first is protected from potential entrants by natural barriers. Answer: A Topic: Contestable
Market Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 23) A
single firm in a contestable market is limited in the amount of economic profit it can earn because there
A) are barriers to entry. B) are no barriers to entry. C) is collusion. D) are government regulation limiting
its profit. Answer: B Topic: Contestable Market Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition,
Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 24) In a contestable market with one firm in the market, the
existing firm will A) set its price equal to the monopoly price. B) set its price lower than the monopoly
price. C) set its price higher than the monopoly price. D) have a demand curve that is horizontal at the
price that will attract new firms to enter the market. Answer: B Topic: Contestable Market Skill:
Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 25) The price in a
contestable market is similar to that in a perfectly competitive market because A) there are barriers to
entry. B) there are no barriers to entry. C) there are many firms in the market. D) the firm can earn an
economic profit in the long run. Answer: B Topic: Contestable Market Skill: Conceptual Question history:
26) In a contestable market A) two or more firms are competing. B) the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index
exceeds 1,800. C) the four-firm concentration ratio exceeds 50 percent. D) potential entry holds down
prices. Answer: D Topic: Contestable Market Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition,
Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 27) One of the reasons that concentration ratios are not a perfect
measure of competitiveness is that they A) do not measure how high the industry's prices are. B) cannot
be measured. C) ignore potential competition. D) tell nothing about how high prices were in the past.
AACSB: Reflective Thinking 28) The Herfindahl-Hirschman Index will indicate that a contestable market is
________. A) a sequential market B) competitive C) uncompetitive D) a prisoners' dilemma Answer: C
Topic: Contestable Market Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB:
Reflective Thinking 29) In a contestable market, A) the HHI is usually quite low. B) the firm in the market
usually earns a large economic profit. C) the firm in the market may play an entry-deterrence game. D)
there are high barriers to entry. Answer: C Topic: Contestable Market Skill: Conceptual Question history:
30) Adkins Air is the only seller offering service directly from Milwaukee to Greensboro. The market is
contestable. Thus the Nash Equilibrium for a game between Adkins Air and a potential entrant is when
the potential entrant A) enters and Adkins earns a normal profit. B) enters and Adkins earns an
economic profit. C) does not enter and Adkins earns a normal profit. D) does not enter and Adkins earns
an economic profit. Answer: C Topic: Entry-Deterrence Game Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous
edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 31) The practice of the only seller in a market charging a
price at the highest level that would still inflict a loss on a new entrant into the market is called A) limit
pricing. B) collusive pricing. C) agile pricing. D) trigger pricing. Answer: A Topic: Limit Pricing Skill:
Recognition Question history: Modified 10th edition AACSB: Reflective Thinking 32) Limit pricing in a
contestable market sets the price at the highest level that ________. A) maximizes the profit of an
entrant B) maximizes the profit of the existing firm C) maximizes the profit of both the existing firm and
the entering firm D) inflicts a loss on an entrant Answer: D Topic: Limit Pricing Skill: Recognition
Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 33) A strategy of setting price
below the monopoly profit-maximizing price but at the highest level that will still result in a loss for a
potential entrant into the market is known as A) entry pricing. B) contestable pricing. C) limit pricing. D)
unlimited pricing. Answer: C Topic: Limit Pricing Skill: Recognition Question history: Modified 10th
edition AACSB: Reflective Thinking 47 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 34) A strategy called
"limit pricing" sets the price A) below the competitive level. B) at the monopoly level. C) at the lowest
level that inflicts a loss on the entrant. D) at the highest level that inflicts a loss on the entrant. Answer:
D Topic: Limit Pricing Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective
Thinking 35) Limit pricing is a strategy used by a firm to A) deter entry. B) enhance short run profits. C)
raise its prices. D) lower its costs. Answer: A Topic: Limit Pricing Skill: Recognition Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 36) Price wars can be the result of A) a
cooperative equilibrium. B) a firm playing a tit-for-tat strategy in which last period the competitors
complied with a collusive agreement. C) new firms entering the industry and immediately agreeing to
abide by a collusive agreement. D) new firms entering an industry and all firms then finding themselves
in a prisoners' dilemma. Answer: D Topic: Study Guide Question, Price Wars Skill: Conceptual Question
history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 37) Limit pricing refers to A) the fact
that a monopoly firm always sets the highest price possible. B) how the price is determined in a kinked
demand curve model of oligopoly. C) a situation in which a firm might lower its price to keep potential
competitors from entering its market. D) None of the above Answer: C Topic: Study Guide Question,
Limit Pricing Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking
48 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4 Antitrust Law 1) Antitrust law is law that A) does not
allow individuals to open trust savings accounts. B) prohibits competition in certain industries. C)
prohibits certain kinds of market behavior by firms. D) allows firms under special circumstances to be a
monopoly. Answer: C Topic: Antitrust Law Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter
15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 2) When the government prohibits certain kinds of market behavior such
as monopoly and monopolistic practices it generally does so through A) regulatory agencies such as the
Interstate Commerce Commission or the Federal Communications Commission. B) antitrust law. C) the
police powers of the states. D) use of the capture theory of regulation. Answer: B Topic: Antitrust Law
Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 3) A law that
prohibits certain kinds of market behavior such as monopoly and monopolistic practices is ________. A)
a consumer surplus law B) a trust law C) an antitrust law D) an anti-monopoly law Answer: C Topic:
Antitrust Law Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective
Thinking 49 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4) Antitrust laws attempt to A) support prices at
high levels so firms can earn profits. B) establish minimum wages. C) prevent monopolies or collusion. D)
enforce fair trade laws. Answer: C Topic: Antitrust Law Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous
edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 5) In part, an antitrust laws A) provide for strict product
liability. B) prohibit charging prices that customers think are too high. C) require firms with profits to pay
dividends. D) prohibit monopolistic practices. Answer: D Topic: Antitrust Law Skill: Recognition Question
history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 6) Antitrust law is the law that regulates
________ and prevents them from becoming ________. A) oligopolies; monopolies B) monopolies;
oligopolies C) monopolistically competitive firms; oligopolies D) oligopolies; monopolistically
competitive firms Answer: A Topic: Antitrust Law Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition,
Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 7) The main purpose of antitrust law is to A) prohibit monopoly
practices such as restricting output. B) regulate advertising. C) encourage the formation of cartels. D)
regulate the stock and bond markets. Answer: A Topic: Antitrust Law Skill: Conceptual Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 50 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8)
The first antitrust law passed was the ________. A) Federal Trade Commission Act B) Sherman Act C)
Clayton Act D) Robinson-Patman Amendment Answer: B Topic: Sherman Act Skill: Recognition Question
history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 9) The Sherman Act, A) which
deregulated banking, was enacted in 1890. B) which deregulated banking, was enacted in 1980. C) the
first antitrust law, was enacted in 1890. D) the first antitrust law, was enacted in 1980. Answer: C Topic:
Sherman Act Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking
10) The beginning of antitrust law is found in the A) 1914 Clayton Act. B) 1890 Sherman Act. C) 1947
Taft-Hartley Act. D) 1950 Cellar-Kefauver Act. Answer: B Topic: Sherman Act Skill: Recognition Question
history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 11) The Sherman Act A) was the first
federal tariff. B) prohibited attempts to monopolize. C) outlawed natural monopolies. D) abolished
tariffs. Answer: B Topic: Sherman Act Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15
AACSB: Reflective Thinking 51 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 12) The Sherman Act of 1890
was passed to prohibit A) combinations, trusts, or conspiracies to restrict interstate or international
trade. B) monopolization or attempts to monopolize interstate or international trade. C) Both of the
above. D) Neither of the above. Answer: C Topic: Sherman Act Skill: Recognition Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 13) The Sherman Act makes it illegal to A)
increase market share. B) merge firms in the same industry. C) attempt to monopolize an industry. D)
price below competitors. Answer: C Topic: The Sherman Act Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous
edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 14) The second federal antitrust law was passed in 1914.
This antitrust law is the A) Clayton Act. B) Robinson-Patman Amendment. C) Cellar-Kefauver
Amendment. D) Taft-Hartley Act. Answer: A Topic: Clayton Act Skill: Recognition Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 15) The Clayton Act of 1914 was passed to
prohibit, in part, A) price discrimination if the effect is to substantially lessen competition or create
monopoly. B) unfair methods of competition and unfair or deceptive business practices. C)
combinations, trusts, or conspiracies that restrict interstate or international trade. D) business practices
that allow one firm to profit at the expense of another whenever the first firm is a monopoly. Answer: A
Topic: Clayton Act Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective
Thinking 52 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 16) The Clayton Act of 1914 prohibits ________ if
it substantially lessens competition or creates a monopoly. A) people from serving on the board of
directors of competing firms B) contracts that force other goods to be bought from the same firm C)
Both of the above. D) Neither of the above. Answer: C Topic: Clayton Act Skill: Recognition Question
history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 17) The Federal Trade Commission is an
agency charged with A) regulating interstate commerce. B) enforcing product safety laws. C) regulating
international commerce. D) enforcing antitrust laws. Answer: D Topic: Antitrust Law Skill: Recognition
Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 18) Which of the following
business practices, if proven to exist, is always illegal under U.S. antitrust law? A) tying arrangements B)
price fixing among competitors C) exclusive dealing D) all of the above Answer: B Topic: Price Fixing Skill:
following is always a violation of the antitrust law? A) Price fixing among competitors B) Resale price
maintenance C) Tying arrangements D) Predatory pricing Answer: A Topic: Price Fixing Skill: Recognition
Education, Inc. 20) When is price fixing among competitors not a violation of the antitrust laws? A) Price
fixing among competitors is always a violation of the antitrust law. B) When a cartel can maximize profit
without behaving like a monopoly C) When price fixing leads to a more efficient outcome D) When price
fixing does not result in predatory pricing Answer: A Topic: Price Fixing Skill: Recognition Question
history: Modified 10th edition AACSB: Reflective Thinking 21) Suppose that two soft drink
manufacturers, Fizzy Pop and Spritzy Soda, agree to charge the same prices for their soft drinks. This
practice is A) always legal under the antitrust laws. B) legal as long as Herfindahl-Hirschman index is less
than 1,000. C) legal as long as the firms had a cost justification for setting prices. D) always illegal under
the antitrust laws. Answer: D Topic: Price Fixing Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition,
Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 22) If McDonald's, Wendy's, and Burger King agree with each
other not to sell hamburgers for less than $2.95 apiece, all three could be found guilty of A) an
interlocking directorship under the Clayton Act. B) price fixing under the Sherman Act. C) a deceptive
business practice under the Clayton Act. D) None of the above answers is correct. Answer: B Topic: Price
Fixing Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 54
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 23) Which of the following is illegal under the Sherman Act? I.
A competitor agrees with another competitor on the price at which the product will be sold. II. A
manufacturer refuses to supply a retailer who does not accept the manufacturer's guidance on the
price. A) only I B) only II C) both I and II D) neither I nor II Answer: A Topic: Resale Price Maintenance
Skill: Conceptual Question history: Modified 10th edition AACSB: Reflective Thinking 24) Under current
guidelines the Federal Trade Commission will likely challenge A) all mergers if the Herfindahl-Hirschman
index (HHI) is 1800 or higher. B) a merger if the HHI is 1800 or higher and the merger increases the HHI
by 50 points or more. C) a merger if the HHI is 1800 or higher and the merger increases the HHI by 100
points or more. D) a merger if the HHI is 1800 or higher and the merger increases the HHI by 200 points
or more. Answer: B Topic: Current Merger Rules Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition,
Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 25) Under current guidelines the Federal Trade Commission will
likely challenge A) all mergers if the Herfindahl-Hirschman index (HHI) is greater than 1000. B) a merger
if the HHI is between 1000 and 1800 and the merger increases the HHI by 50 points or more. C) a merger
if the HHI is between 1000 and 1800 and the merger increases the HHI by 100 points or more. D) a
merger if the HHI is between 1000 and 1800 and the merger increases the HHI by 200 points or more.
Answer: C Topic: Current Merger Rules Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15
AACSB: Reflective Thinking 55 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 26) A merger will be challenged
by the FTC in a market where the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) is ________, and the merger would
increase it to ________. A) 1,900; 1,980. B) 1,700; 1,760 C) 800; 950 D) 2,000; 2,040 Answer: A Topic:
Current Merger Rules Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective
Thinking 27) Under Federal Trade Commission merger guidelines, an industry with a
HerfindahlHirschman index (HHI) of 100 points is considered A) competitive. B) moderately
concentrated. C) concentrated. D) a monopoly. Answer: A Topic: Current Merger Rules Skill: Recognition
Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 28) As the Federal Trade
Commission currently interprets the Herfindahl-Hirschman index (HHI), an industry is considered to be
moderately concentrated if the HHI value is A) between 100 and 1,000. B) between 1,000 and 1,800. C)
between 1,000 and 3,800. D) between 3,000 and 6,000. Answer: B Topic: Current Merger Rules Skill:
Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 29) A market in
which the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index is 900 is regarded by the Federal Trade Commission as A)
moderately concentrated. B) concentrated. C) competitive. D) monopolistic. Answer: C Topic: Current
Merger Rules Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective
Thinking 56 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 30) As the Federal Trade Commission currently
interprets the Herfindahl-Hirschman index (HHI), an industry is considered to be concentrated if the HHI
value is above A) 100. B) 1,000. C) 1,800. D) 5,000. Answer: C Topic: Current Merger Rules Skill:
Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 31) In 1986,
PepsiCo announced its intention to buy 7-Up for $380 million and Coca-Cola said it would buy Dr Pepper
for $470 million. Because the Herfindahl-Hirschman index for carbonated soft drinks is ________, the
Federal Trade Commission ________ the mergers. A) low; allowed B) low; blocked C) high; allowed D)
high; blocked Answer: D Topic: Current Merger Rules Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous
edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 32) In the market for bottled water, Fresh Springs has a
30 percent share of the market, Swiss Springs has a 27 percent share, L'eau de France has a 13 percent
share, and Mountain Water has a 10 percent share. The rest of the market consists of 20 firms with a 1
percent share of the market each. What is the value of the Herfindahl-Hirschman index? A) 2,418 B) 80
C) 1,918 D) 2,818 Answer: C Topic: Current Merger Rules Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous
edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 57 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 33) An industry
is made up of 8 firms with the following percent market shares: 29, 20, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6. What is the
Herfindahl-Hirschman index in this industry? A) 70 B) 100 C) 1462 D) 1692 Answer: D Topic: Current
Merger Rules Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 34)
An industry is made up of 8 firms with the following percent market shares: 29, 20, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6. The
firms with 8 and 7 percent market share are proposing to merge. What is the new Herfindahl-Hirschman
index if the merger takes place? A) 225 B) 1462 C) 1692 D) 1804 Answer: D Topic: Current Merger Rules
Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 35) Suppose that
two clothing manufacturers, Frederick's Fashions and Stephan's Styles, announce that they plan to
merge. The Herfindahl-Hirschman index is currently 1,500. After the merger, the HHI will rise to 1,560.
This market is A) highly concentrated and so the government will definitely challenge the merger. B)
moderately concentrated and because the merger increases the HHI by more than 50 points, the
government will definitely challenge the merger. C) moderately concentrated, but because the merger
increases the HHI by less than 100 points, the government will probably not challenge the merger. D)
competitive and so the government will not challenge the merger. Answer: C Topic: Current Merger
Rules Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 58
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 36) There are twenty five dealers in the local market for new
cars. The largest dealership has a market share of 12 percent; the second and third largest have 10
percent and 9 percent, respectively; the fourth and fifth largest have 5 percent and 4 percent,
respectively; and the remaining twenty dealerships each have a 2 percent market share. What is value
of the Herfindahl-Hirschman index (HHI) for this market? A) 42 B) 82 C) 266 D) 446 Answer: D Topic:
Current Merger Rules Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical
Skills 37) There are twenty five dealers in the local market for new cars. The largest dealership has a
market share of 12 percent; the second and third largest have 10 percent and 9 percent, respectively;
the fourth and fifth largest have 5 percent and 4 percent, respectively; and the remaining twenty
dealerships each have a 2 percent market share. If the second largest dealership merged with the fifth
largest, that would increase the Herfindahl-Hirschman index (HHI) by A) 14 points. B) 60 points. C) 80
points. D) 196 points. Answer: C Topic: Current Merger Rules Skill: Conceptual Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 38) If the Herfindahl-Hirschman index (HHI) among
the firms in the long distance telecommunications market were equal to 1455, when would the Federal
Trade Commission probably challenge a proposed merger between any two of the firms? A) It would
challenge if the HHI would increase by more than 50 points. B) It would challenge if the HHI would
increase by more than 100 points. C) It would challenge no matter what happened to the HHI because
the market has so few firms. D) It would not challenge because the HHI is less than 1800. Answer: B
Topic: Current Merger Rules Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB:
Reflective Thinking 59 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 39) If the Herfindahl-Hirschman index
(HHI) among the firms in the long distance telecommunications market is equal to 1855, when would
the Federal Trade Commission probably challenge a proposed merger between any two of the firms? A)
It would challenge if the HHI would increase by more than 50 points. B) It would challenge if the HHI
would increase by more than 100 points. C) It would challenge no matter what happened to the HHI
because the market has so few firms. D) It would not challenge because the HHI is less than 2000.
Answer: A Topic: Current Merger Rules Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15
AACSB: Reflective Thinking 40) If the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) among the firms in the long
distance telecommunications market is equal to 855, when would the Federal Trade Commission
probably challenge a proposed merger between any two of the firms? A) It would challenge if the HHI
would increase by more than 50 points. B) It would challenge if the HHI would increase by more than
100 points. C) It would challenge no matter what happened to the HHI because the market has so few
firms. D) It would not challenge because the HHI is less than 1000. Answer: D Topic: Current Merger
Rules Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 41)
The local pizza delivery industry currently has a Herfindahl-Hirschman index (HHI) value of 999 and two
of the competing pizza shops have considered merging. Because the merger would raise the HHI by 55
points, the Federal Trade Commission would likely A) not challenge the merger. B) challenge the merger.
C) allow the merger under the condition that HHI does not rise by more than 55 points as promised. D)
allow the merger under the condition that the HHI remain at the premerger level of 999. Answer: A
Topic: Current Merger Rules Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB:
Reflective Thinking 60 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 42) The FTC looks at the HHI to assess
mergers. A proposed merger will increase the HHI by 50. The FTC will block this merger if the current
HHI is A) greater than 1800 B) less than 1800 C) greater than 1000 D) less than 1000 Answer: A Topic:
Current Merger Rules Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective
Thinking 43) The local banking industry currently has a Herfindahl-Hirschman index (HHI) value of 1575
and two of the competing banks have considered merging. Because the merger would raise the HHI by
55 points, the Federal Trade Commission would likely A) challenge the merger. B) not challenge the
merger. C) allow the merger under the condition that HHI does not rise by more than 55 points as
promised. D) allow the merger under the condition that the HHI remain at the premerger level of 1575.
Answer: B Topic: Current Merger Rules Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15
AACSB: Reflective Thinking 44) The local banking industry currently has a Herfindahl-Hirschman index
(HHI) value of 1575 and two of the competing banks have considered merging. Because the merger
would raise the HHI by 215 points, the Federal Trade Commission would likely A) challenge the merger.
B) not challenge the merger. C) allow the merger under the condition that HHI does not rise by more
than 215 points as promised. D) allow the merger under the condition that the HHI remain at the
premerger level of 1575. Answer: A Topic: Current Merger Rules Skill: Conceptual Question history:
45) The local banking industry currently has a Herfindahl-Hirschman index (HHI) value of 1875 and two
of the competing banks have considered merging. Because the merger would raise the HHI by 25 points,
the Federal Trade Commission would likely A) challenge the merger. B) not challenge the merger. C)
allow the merger under the condition that HHI does not rise by more than 25 points as promised. D)
allow the merger under the condition that the HHI remain at the premerger level of 1875. Answer: B
Reflective Thinking 46) The local banking industry currently has a Herfindahl-Hirschman index (HHI)
value of 1945 and two of the competing banks have considered merging. Because the merger would
raise the HHI by 55 points, the Federal Trade Commission would likely A) challenge the merger. B) not
challenge the merger. C) allow the merger as long as the HHI did not increase by more than 55 points as
Answer: A Topic: Current Merger Rules Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15
AACSB: Reflective Thinking 47) Suppose the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) in the market for
chocolate is 2,200. Two companies want to merge. The FTC will challenge the merger if it increases the
HHI by at least A) 150 points. B) 100 points. C) 40 points. D) 50 points. Answer: D Topic: Current Merger
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Market share in the Widget industry Firm name Market share
Big W 50 Widico 40 Widgotech 9 Widgette 1 48) In the table above, the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index in
the widget industry is A) 100 points. B) 742 points. C) 2842 points. D) 4182 points. Answer: D Topic:
Current Merger Rules Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical
Skills 49) Using the market shares in the table above, if Widgotech buys Widgette the HHI will A) stay the
same. B) rise by 1 point. C) rise by 10 points. D) rise by 18 points. Answer: D Topic: Current Merger Rules
Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 50) Using the
market shares in the table above, if Big W wants to buy Widgette, the Federal Trade Commission will
probably A) approve the merger because the industry is moderately concentrated and the increase in
the Herfindahl-Hirschman index (HHI) is small enough. B) block the merger because the industry is
moderately concentrated (HHI between 1,000 and 1,800) and the increase in the HHI is too much. C)
approve the merger because the industry is concentrated (HHI exceeds 1,800) but the increase in the
HHI is small enough. D) block the merger because the industry is concentrated (HHI exceeds 1,800) and
the increase in the HHI is too much. Answer: D Topic: Current Merger Rules Skill: Analytical Question
history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 63 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education,
Inc. 51) Which of the following statements about the Sherman Act is correct? A) The Sherman Act was
the second federal antitrust law. B) The Sherman act legalized monopolization if the company behaved
"reasonably" once it became a monopoly. C) The Sherman Act outlawed natural monopolies. D) The
Sherman Act made restriction of interstate trade illegal. Answer: D Topic: Study Guide Question,
52) The Hirschman-Herfindahl index (HHI) in an industry is 50. A merger is proposed that will raise the
HHI to 100. In this case, the A) Sherman Act will prohibit the merger. B) Federal Trade Commission will
challenge the merger. C) Federal Trade Commission will not challenge the merger. D) rule of reason will
prevent the merger if it represents a horizontal merger. Answer: C Topic: Study Guide Question, Current
Merger Rules Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking
64 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 5 News Based Questions 1) Two firms make most of the
consumer alkaline batteries in the country: Duracell and Energizer. The market for batteries is most
likely A) a monopoly. B) an oligopoly. C) perfectly competitive. D) monopolistically competitive. Answer:
B Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB:
Communication 2) Kellogg's and General Mills are two of the dominant breakfast cereal manufactures in
the U.S. Each firm can either sign or not sign an exclusive contract with an Olympian gold-medal athlete
to appear on the cover of a cereal box. Both Kellogg's and General Mills have signed athletes in 2008,
Michael Phelps and Nastia Liukin, respectively. What does this suggest about the outcome of the
oligopoly game? A) The highest profits are when both companies sign B) The best outcome, in terms of
profit, is where both companies sign C) The Nash equilibrium must be that both companies sign D) The
Nash equilibrium must be that both companies sign and this always leads to the highest profits Answer:
C Topic: Nash Equilibrium Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB:
Communication 65 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 3) Kellogg's and General Mills are two of
the dominant breakfast cereal manufactures in the U.S. Each firm can either sign or not sign an exclusive
contract with an Olympian gold-medal athlete to appear on the cover of a cereal box. If both companies
sign an athlete, they will each make $5 million in economic profit. If only firm signs, they earn $8 million
in economic profit and the other firm incurs an economic loss of $1 million. If neither firm signs, they
break even. What are the strategies in this game? A) Do not sign exclusive contract with an Olympian
gold-medal athlete to appear on the cover of a cereal box and make $8 million in profit B) Sign an
exclusive contract with an Olympian gold-medal athlete to appear on the cover of a cereal box and do
not sign exclusive contract with an Olympian gold-medal athlete to appear on the cover of a cereal box
C) Sign an exclusive contract with an Olympian gold-medal athlete to appear on the cover of a cereal box
and make $8 million in profit D) Make $5 million or $8 million in profit Answer: B Topic: Game Theory
Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 4) Kellogg's and
General Mills are two of the dominant breakfast cereal manufactures in the U.S. Each firm can either
sign or not sign an exclusive contract with an Olympian gold-medal athlete to appear on the cover of a
cereal box. If both companies sign an athlete, they will each make $5 million in economic profit. If only
firm signs, they earn $8 million in economic profit and the other firm incurs an economic loss of $1
million. If neither firm signs, they break even. Which of the following pairs of payoffs would NOT appear
together in a square of the payoff matrix? A) $5 million; $5 million B) $0 million; $0 million C) $8 million;
$5 million D) -$1 million; $8 million Answer: C Topic: Game Theory Skill: Analytical Question history:
Kellogg's and General Mills are two of the dominant breakfast cereal manufactures in the U.S. Each firm
can either sign or not sign an exclusive contract with an Olympian gold-medal athlete to appear on the
cover of a cereal box. If both companies sign an athlete, they will each make $5 million in economic
profit. If only firm signs, they earn $8 million in economic profit and the other firm incurs an economic
loss of $1 million. If neither firm signs, they break even. What is the outcome of this game if it is only
played once? A) Neither Kellogg's nor General Mills will sign an athlete B) Kellogg's will sign an athlete
and General Mills will not sign an athlete C) Both Kellogg's and General Mills will sign an athlete D)
General Mills will sign an athlete and Kellogg's will not sign an athlete Answer: C Topic: Game Theory,
Nash Equilibrium Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills
6) In 2008, a former Intel engineer has been charged with stealing trade secrets worth $1 billion. Intel
owns 80 percent of the worldwide market for microprocessors, AMD has the rest. Conducting R&D is
very expensive so suppose that each of these firms can either steal R&D or develop their own R&D. If
both firms develop their own R&D, economic profit will be $50 million each. If one company steals R&D,
that firm earns $100 million in economic profit while the other firm earns $10 million. If both firms steal
R&D, each firm breaks even. What is the outcome of this game? A) Both firms will conduct R&D B) Both
firms will steal R&D C) The outcome will be a dominant strategy equilibrium D) Only one firm will
conduct R&D, but we cannot predict which firm will conduct R&D Answer: D Topic: Game Theory, An
R&D Game Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 7) In
2008, a former Intel engineer has been charged with stealing trade secrets worth $1 billion. Intel owns
80 percent of the worldwide market for microprocessors, AMD has the rest. The microprocessor market
is most like an example of: A) Monopoly B) Oligopoly C) Perfect competition D) Monopolistic
competition Answer: B Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15
AACSB: Reflective Thinking 67 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8) In 2008, a former Intel
engineer has been charged with stealing trade secrets worth $1 billion. Intel owns 80 percent of the
worldwide market for microprocessors, AMD has the rest. Conducting R&D is very expensive so suppose
that each of these firms can either steal R&D or develop their own R&D. If both firms develop their own
R&D, economic profit will be $50 million each. If one company steals R&D, that firm earns $100 million
in economic profit while the other firm earns $10 million. If both firms steal R&D, each firm breaks even.
What is NOT true about this game? A) The outcome will not be a dominant strategy equilibrium B) A
strategy is to steal R&D C) A firm will make more profit if it steals R&D D) A strategy is to conduct R&D
Answer: C Topic: Game Theory, An R&D Game Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition,
Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 9) Russia, Iran and Qatar made the first serious moves in October
2008 toward forming an OPEC-style cartel on natural gas. What is the goal of a cartel? A) Restrict output
B) Raise prices C) Increase sales D) Increase profits Answer: D Topic: Cartel Skill: Conceptual Question
history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Communication 10) Russia, Iran and Qatar made the first
serious moves in October 2008 toward forming an OPEC-style cartel on natural gas. Each of the
countries can comply with the cartel agreement or to cheat on the cartel agreement. If all countries
comply, the economic profit for each will be $140 million. If one country cheats, that country earns $200
million in economic profit and the other countries will have economic losses of $10 million. If all
countries cheat, they break even. What are the strategies in this game? A) Comply with the cartel
agreement or to cheat on the cartel agreement B) Comply with the agreement and earn $140 million in
profit C) Cheat on the cartel agreement and earn -$10 million in profits D) Earn between $140 and $200
million in profits Answer: A Topic: Game Theory Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition,
Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 68 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 11) Russia and Qatar
made the first serious moves in October 2008 toward forming an OPECstyle cartel on natural gas. The
two strategies these countries face are to comply with the cartel agreement or to cheat on the cartel
agreement. If both countries comply, the economic profit for each will be $140 million. If one country
cheats, that country earns $200 million in economic profit and the other country will have an economic
loss of $10 million. If all countries cheat, they break even. What is the outcome of this game if it is only
played once? A) Each country will comply with the cartel agreement B) Two countries will comply and
one will cheat, but we cannot predict which one will cheat C) One country will comply and two will
cheat, but we cannot predict which ones will cheat D) None of the countries will comply with the cartel
agreement Answer: D Topic: Game Theory, Nash Equilibrium Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous
edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 12) Russia and Qatar made the first serious moves in
October 2008 toward forming an OPECstyle cartel on natural gas. The two strategies these countries
face are to comply with the cartel agreement or to cheat on the cartel agreement. If all countries
comply, the economic profit for both will be $140 million. If one country cheats, that country earns $200
million in economic profit and the other country has an economic loss of $10 million. If all countries
cheat, they break even. What is the the likely outcome of this game if it is repeated as a tit-for-tat
game? A) If there are periods of cheating and colluding, then profits will be less than profits will be
lower than if they always colluded B) If the countries never collude, the outcome will be the monopoly
outcome C) If there are periods of cheating and colluding, then profits will be less than profits will be
higher than if they always colluded D) If the countries always collude, the outcome will be the perfectly
competitive outcome Answer: C Topic: Repeated Games Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous
edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Communication 13) The EU's antitrust chief in November 2008 fined car
glass producers Asahi, Pilkington, Saint-Gobain and Soliver more than 1.3 billion euros ($1.66 billion) for
price-fixing, the largest sum ever levied by the EU for a cartel. What is the reason why Asahi, Pilkington,
Saint-Gobain and Soliver would price fix? A) Restrict output B) Increase profits C) Raise prices D) Increase
sales Answer: B Topic: Price Fixing Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15
AACSB: Communication 69 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 14) The EU's antitrust chief in
November 2008 fined car glass producers Asahi, Pilkington, Saint-Gobain and Soliver more than 1.3
billion euros ($1.66 billion) for price-fixing, the largest sum ever levied by the EU for a cartel. What are
the economic justifications of making price fixing illegal? A) Consumers suffer because of decreased
consumer surplus and the outcome is inefficient because of deadweight loss B) An oligopoly cartel can
maximize profit and behave like a natural monopoly C) The cartel increases quantity supplied in the
market causing a shortage D) The cartel increases quantity supplied in the market causing a surplus and
therefore harming other producers Answer: A Topic: Price Fixing Skill: Conceptual Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Communication 15) The EU's antitrust chief in November 2008
fined car glass producers Asahi, Pilkington, Saint-Gobain and Soliver more than 1.3 billion euros ($1.66
billion) for price-fixing, the largest sum ever levied by the EU for a cartel. Price fixing is a violation of
________. A) Price fixing legislation B) Antitrust law C) Federal Trade Commission D) Division of the U.S.
Department of Justice Answer: B Topic: Antitrust Law Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous
price-fixing, the largest sum ever levied by the EU for a cartel. Cartels tend to arise in ________ markets.
A) Monopolistic B) Perfectly competitive C) Oligopolistic D) Monopolistically competitive Answer: C
Topic: Cartel Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Communication 70
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 17) Iran called on OPEC in November 2008 to cut production
by a further 1 million to 1.5 million barrels per day when it meets in Cairo later this month. Why would
OPEC, a cartel, restrict production? A) To decrease demand B) To increase supply C) To decrease
quantity supplied D) To increase profits Answer: D Topic: Cartel Skill: Conceptual Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Communication 6 Essay Questions 1) Describe the characteristics of
an oligopoly. Answer: There are a small number of firms that act interdependently. They are tempted to
form a cartel and collude to increase profits. They can compete on price only (if they produce identical
products) or compete on price, product quality and marketing (if they produce slightly different
products). Natural or legal barriers prevent the entry of new firms. Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition
Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Communication 2) What is a natural oligopoly?
How does it arise? Give an example. Answer: A natural oligopoly is an industry in which a small number
of large firms can supply the entire market at a lower price than could a larger number of smaller firms.
Natural oligopoly arises when economies of scale and limited market demand create natural barriers to
entry. For example, suppose the minimum efficient scale for a taxi company is 30 rides per day and the
ATC at this level of output is $10 per ride. If the quantity of taxi rides demanded at $10 is 60 rides per
day, there is only room in the market for two taxi companies. With more taxi companies, either the price
would have to fall below $10 per ride or the ATC would have to rise above $10 per ride. In both cases
the firms would incur an economic loss and would exit until only two firms are left. Topic: Natural
Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Communication 71
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 3) "Because firms in an oligopoly are so large, they do not
need to consider each other's actions." Is the previous statement correct or incorrect? Explain your
answer. Answer: The statement is incorrect. Oligopoly is an industry in which only a few firms compete.
Because there are only a few firms, the hallmark of oligopoly is mutual interdependence, that is, one
firm's action will affect the other firms. The fact that in oligopoly each firm's actions affect its rivals is
unlike the case in perfect competition or monopolistic competition, in which there are so many firms
that one firm's actions have no effect on its rivals, or monopoly, in which there is only one firm and
hence no rivals. Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB:
Communication 4) What market structures other than oligopoly have the characteristic of one firm's
actions affecting the actions of its competitors? Explain your answer. Answer: No other market structure
has the characteristic that one firm's actions can affect the actions of its competitors. In monopoly,
there are no competitors to affect. And in perfect competition and monopolistic competition, there are
so many competitors that any one firm's actions have no measurable impact on its competitors.
Oligopoly is unique in that it is the only market structure in which one firm's actions affect the actions of
its competitors. Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB:
Communication 5) What is a cartel? Answer: A cartel is a group of firms acting together to limit output,
raise price and increase economic profit. Cartels are illegal in the United States. Cartels operate in a
market structure with oligopolies. If firms can stick to the cartel agreement, the firms can earn an
economic profit. However, cartels tend to break down because firms are tempted to cheat on their
cartel partners and increase their own profit at the expense of their partners. Topic: Cartel Skill:
Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Communication 6) Is collusion
possible in monopolistic competition? Why or why not? Answer: Collusion is not possible in
monopolistic competition. It is not possible because there are many firms in monopolistic competition,
reaching an agreement to restrict output and boost price is impossible. Topic: Colluding to Maximize
Profits Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 14 AACSB: Communication 72
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 7) Explain what a cartel is and the difficulties faced in
maintaining a cartel. Answer: A cartel is a group of firms acting together to decrease output, raise price,
and increase economic profit. The difficulty faced by a cartel is the fact that each member has the
incentive to cheat on the cartel and increase its output. If a member increases its output and the rest of
the cartel members do not, the cheating member's profits will increase substantially. Each member
reasons that if it is the only cheater, it can significantly increase its profit and so each firm has an
incentive to cheat. Topic: Cartel Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB:
Communication 8) In the United States, why are cartels among firms usually kept secret? Answer:
Cartels are typically kept secret because they are illegal. In the United States and many other countries,
it is illegal for firms to collude to form a cartel. It is illegal because firms collude in order to restrict
output, raise prices, and capture consumer surplus so that they increase their economic profit. Topic:
Cartel Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Communication 9) "If
firms in an oligopoly enter into a collusive agreement to operate as a monopoly, the industry produces
the most output and if they operate as perfect competitors, the industry produces the least output." Is
the previous statement correct or incorrect? Why? Answer: The statement is incorrect; it reverses the
outcomes. If the firms in an oligopoly operate as a monopoly, the industry produces the least output
and if they operate as perfect competitors, the industry produces the most output. Topic: Colluding to
Maximize Profits Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB:
Communication 10) "If firms in duopoly collude and operate as a monopoly, the industry produces more
output compared to the Nash equilibrium." True or false? Explain. Answer: The statement is false. In the
Nash equilibrium, both firms cheat and output is the same as in perfect competition. If the firms operate
as a monopoly, the industry's profit-maximizing level of output is below the competitive level. Topic:
Communication 73 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 11) What is the best outcome for society:
When firms in an oligopoly enter into a collusive agreement to operate as a monopoly or when they act
as perfect competitors? Briefly explain your answer. Answer: The best outcome for society is when the
firms act as perfect competitors. Perfect competition produces the efficient quantity of output. A
monopoly restricts the quantity of output it produces and creates a deadweight loss, which harms
society So society is better off if the firms compete rather than collude and operate as a monopoly.
Topic: Colluding to Maximize Profits Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15
AACSB: Communication 12) What is game theory and what light does it shed on the issues faced by
duopolists? Answer: Game theory is a tool economists use to analyze the behavior of oligopolistic firms
because game theory is a tool to study strategic behavior. Game theory shows that because these firms
are interdependent, the decisions they make to promote their own self-interest can wind up harming all
the firms. The dilemma faced by duopolists is illustrated using game theory: Firms looking to earn for
themselves the maximum possible profit can wind up earning less profit than if they had behaved less
self-interestedly and more cooperatively. Topic: Game Theory Skill: Conceptual Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Communication 13) What is a Nash equilibrium? Is this equilibrium
necessarily the best outcome for the players? Give an example. Answer: John Nash proposed the
concept of an equilibrium in a game where each player takes the best possible action given the action of
other players. A Nash equilibrium is not necessarily the best one for the players. This result can be seen
in the prisoners' dilemma. Typically the prisoners' dilemma is a game where two prisoners are given
rules and payoffs to encourage them to confess to a crime. The prisoners, acting in their own self
interest, confess to the crime to minimize their jail time and so confession is the Nash equilibrium. But if
the players can communicate with each other, they can improve their position. If they can
communicate, they both deny the crime and so both wind up doing less time in jail. Topic: Nash
Equilibrium Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Communication 14)
"A Nash equilibrium occurs when both parties to a game end up worse off as a result of the decisions
that are made." Is the previous definition of a Nash equilibrium correct or incorrect? Answer: The
definition is incorrect. A Nash equilibrium is an equilibrium in which each player takes the best possible
action given the action of the other player. Topic: Nash Equilibrium Skill: Conceptual Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Communication 74 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 15)
What is the real dilemma facing the prisoners in the prisoners' dilemma game? Answer: The real
dilemma facing the prisoners in the prisoners' dilemma game is that when each prisoner plays his or her
best strategy, the best outcome is not achieved. Topic: Equilibrium of the Prisoners' Dilemma Skill:
Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Communication 16) OPEC, the
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, was formed in Baghdad in 1960. Since its formation, this
cartel has suffered from a major problem with respect to the quota (limit) of output it assigns each
member nation. What is OPEC's goal and what sort of quota do you think the cartel assigns? How and
why do nations cheat on their quota? What happens when a nation cheats on its quota? Answer: In
order to keep oil prices high, as has been the case since 2003, OPEC creates a target level of output
designed to achieve a particular high price. OPEC's goal is to set a price high enough so that its member
nations earn the maximum economic profit. Once the target output is set, OPEC assigns a production
quota to each member. As long as each member adheres to its quota the price will remain high and
stable. However, from time to time, individual nations cheat on the agreement by producing more oil
than they are allowed. Nations cheat because they realize that if they alone cheat, the impact on oil
prices will be slight but the impact on their profit will be large. Once this oil shows up on world markets,
the supply of oil increases and prices begin to fall. Then, once prices begin to fall other members might
begin to start selling more oil too in order to get the highest price they can before a collapse takes place.
If every nation cheats, the supply will increase more than if just a few do and the collapse in price
becomes a self-realizing prophecy. Topic: Cartel; Incentive To Cheat Skill: Conceptual Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Communication 17) Why do most collusive agreements have
difficulty surviving? Answer: Most collusive agreements have difficulty surviving because each firm
individually can increase its profits by lowering its price and increasing its output. Because of this fact,
the incentive to cheat on the agreement is great for all firms. Topic: Cartel; Incentive To Cheat Skill:
Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Communication 75 Copyright © 2012
Pearson Education, Inc. 18) Why do firms in an oligopoly find it difficult to cooperate and not cheat on a
cartel agreement? Answer: Firms in an oligopoly have large market shares. When they change their
output or price, the firm affects not only its own revenue and profit but also the revenue and profit of
other firms. For example, if a firm cheats on a cartel agreement by lowering its price, it will capture a
larger market share. The competitors' total revenue and profit decrease, but the cheating firm's profit
increases. If the firms cooperate, they could act like a monopoly and have the maximum joint profit but
each firm has the temptation to cheat and produce more than its share. This temptation is strong
because cheating will increase the cheater's revenue and profit substantially. Topic: Cartel; Incentive To
Cheat Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Communication 19) What
is the dilemma faced by firms in collusive agreement to restrict output and boost price? Answer:
Because there are just a few large firms in an oligopoly, output and pricing decisions made by one firm
affect the demand for other firms' goods. To maximize the total joint profit, the firms must cooperate,
act like a monopoly so as to restrict output and earn monopoly profits. Each firm, though, has an
incentive to cheat on an agreement to restrict output because if it increases production it can
(temporarily, at least) earn higher profits. But if all firms increase production, total profits will fall and
the market will move toward the competitive equilibrium. Topic: Cartel; Incentive To Cheat Skill:
Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Communication 20) Does an oligopoly
produce the efficient quantity of output or does it create a deadweight loss? Do the firms want to
produce the efficient quantity of output? Explain your answer. Answer: An oligopoly might or might not
produce the efficient quantity of output. It produces the efficient quantity if the firms cheat on any
agreement to collude by increasing their output so that it winds up the same as the perfectly
competitive amount. In this case, price equals marginal cost and the outcome is efficient. There is no
deadweight loss. From the firms' perspectives, this outcome is undesirable because the firms make zero
economic profit, that is, only a normal profit. If the firms can play repeated games, detecting and
punishing overproduction, the oligopoly is more likely to restrict output to the monopoly level. This
outcome is inefficient because marginal cost does not equal marginal benefit. A deadweight loss is
created. From the firms' perspective, this outcome is more desirable because the firms make an
economic profit. The firms' goal is to maximize their economic profit. Because their profit is higher if
they successfully collude and limit their production, the firms do not want to produce the efficient
quantity of output. Topic: Efficiency of Oligopoly Skill: Conceptual Question history: Modified 10th
edition AACSB: Communication 76 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 21) Why would a profit
maximizing monopolist in a contestable market set its price at a level below that which maximizes short
run profits? Answer: A firm in a contestable market is not protected by barriers to entry. Thus while it is
currently the only firm in the market, it might worry that other firms will enter the market. In this case,
setting a relatively lower price is known as limit pricing. It is a pricing strategy that deters entry by
sending a signal to potential entrants that entering the industry would result in economic losses. Topic:
Contestable Market Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB:
Communication 22) How is a contestable market similar to a perfectly competitive one? Answer: A
contestable market is similar to a perfectly competitive market in that there is free entry and exit. As a
result, the active firm(s) cannot earn an economic profit in the long-run because potential entrants will
enter any time economic profits exceed zero. Topic: Contestable Market Skill: Conceptual Question
history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Communication 23) What is the Sherman Act and what is
its purpose? Answer: The Sherman Act of 1890 was the first major piece of federal antitrust legislation.
It prohibits two things. First, it prohibits any combination, trust, or conspiracy to restrict interstate or
international trade. Second, it prohibits monopolization or any attempt to monopolize interstate or
international trade. Topic: Sherman Act Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15
AACSB: Communication 24) Does section 2 of the Sherman Act make it a felony to "attempt" to
monopolize an industry or must the attempt succeed before it is a felony? Answer: Section 2 of the
Sherman Act makes attempting to monopolize an industry a felony. It is not necessary for the attempt to
succeed. Topic: Sherman Act Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB:
Communication 25) "The Clayton Act repealed the Sherman Act so that only the Clayton Act remains in
force." Is the previous statement correct or incorrect? Answer: The statement is incorrect. The Sherman
Act remains part of the law of the land. Topic: Clayton Act Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous
edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Communication 77 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 26) What are
the actions that are prohibited according to the Clayton Act and its amendments? What conditions must
be met for these actions to be prohibited? Answer: The Clayton Act prohibits certain practices only if
they substantially lessen competition or create monopoly. These practices are: 1) Price discrimination. 2)
Tying arrangements. 4) Requirements contracts. 5) Exclusive dealing. 6) Territorial confinement. 7)
Acquiring a competitor's shares or assets. 8) Becoming a director of a competing firm. Topic: Clayton Act
Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Communication 27) What is
meant by the term "exclusive dealing"? Give an example of an exclusive deal. When is it illegal? Answer:
Exclusive dealing is a contract that prevents a firm from selling competing items. For instance, Taco Bell
has a contract with Pepsi that only Pepsi products will be sold at Taco Bell. Hence Pepsi has arranged an
exclusive deal with Taco Bell. Exclusive deals are illegal under the Clayton Act only if they substantially
lessen competition or create a monopoly. Topic: Clayton Act Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous
edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Communication 28) If Sony required all its retailers not to sell televisions
from other companies, Sony would be engaging in what kind of activity? Is Sony's requirement legal or
does it violate the Clayton Act? Answer: Sony is engaged in an exclusive deal. The question of whether
Sony's requirement is legal depends on whether it substantially lessens competition or creates a
monopoly. If it does either, it is illegal under the Clayton Act. If it does neither, it is legal under the
Clayton Act. Topic: Clayton Act Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB:
Communication 29) Explain how the courts have ruled on price fixing. Answer: Price fixing among
competitors is always a violation of the antitrust law. This type of price fixing, in and of itself, is a
violation of the law. If the government can prove the existence of price fixing, the accused firms are
guilty because there are no mitigating circumstance allowed. Price fixing in the form of resale price
maintenance is legal as long as it is not anticompetitive. Topic: Price Fixing Skill: Recognition Question
history: Modified 10th edition AACSB: Communication 78 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 30)
If price fixing by competitors is necessary because without it a firm will go bankrupt, is the price fixing
legal? Answer: No, price fixing by competitors is always illegal. Regardless of whether a firm will go
bankrupt or not, this sort of price fixing is illegal. Topic: Price Fixing Skill: Conceptual Question history:
Modified 10th edition AACSB: Communication 31) What is resale price maintenance? Is resale price
maintenance legal in the United States? Answer: Resale price maintenance occurs when a manufacturer
agrees with a distributor on the price at which the product will be resold. For instance, Sony could
arrange with Best Buy the price for which Sony televisions are sold. Resale price maintenance (also
called vertical price fixing) agreements are illegal under the Sherman Act. But it isn't illegal for a
manufacturer to refuse to supply a retailer who doesn't accept guidance on what the price should be.
Topic: Resale Price Maintenance Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB:
Communication 32) What are the current merger guidelines as developed and administered by the
Federal Trade Commission? Answer: The current merger guidelines are based on the Herfindahl-
Hirschman index, which is the sum of the squares of the market shares of the fifty largest firms in an
industry. If the HHI is less than 1000, the market is considered unconcentrated and mergers will usually
go unchallenged. If the HHI is greater than 1000 but less than 1800, the market is considered
moderately concentrated and mergers may be challenged if the HHI would rise by more than 100 points.
If the HHI exceeds 1800, the market is considered concentrated and mergers may be challenged if the
HHI rises by more than 50 points. Topic: Current Merger Rules Skill: Recognition Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Communication 33) In a market with a Herfindahl-Hirschman Index
of 2,000, according to their guidelines will the Department of Justice challenge a merger that would
increase the index by 50? Answer: Yes, according to their guidelines the Department of Justice will
challenge a merger that increases the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index by more than 50 points if the initial
index is greater than 1,800. Topic: Current Merger Rules Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous
edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Communication 79 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 34) "If an
industry's Herfindahl-Hirschman Index is below 1,000, a merger between any two firms in that industry
will be disallowed." Comment on the accuracy of the previous statement. Answer: The statement is
incorrect in at least three dimensions. First, the lower the HerfindahlHirschman Index, the more
competitive the industry and hence the more likely the government will allow a merger to occur.
Second, even if the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index is high, a merger that increases it only a small bit will
not be challenged. And third, the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index is only part of the information considered
when the government is determining whether to challenge a merger. Topic: Current Merger Rules Skill:
Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Communication 7 Numeric and
Graphing Questions Price (dollars per unit) Quantity demanded (units) 30 0 25 10 20 20 15 30 10 40 5 50
0 60 1) The table above has the market demand schedule in an industry that has two firms in it. The
marginal cost of this product is zero because these two firms have exclusive ownership of the resource
and it does not cost any additional amount to produce additional units. a) If the firms cooperate with
each other so that they operate as a monopoly, what price will they charge and what (total) output will
they produce? b) If the firms cannot cooperate but instead behave as perfect competitors, what will be
the price and the (total) output they produce? Answer: a) As a monopoly, the price will be $15 and the
total output will be 30 units. This price and output combination is where they maximize their total profit
because it is here that the marginal revenue equals zero. (The marginal revenue equals zero because
this is the price and output combination for which total revenue is maximized and marginal revenue
equals zero when total revenue is maximized.) b) The perfectly competitive price is equal to marginal
cost. Because marginal cost is equal to zero, the price will be $0 and the output will be 60 units. Topic:
Cartel Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 80
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 2) Suppose the industry for washing machines has only four
firms. The market shares are: Firm A, 40 percent; Firm B, 20 percent; Firm C 20, percent; and Firm D, 20
percent. a) What is the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI)? b) If Firms C and D were to announce a
merger, would the Department of Justice oppose the merger? Answer: a) The HHI is 2,800. b) Yes, the
Department of Justice would oppose the merger. If the merger occurred, the new HHI would be 3,600.
The merger would increase the HHI by 800 points. The Department of Justice's guidelines are to
challenge a merger if the initial HHI exceeds 1,800 and the merger raises the HHI by more than 50
points. The merger considered in the problem easily falls under these guidelines. Topic: Current Merger
Rules Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 81 Copyright
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Firm Marginal share (percent) A 15 B 15 C 15 D 10 E 10 F 10 G 10 H 5 I 5
J 5 3) A market has ten firms, whose market shares are given in the table above. a) If firms I and J
wanted to merge, according to the Department of Justice guidelines, would the Department of Justice
challenge the merger? b) If firms A and B wanted to merge, according to the Department of Justice
guidelines, would the Department of Justice challenge the merger? Answer: a) The decision whether to
challenge the merger depends, in part, on the market's HerfindahlHirschman Index (HHI). The HHI for
the market initially is 1,150. Thus the Department of Justice guidelines say it will challenge a merger if
the merger raises the HHI by 100 or more points. If firms I and J merge, the HHI becomes 1,200. The
Department of Justice will not challenge this merger. b) If firms A and B merge, the HHI becomes 1,600.
The Department of Justice will challenge this merger. Topic: Current Merger Rules Skill: Analytical
Education, Inc. 4) The Herfindahl-Hirschman Index is used as a guideline to determine if a market is
competitive or concentrated. Calculate the index value for each market described below. a) 100 firms,
each of which produces 1 per cent of market output b) 50 firms, each of which produces 2 per cent of
market output c) 25 firms, each of which produces 4 per cent of market output d) 20 firms, each of
which produces 5 per cent of market output e) 10 firms, each of which produces 10 per cent of market
output f) 5 firms, each of which produces 20 per cent of market output g) 2 firms, each of which
produces 50 per cent of market output Answer: a) 100 × 1 = 100 b) 50 × 4 = 200 c) 25 × 16 = 400 d) 20 ×
25 = 500 e) 10 × 100 = 1,000 f) 5 × 400 = 2,000 g) 2 × 2,500 = 5,000 Topic: Current Merger Rules Skill:
Analytical Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 8 True or False 1)
Oligopoly differs from perfect competition because a single competitive firm's behavior does not affect
the behavior of its competitors while the behavior of a single oligopolistic firm does affect the behavior
of its rivals. Answer: TRUE Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter
15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 2) Economies of scale and limited demand can form a natural barrier to
entry that can create a natural oligopoly. Answer: TRUE Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Conceptual Question
history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 83 Copyright © 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. 3) Game theory is a tool for studying competitive behavior between firms in monopolistic
competition because of the mutual interdependence among the firms. Answer: FALSE Topic: Game
Theory Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 4) In
the prisoners' dilemma game, each player has only one possible strategy. Answer: FALSE Topic:
Thinking 5) In a Nash equilibrium, each player takes the best possible action given the actions of the
other players. Answer: TRUE Topic: Game Theory, Nash Equilibrium Skill: Recognition Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 6) In game theory, a Nash equilibrium is the
equilibrium that always yields the best result. Answer: FALSE Topic: Game Theory, Nash Equilibrium Skill:
Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 7) Collusive
agreements tend to break apart because the incentive to cheat is so great. Answer: TRUE Topic: Cartel;
Thinking 8) A contestable market is a market in which there are one or a few firms and entry into the
market is not costly. Answer: TRUE Topic: Contestable Market Skill: Recognition Question history:
Limit pricing is a strategy which is intended to deter entry into an industry. Answer: TRUE Topic: Limit
Pricing Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 10)
The first federal antitrust law ever passed was the Sherman Act. Answer: TRUE Topic: Sherman Act Skill:
Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 11) The Clayton
Act of 1914 was passed to prohibit, in part, price discrimination if the effect is to substantially lessen
competition or create monopoly. Answer: TRUE Topic: Clayton Act Skill: Recognition Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 12) Tying arrangements are always held to be
illegal under U.S. antitrust law. Answer: FALSE Topic: Tying Contracts Skill: Recognition Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 13) The sum of the squares of the market share
for the fifty largest firms in a market is the basis of the government's current merger guidelines. Answer:
TRUE Topic: Current Merger Policies Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15
AACSB: Reflective Thinking 85 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 9 Extended Problems 1)
Nimbus, Inc., and Cleansweep, Inc., are the only producers of flying brooms. Each firm has two
strategies: Spend 30,000 galleons a year on research and development (R&D) or spend nothing on R&D.
If neither firm spends on R&D, Nimbus' economic profit is 80, 000 galleons and Cleansweep's economic
profit is 40,000 galleons. If each firm conducts R&D, market shares are maintained, but each firm's profit
is lower by the amount spent on R&D. If Nimbus conducts R&D and Cleansweep does not, Nimbus
makes an economic profit of 120,000 galleons, while Cleansweep incurs an economic loss of 20,000
galleons. If Cleansweep con-ducts R&D and Nimbus does not, Cleansweep makes a profit of 60,000
galleons while Nimbus loses 10,000 galleons. a) Construct a payoff matrix for the game that Nimbus and
Cleansweep must play. b) Find the Nash equilibrium. In the Nash equilibrium, what is each firm's
equilibrium profit? c) What is the cooperative outcome? Would the firms make more economic profit if
they collude to achieve the cooperative outcome? Answer: a) The payoff matrix is above. The profits are
in thousands of galleons. b) The Nash equilibrium is for both firms to conduct R&D. Nimbus makes
50,000 galleons and Cleansweep makes 10,000 galleons. c) The cooperative outcome is for both firms
not to conduct R&D. If Nimbus and Cleansweep collude and neither of them cheats, Nimbus makes
80,000 galleons and Cleansweep makes 40,000 galleons. So each firm makes more economic profit
compared to the Nash equilibrium. Topic: Game Theory Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous
edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 86 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
MECHANICAL DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT 823 yyyyyy yyy yyy yy y (a) (b) (c) Figure 13.12. Types of
compensation for openings (a) Welded pad (b) Inset nozzle (c) Forged ring The simplest method of
providing compensation is to weld a pad or collar around the opening, Figure 13.12a. The outer
diameter of the pad is usually between 11 2 to 2 times the diameter of the hole or branch. This method,
however, does not give the best disposition of the reinforcing material about the opening, and in some
circumstances high thermal stress can arise due to the poor thermal conductivity of the pad to shell
junction. At a branch, the reinforcement required can be provided, with or without a pad, by allowing
the branch, to protrude into the vessel, Figure 13.12b. This arrangement should be used with caution for
process vessels, as the protrusion will act as a trap for crud, and local corrosion can occur. Forged
reinforcing rings, Figure 13.12c, provide the most effective method of compensation, but are expensive.
They would be used for any large openings and branches in vessels operating under severe conditions.
Calculation of reinforcement required The “equal area method” is the simplest method used for
calculating the amount of reinforcement required, and is allowed in most design codes and standards.
The principle used is to provide reinforcement local to the opening, equal in cross-sectional area to the
area removed in forming the opening, Figure 13.13. If the actual thickness of the vessel 844 CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING The maximum compressive stress will occur when the vessel is not under pressure D 7.4 C
61.1 D 68.5, well below the critical buckling stress. So design is satisfactory. Could reduce the plate
thickness and recalculate. 13.9. VESSEL SUPPORTS The method used to support a vessel will depend on
the size, shape, and weight of the vessel; the design temperature and pressure; the vessel location and
arrangement; and the internal and external fittings and attachments. Horizontal vessels are usually
mounted on two saddle supports; Figure 13.22. Skirt supports are used for tall, vertical columns; Figure
13.23. Brackets, or lugs, are used for all types of vessel; Figure 13.24. The supports must be designed to
carry the weight of the vessel and contents, and any superimposed loads, such as wind loads. Supports
will impose localised loads on the vessel wall, and the design must be checked to ensure that the
resulting stress concentrations are below the maximum allowable design stress. Supports should be
designed to allow easy access to the vessel and fittings for inspection and maintenance. Figure 13.22.
Horizontal cylindrical vessel on saddle supports 13.9.1. Saddle supports Though saddles are the most
commonly used support for horizontal cylindrical vessels, legs can be used for small vessels. A horizontal
vessel will normally be supported at two cross-sections; if more than two saddles are used the
distribution of the loading is uncertain. A vessel supported on two saddles can be considered as a simply
supported beam, with an essentially uniform load, and the distribution of longitudinal axial bending
moment will be as shown in Figure 13.22. Maxima occur at the supports and at mid-span. The
MECHANICAL DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT 845 Figure 13.23. Typical skirt-support designs (a)
Straight skirt (b) Conical skirt yyyy yy (b) (a) Figure 13.24. Bracket supports (a) Supported on legs (b)
Supported from steel-work theoretical optimum position of the supports to give the least maximum
bending moment will be the position at which the maxima at the supports and at mid-span are equal in
magnitude. For a uniformly loaded beam the position will be at 21 per cent of the span, in from each
end. The saddle supports for a vessel will usually be located nearer the ends than this value, to make use
of the stiffening effect of the ends. MECHANICAL DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT 847 book. A
complete analysis of the stress induced in the shell by the supports is given by Zick (1951). Zick’s method
forms the basis of the design methods given in the national codes and standards. The method is also
given by Brownell and Young (1959), Escoe (1994) and Megyesy (2001). Design of saddles The saddles
must be designed to withstand the load imposed by the weight of the vessel and contents. They are
constructed of bricks or concrete, or are fabricated from steel plate. The contact angle should not be
less than 120Ž, and will not normally be greater than 150Ž. Wear plates are often welded to the shell
wall to reinforce the wall over the area of contact with the saddle. The dimensions of typical “standard”
saddle designs are given in Figure 13.26. To take up any thermal expansion of the vessel, such as that in
heat exchangers, the anchor bolt holes in one saddle can be slotted. Procedures for the design of saddle
supports are given by Brownell and Young (1959), Megyesy (2001), Escoe (1994) and Moss (2003).
Dimensions (m) mm Vessel Maximum diam. weight Bolt Bolt (m) (kN) V Y C E J G t2 t1 diam. holes 0.6 35
0.48 0.15 0.55 0.24 0.190 0.095 6 5 20 25 0.8 50 0.58 0.15 0.70 0.29 0.225 0.095 8 5 20 25 0.9 65 0.63
0.15 0.81 0.34 0.275 0.095 10 6 20 25 1.0 90 0.68 0.15 0.91 0.39 0.310 0.095 11 8 20 25 1.2 180 0.78
0.20 1.09 0.45 0.360 0.140 12 10 24 30 All contacting edges fillet welded (a) Figure 13.26. Standard steel
saddles (adapted from Bhattacharyya, 1976). (a) for vessels up to 1.2 m 848 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
Dimensions (m) mm Vessel Maximum diam. weight Bolt Bolt (m) (kN) V Y C E J G t2 t1 diam. holes 1.4
230 0.88 0.20 1.24 0.53 0.305 0.140 12 10 24 30 1.6 330 0.98 0.20 1.41 0.62 0.350 0.140 12 10 24 30 1.8
380 1.08 0.20 1.59 0.71 0.405 0.140 12 10 24 30 2.0 460 1.18 0.20 1.77 0.80 0.450 0.140 12 10 24 30 2.2
750 1.28 0.225 1.95 0.89 0.520 0.150 16 12 24 30 2.4 900 1.38 0.225 2.13 0.98 0.565 0.150 16 12 27 33
2.6 1000 1.48 0.225 2.30 1.03 0.590 0.150 16 12 27 33 2.8 1350 1.58 0.25 2.50 1.10 0.625 0.150 16 12 27
33 3.0 1750 1.68 0.25 2.64 1.18 0.665 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.2 2000 1.78 0.25 2.82 1.26 0.730 0.150 16 12
27 33 3.6 2500 1.98 0.25 3.20 1.40 0.815 0.150 16 12 27 33 All contacting edges fillet welded (b) Figure
13.26. (b) for vessels greater than 1.2 m 13.9.2. Skirt supports A skirt support consists of a cylindrical or
conical shell welded to the base of the vessel. A flange at the bottom of the skirt transmits the load to
the foundations. Typical designs are shown in Figure 13.23. Openings must be provided in the skirt for
access and for any connecting pipes; the openings are normally reinforced. The skirt may be welded to
the bottom head of the vessel. Figure 13.27a; or welded flush with the shell, Figure 13.27b; or welded to
the outside of the vessel shell, Figure 13.27c. The arrangement shown in Figure 13.27b is usually
preferred. Skirt supports are recommended for vertical vessels as they do not impose concentrated
loads on the vessel shell; they are particularly suitable for use with tall columns subject to wind loading.
Skirt thickness The skirt thickness must be sufficient to withstand the dead-weight loads and bending
moments imposed on it by the vessel; it will not be under the vessel pressure. 850 CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING J D weld joint factor, if applicable, s D base angle of a conical skirt, normally 80Ž to 90Ž.
The minimum thickness should be not less than 6 mm. Where the vessel wall will be at a significantly
higher temperature than the skirt, discontinuity stresses will be set up due to differences in thermal
expansion. Methods for calculating the thermal stresses in skirt supports are given by Weil and Murphy
(1960) and Bergman (1963). Base ring and anchor bolt design The loads carried by the skirt are
transmitted to the foundation slab by the skirt base ring (bearing plate). The moment produced by wind
and other lateral loads will tend to overturn the vessel; this will be opposed by the couple set up by the
weight of the vessel and the tensile load in the anchor bolts. A variety of base ring designs is used with
skirt supports. The simplest types, suitable for small vessels, are the rolled angle and plain flange rings
shown in Figure 13.28a and b. For larger columns a double ring stiffened by gussets, Figure 13.18c, or
chair supports, Figure 13.30, are used. Design methods for base rings, and methods for sizing the anchor
bolts, are given by Brownell and Young (1959). For preliminary design, the short-cut method and
nomographs given by Scheiman (1963) can be used. Scheiman’s method is based on a more detailed
procedure for the design of base rings and foundations for columns and stacks given by Marshall (1958).
Scheiman’s method is outlined belo w and illustrated in Example 13.4. (a) Gusset (b) (c) Figure
13.28. Flange ring designs (a) Rolled-angle (b) Single plate with gusset (c) Double plate with gusset 852
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Figure 13.29. Flange ring dimensionsyyyy yyyy yyy yyyG tb 50 min F 12.5 E 12.5
305 mm C A B D All contacting edges fillet welded Dimensions mm Bolt Root size area A B C DEFG M24
353 45 76 64 13 19 30 36 M30 561 50 76 64 13 25 36 42 M36 817 57 102 76 16 32 42 48 M42 1120 60
102 76 16 32 48 54 M48 1470 67 127 89 19 38 54 60 M56 2030 75 150 102 25 45 60 66 M64 2680 83
152 102 25 50 70 76 70 89 178 127 32 64 76 83 76 95 178 127 32 64 83 89 Bolt size = Nominal dia. (BS
4190: 1967) Figure 13.30. Anchor bolt chair design where Lr D the distance from the edge of the skirt to
the outer edge of the ring, mm; Figure 13.29, tb D base ring thickness, mm, f0 c D actual bearing
pressure on base, N/mm2, fr D allowable design stress in the ring material, typically 140 N/mm2. 856
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 50 170 75 40 305 45 All dimensions mm 13.9.3. Bracket supports Brackets,
or lugs, can be used to support vertical vessels. The bracket may rest on the building structural steel
work, or the vessel may be supported on legs; Figure 13.24. The main load carried by the brackets will
be the weight of the vessel and contents; in addition the bracket must be designed to resist the load due
to any bending moment due to wind, or other loads. If the bending moment is likely to be significant
skirt supports should be considered in preference to bracket supports. As the reaction on the bracket is
eccentric, Figure 13.31, the bracket will impose a bending moment on the vessel wall. The point of
support, at which the reaction acts, should be made as close to the vessel wall as possible; allowing for
the thickness of any insulation. Methods for estimating the magnitude of the stresses induced in the
vessel Bending moment Backing plate Reaction Figure 13.31. Loads on a bracket support MECHANICAL
DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT 859 Figure 13.33. Flange types (a) Welding-neck (b) Slip-on (c) Lap-
joint (d) Screwed Lap-joint flanges, Figure 13.33c: are used for piped work. They are economical when
used with expensive alloy pipe, such as stainless steel, as the flange can be made from inexpensive
carbon steel. Usually a short lapped nozzle is welded to the pipe, but with some schedules of pipe the
lap can be formed on the pipe itself, and this will give a cheap method of pipe assembly. Lap-joint
flanges are sometimes known as “Van-stone flanges”. Screwed flanges, Figure 13.33d: are used to
connect screwed fittings to flanges. They are also sometimes used for alloy pipe which is difficult to weld
satisfactorily. Blind flanges (blank flanges): are flat plates, used to blank off flange connections, and as
covers for manholes and inspection ports. 13.10.2. Gaskets Gaskets are used to make a leak-tight joint
between two surfaces. It is impractical to machine flanges to the degree of surface finish that would be
required to make a satisfactory seal under pressure without a gasket. Gaskets are made from “semi-
plastic” materials; which will deform and flow under load to fill the surface irregularities between the
flange faces, yet retain sufficient elasticity to take up the changes in the flange alignment that occur
under load. 860 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Table 13.4. Gasket materials (Based on a similar table in BS
5500: 1991; see BS PD 5500 2003) Min. design Minimum Gasket seating gasket factor stress width
Gasket material m y(N/mm2) Sketches (mm) Rubber without fabric or a high percentage of asbestos
fibre; hardness: below 75° IRH 0.50 0 10 75° IRH or higher 1.00 1.4 Asbestos with a suitable binder 3.2
mm thick 2.00 11.0 for the operating conditions 1.6 mm thick 2.75 25.5 10 0.8 mm thick 3.50 44.8
Rubber with cotton fabric insertion 1.25 2.8 10 3-ply 2.25 15.2 Rubber with asbestos fabric
insertion, with or without wire 2-ply 2.50 20.0 10 reinforcement 1-ply 2.75 25.5 Vegetable fibre
1.75 7.6 10 Carbon 2.50 20.0 Spiral-wound metal, asbestos Stainless or 3.00 31.0 10 filled monel
Corrugated metal, Soft aluminium 2.50 20.0 asbestos inserted Soft copper or brass 2.75 25.5 or Iron or
soft steel 3.00 31.0 10 Corrugated metal, Monel or 4 to 6 jacketed asbestos filled per cent chrome 3.25
37.9 Stainless steels 3.50 44.8 Soft aluminium 2.75 25.5 Soft copper or brass 3.00 31.0 Corrugated metal
Iron or soft steel 3.25 37.9 10 Monel or 4 to 6 per cent chrome 3.50 44.8 Stainless steels 3.75 52.4 Soft
aluminium 3.25 37.9 Soft copper or brass 3.50 44.8 Flat metal jacketed Iron or soft steel 3.75 52.4
asbestos filled Monel 3.50 55.1 10 4 to 6 per cent chrome 3.75 62.0 Stainless steels 3.75 62.0 Soft
aluminium 3.25 37.9 Soft copper or brass 3.50 44.8 Grooved metal Iron or soft steel 3.75 52.4 10 Monel
or 4 to 6 per cent chrome 3.75 62.0 Stainless steels 4.25 69.5 Soft aluminium 4.00 60.6 Soft copper or
brass 4.75 89.5 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT 861 Table 13.4. (continued) Min. design
Minimum Gasket seating gasket factor stress width Gasket material m y(N/mm2) Sketches (mm) Solid
flat metal Iron or soft steel 5.50 124 6 Monel or 4 to 6 per cent chrome 6.00 150 Stainless steels 6.50
179 Ring joint Iron or soft steel 5.50 124 Monel or 4 to 6 per cent chrome 6.00 150 6 Stainless steels
6.50 179 A great variety of proprietary gasket materials is used, and reference should be made to the
manufacturers’ catalogues and technical manuals when selecting gaskets for a particular application.
Design data for some of the more commonly used gasket materials are given in Table 13.4. Further data
can be found in the pressure vessel codes and standards and in various handbooks; Perry et al. (1997).
The minimum seating stress y is the force per unit area (pressure) on the gasket that is required to cause
the material to flow and fill the surface irregularities in the gasket face. The gasket factor m is the ratio
of the gasket stress (pressure) under the operating conditions to the internal pressure in the vessel or
pipe. The internal pressure will force the flanges’ faces apart, so the pressure on the gasket under
operating conditions will be lower than the initial tightening-up pressure. The gasket factor gives the
minimum pressure that must be maintained on the gasket to ensure a satisfactory seal. The following
factors must be considered when selecting a gasket material: 1. The process conditions: pressure,
temperature, corrosive nature of the process fluid. 2. Whether repeated assembly and disassembly of
the joint is required. 3. The type of flange and flange face (see Section 13.10.3). Up to pressures of 20
bar, the operating temperature and corrosiveness of the process fluid will be the controlling factor in
gasket selection. Vegetable fibre and synthetic rubber gaskets can be used at temperatures of up to
100ŽC. Solid polyfluorocarbon (Teflon) and compressed asbestos gaskets can be used to a maximum
temperature of about 260ŽC. Metal-reinforced gaskets can be used up to around 450ŽC. Plain soft metal
gaskets are normally used for higher temperatures. 13.10.3. Flange faces Flanges are also classified
according to the type of flange face used. There are two basic types: 1. Full-faced flanges, Figure 13.34a:
where the face contact area extends outside the circle of bolts; over the full face of the flange. 862
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Figure 13.34. Flange types and faces (a) Full-face (b) Gasket within bolt circle
(c) Spigot and socket (d) Ring type joint 2. Narrow-faced flanges, Figure 13.34b, c, d: where the face
contact area is located within the circle of bolts. Full face, wide-faced, flanges are simple and
inexpensive, but are only suitable for low pressures. The gasket area is large, and an excessively high
bolt tension would be needed to achieve sufficient gasket pressure to maintain a good seal at high
operating pressures. The raised face, narrow-faced, flange shown in Figure 13.34b is probably the most
commonly used type of flange for process equipment. Where the flange has a plain face, as in Figure
13.34b, the gasket is held in place by friction between the gasket and flange surface. In the spigot and
socket, and tongue and grooved faces, Figure 13.34c, the gasket is confined in a groove, which prevents
failure by “blow-out”. Matched pairs of flanges are required, which increases the cost, but this type is
suitable for high pressure and high vacuum service. Ring joint flanges, Figure 13.34d, are used for high
temperatures and high pressure services. 13.10.4. Flange design Standard flanges will be specified for
most applications (see Section 13.10.5). Special designs would be used only if no suitable standard
flange were available; or for large MECHANICAL DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT 863 flanges, such as
the body flanges of vessels, where it may be cheaper to size a flange specifically for the duty required
rather than to accept the nearest standard flange, which of necessity would be over-sized. Figure 13.35
shows the forces acting on a flanged joint. The bolts hold the faces together, resisting the forces due to
the internal pressure and the gasket sealing pressure. As these forces are offset the flange is subjected
to a bending moment. It can be considered as a cantilever beam with a concentrated load. A flange
assembly must be sized so as to have sufficient strength and rigidity to resist this bending moment. A
flange that lacks sufficient rigidity will rotate slightly, and the joint will leak; Figure 13.36. The principles
of flange design are discussed by Singh and Soler (1992), and Azbel and Cheremisinoff (1982). Singh and
Soler give a computer programme for flange design. Design procedures and work sheets for non-
standard flanges are given in the national codes and standards. Figure 13.35. Forces acting on an
integral flange Figure 13.36. Deflection of a weak flange (exaggerated) 866 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
STEEL SLIP-ON BOSS FLANGE FOR WELDING Nominal pressure 6 bar Nom. Pipe Flange Raised face
Bolting Drilling Boss size o.d. d1 ³ D bhd4 f No. d2 k d3 10 17.2 75 12 20 35 2 M10 4 11 50 25 15 21.3 80
12 20 40 2 M10 4 11 55 30 20 26.9 90 14 24 50 2 M10 4 11 65 40 25 33.7 100 14 24 60 2 M10 4 11 75 50
32 42.4 120 14 26 70 2 M12 4 14 90 60 40 48.3 130 14 26 80 3 M12 4 14 100 70 50 60.3 140 14 28 90 3
M12 4 14 110 80 65 76.1 160 14 32 110 3 M12 4 14 130 100 80 88.9 190 16 34 128 3 M16 4 18 150 110
100 114.3 210 16 40 148 3 M16 4 18 170 130 125 139.7 240 18 44 178 3 M16 8 18 200 160 150 168.3
265 18 44 202 3 M16 8 18 225 185 200 219.1 320 20 44 258 3 M16 8 18 280 240 250 273 375 22 44 312
3 M16 12 18 335 295 300 323.9 440 22 44 365 4 M20 12 22 395 355 Figure 13.37. Typical standard
flange design (All dimensions mm) The flange class number required for a particular application will
depend on the design pressure and temperature, and the material of construction. The reduction in
strength at elevated temperatures is allowed for by selecting a flange with a higher rating than the
design pressure. For example, for a design pressure of 10 bar (150 psi) a BS 1560 carbon steel flange
class 150 flange would be selected for a service temperature below 300ŽC; whereas for a service
temperature of, say, 300ŽC a 300 pound flange would be specified. A typical pressure temperature
relationship for carbon steel flanges is shown in Table 13.5. Pressure temperature ratings for a full range
of materials can be obtained from the standards. Typical designs, dimensioned, for welding-neck flanges
over a range of pressure ratings are given in Appendix E. These can be used for preliminary designs. The
current standards and suppliers’ catalogues should be consulted before firming up the design. 870
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 70° (b) (c) 10˚ (d) (e) (a) Figure 13.39. Weld profiles; (b to e) butt welds (a)
Lap joint (b) Single ‘V’ (c) Backing strip (d) Single ‘U’ (e) Double ‘U’ (a) (b) (c) (d) Figure 13.40. Typical
weld profiles Branches (a), (b) Set-on branches (c), (d) Set-in branches MECHANICAL DESIGN OF
PROCESS EQUIPMENT 871 Figure 13.41. Typical construction methods for welded jackets Figure 13.42.
Transition between plates of unequal thickness Where butt joints are made between plates of different
thickness, the thicker plate is reduced in thickness with a slope of not greater than 1 in 4 (14Ž) (Figure
13.42). The local heating, and consequent expansion, that occurs during welding can leave the joint in a
state of stress. These stresses are relieved by post-welding heat treatment. Not all vessels will be stress
relieved. Guidance on the need for post-welding heat treatment is given in the codes and standards, and
will depend on the service and conditions, materials of construction, and plate thickness. MECHANICAL
DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT 877 13.15.2. Compound vessels Shrink-fitted cylinders Compound
vessels are made by shrinking one cylinder over another. The inside diameter of the outer cylinder is
made slightly smaller than the outer diameter of the inner cylinder, and is expanded by heating to fit
over the inner. On cooling the outer cylinder contracts and places the inner under compression. The
stress distribution in a two-cylinder compound vessel is shown in Figure 13.45; more than two cylinders
may be used. (a) tangential stress σt , Di (b) (c) Figure 13.45. Stress distribution in a shrink-fitted
compound cylinder (a) Due to shrinkage (b) Due to pressure (c) Combined (a C b) Shrink-fitted
compound cylinders are used for small-diameter vessels, such as compressor cylinder barrels. The
design of shrink-fitted compound cylinders is discussed by Manning (1947) and Jawad and Farr (1989).
Multilayer vessels Multilayer vessels are made by wrapping several layers of relatively thin plate round a
central tube. The plates are heated, tightened and welded, and this gives the desired stress distribution
in the compound wall. The vessel is closed with forged heads. A typical 878 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
Figure 13.46. Multilayer construction design is shown in Figure 13.46. This construction technique is
discussed by Jasper and Scudder (1941) and Jawad and Farr (1989). Wound vessels Cylindrical vessels
can be reinforced by winding on wire or thin ribbons. Winding on the wire under tension places the
cylinder under compression. For high-pressure vessels special interlocking strips are used, such as those
shown in Figure 13.47. The interlocking gives strength in the longitudinal direction and a more uniform
stress distribution. The strips may be wound on hot to increase the prestressing. This type of
construction is described by Birchall and Lake (1947). Wire winding was used extensively for the barrels
of large guns. Interlocking strips Inner cylinder Figure 13.47. Strip wound vessel 13.15.3. Autofrettage
Autofrettage is a technique used to prestress the inner part of the wall of a monobloc vessel, to give a
similar stress distribution to that obtained in a shrink-fitted compound cylinder. The finished vessel is
deliberately over pressurised by hydraulic pressure. During this process the inner part of the wall will be
more highly stressed than the outer part and will undergo plastic strain. On release of the
“autofrettage” pressure the inner part, which is now over-size, will be placed under compression by the
elastic contraction of the outer part, which gives a residual stress distribution similar to that obtained in
a two-layer shrink-fitted compound cylinder. After straining the vessel is annealed at a relatively low
temperature, approximately 300ŽC. The straining also work-hardens the inner part of the MECHANICAL
DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMmethod A study by van Edmonds (1994), using the HTFS TREB4 program,
found that Frank and Pricket’s method gave acceptable predictions for pure components and binary
mixtures with water, but that the results were unreliable for other mixtures. Also, van Edmonds’ results
predicted higher flux values than those obtained by Pricket and Frank. For preliminary designs for pure
components, or near pure components, Pricket and Frank’s method should give a conservative estimate
of the operating heat flux. It is not recommended for mixtures, other than binary mixtures with water.
Approximate design method for mixtures For mixtures, the simplified analysis used by Kern (1954) can
be used to obtain an approximate estimate of the number of tubes required; see also Aerstin and Street
(1978) and Hewitt et al. (1994). This method uses simple, unsophisticated, methods to estimate the two-
phase pressure drop through the exchanger and piping, and the convective boiling heat transfer
coefficient. The calculation procedure is set out below and illustrated in Example 12.11 Procedure 1.
Determine the heat duty. 2. Estimate the heat transfer area, using the maximum allowable heat flux.
Take as 39,700 W/m2 for vertical and 47,300 W/m2 for horizontal reboilers. 3. Choose the tube
diameters and length. Calculate the number of tubes required. 4. Estimate the recirculation ratio, not
less than 3. 5. Calculated the vapour flow rate leaving the reboiler for the duty and liquid heat of
vaporisation. 6. Calculate the liquid flow rate leaving the reboiler for the vapour rate and recirculation
ratio. 7. Estimate the two-phase pressure drop though the tubes, due to friction. Use the homogenous
model or another simple method, such as the Lochart Martenelli equation; see Volume 1, Chapter 5. 8.
Estimate the static head in the tubes. 9. Estimate the available head. 10. Compare the total estimated
pressure drop and the available head. If the available head is greater by a sufficient amount to allow for
the pressure drop through the inlet and outlet piping, proceed. If the available head is not sufficient,
return to step 2, and increase the number of tubes. 11. Calculate the convective heat transfer coefficient
using simple methods, such as assuming convection only, or Chens’ method; see Section 12.11.3. HEAT-
TRANSFER EQUIPMENT 745 12. Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient. 13. Calculate the required
overall coefficient and compare with that estimated. If satisfactory, accept the design, if unsatisfactory
return to step 2 and increase the estimated area. Maximum heat flux Thermosyphon reboilers can suffer
from flow instabilities if too high a heat flux is used. The liquid and vapour flow in the tubes is not
smooth but tends to pulsate, and at high heat fluxes the pulsations can become large enough to cause
vapour locking. A good practice is to install a flow restriction in the inlet line, a valve or orifice plate, so
that the flow resistance can be adjusted should vapour locking occur in operation. Kern recommends
that the heat flux in thermosyphon reboilers, based on the total heat-transfer area, should not exceed
37,900 W/m2 (12,000 Btu/ft2 h). For horizontal thermosyphon reboilers, Collins recommends a
maximum flux ranging from 47,300 W/m2 for 20-mm tubes to 56,800 W/m2 for 25-mm tubes (15,000 to
18,000 Btu/ft2h). These “rule of thumb” values are now thought to be too conservative; see Skellence et
al. (1968) and Furzer (1990). Correlations for determining the maximum heat flux for vertical
thermosyphons are given by Lee et al. (1956) and Palen et al. (1974); and for horizontal thermosyphons
by Yilmaz (1987). General design considerations The tube lengths used for vertical thermosyphon
reboilers vary from 1.83 m (6 ft) for vacuum service to 3.66 m (12 ft) for pressure operation. A good size
for general applications is 2.44 m (8 ft) by 25 mm internal diameter. Larger tube diameters, up to 50
mm, are used for fouling systems. The top tube sheet is normally aligned with the liquid level in the base
of the column; Figure 12.58. The outlet pipe should be as short as possible, and have a cross-sectional
area at least equal to the total cross-sectional area of the tubes. Example 12.10 Make a preliminary
design for a vertical thermosyphon for a column distilling crude aniline. The column will operate at
atmospheric pressure and a vaporisation rate of 6000 kg/h is required. Steam is available at 22 bar (300
psig). Take the column bottom pressure as 1.2 bar. Solution Physical properties, taken as those of
aniline: Boiling point at 1.2 bar 190ŽC Molecular weight 93.13 Tc 699 K Latent heat 42,000 kJ/kmol
Steam saturation temperature 217ŽC. 756 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 12.12. PLATE HEAT EXCHANGERS
12.12.1. Gasketed plate heat exchangers A gasketed plate heat exchanger consists of a stack of closely
spaced thin plates clamped together in a frame. A thin gasket seals the plates round their edges. The
plates are normally between 0.5 and 3 mm thick and the gap between them 1.5 to 5 mm. Plate surface
areas range from 0.03 to 1.5 m2, with a plate width:length ratio from 2.0 to 3.0. The size of plate heat
exchangers can vary from very small, 0.03 m2, to very large, 1500 m2. The maximum flow-rate of fluid is
limited to around 2500 m3/h. The basic layout and flow arrangement for a gasketed plate heat
exchanger is shown in Figure 12.60. Corner ports in the plates direct the flow from plate to plate. The
plates are embossed with a pattern of ridges, which increase the rigidity of the plate and improve the
heat transfer performance. Plates are available in a wide range of metals and alloys; including stainless
steel, aluminium and titanium. A variety of gasket materials is also used; see Table 12.8. Selection The
advantages and disadvantages of plate heat exchangers, compared with conventional shell and tube
exchangers are listed below: Advantages 1. Plates are attractive when material costs are high. 2. Plate
heat exchangers are easier to maintain. Figure 12.60. Gasketed plate heat exchanger HEAT-TRANSFER
EQUIPMENT 757 Table 12.8. Typical gasket materials for plated heat exchangers Material Approximate
temperature Fluids limit, °C Styrene-butane rubber 85 Aqueous systems Acrylonitrile-butane rubber 140
Aqueous system, fats, aliphatic hydrocarbons Ethylene-propylene rubber 150 Wide range of chemicals
Fluorocarbon rubber 175 Oils Compressed asbestos 250 General resistance to organic chemicals 3. Low
approach temps can be used, as low as 1 ŽC, compared with 5 to 10 ŽC for shell and tube exchangers. 4.
Plate heat exchangers are more flexible, it is easy to add extra plates. 5. Plate heat exchangers are more
suitable for highly viscous materials. 6. The temperature correction factor, Ft, will normally be higher
with plate heat exchangers, as the flow is closer to true counter-current flow. 7. Fouling tends to be
significantly less in plate heat exchangers; see Table 12.9. Disadvantages 1. A plate is not a good shape
to resist pressure and plate heat exchangers are not suitable for pressures greater than about 30 bar. 2.
The selection of a suitable gasket is critical; see Table 12.8. 3. The maximum operating temperature is
limited to about 250 ŽC, due to the performance of the available gasket materials. Plate heat exchangers
are used extensively in the food and beverage industries, as they can be readily taken apart for cleaning
and inspection. Their use in the chemical industry will depend on the relative cost for the particular
application compared with a conventional shell and tube exchanger; see Parker (1964) and Trom (1990).
Table 12.9. Fouling factors (coefficients), typical values for plate heat exchangers Fluid Coefficient
(W/m2 °C) Factor (m2 °C/W) Process water 30,000 0.00003 Towns water (soft) 15,000 0.00007 Towns
water (hard) 6000 0.00017 Cooling water (treated) 8000 0.00012 Sea water 6000 0.00017 Lubricating oil
6000 0.00017 Light organics 10,000 0.0001 Process fluids 5000 20,000 0.0002 0.00005 Plate heat
exchanger design It is not possible to give exact design methods for plate heat exchangers. They are
proprietary designs, and will normally be specified in consultation with the manufacturers. Information
on the performance of the various patterns of plate used is not generally 758 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
available. Emerson (1967) gives performance data for some proprietary designs, and Kumar (1984) and
Bond (1980) have published design data for APV chevron patterned plates. The approximate method
given below can be used to size an exchanger for comparison with a shell and tube exchanger, and to
check performance of an existing exchanger for new duties. More detailed design methods are given by
Hewitt et al. (1994) and Cooper and Usher (1983). Procedure The design procedure is similar to that for
shell and tube exchangers. 1. Calculate duty, the rate of heat transfer required. 2. If the specification is
incomplete, determine the unknown fluid temperature or fluid flow-rate from a heat balance. 3.
Calculate the log mean temperature difference, TLM. 4. Determine the log mean temperature
correction factor, Ft; see method given below. 5. Calculate the corrected mean temperature difference
Tm D Ft ð TLM. 6. Estimate the overall heat transfer coefficient; see Table 12.1. 7. Calculate the
surface area required; equation 12.1. 8. Determine the number of plates required D total surface
area/area of one plate. 9. Decide the flow arrangement and number of passes. 10. Calculate the film
heat transfer coefficients for each stream; see method given below. 11. Calculate the overall coefficient,
allowing for fouling factors. 12. Compare the calculated with the assumed overall coefficient. If
satisfactory, say 0% to C 10% error, proceed. If unsatisfactory return to step 8 and increase or decrease
the number of plates. 13. Check the pressure drop for each stream; see method given below. This design
procedure is illustrated in Example 12.13. Flow arrangements The stream flows can be arranged in series
or parallel, or a combination of series and parallel, see Figure 12.61. Each stream can be sub-divided into
a number of passes; analogous to the passes used in shell and tube exchangers. Estimation of the
temperature correction factor For plate heat exchangers it is convenient to express the log mean
temperature difference correction factor, Ft, as a function of the number of transfer units, NTU, and the
flow arrangement (number of passes); see Figure 12.62. The correction will normally be higher for a
plate heat exchanger than for a shell and tube exchanger operating with the same temperatures. For
rough sizing purposes, the factor can be taken as 0.95 for series flow. 764 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Total
pressure drop D 26,547 C 50,999 D 77,546 N/m2 , 0.78 bar Could increase the port diameter to reduce
the pressure drop. The trial design should be satisfactory, so a plate heat exchanger could be considered
for this duty. 12.12.2. Welded plate Welded plate heat exchangers use plates similar to those in
gasketed plate exchangers but the plate edges are sealed by welding. This increases the pressure and
temperature rating to up to 80 bar and temperatures in excess of 500ŽC. They retain the advantages of
plate heat exchangers (compact size and good rates of heat transfer) whilst giving security against
leakage. An obvious disadvantage is that the exchangers cannot be dismantled for cleaning. So, their use
is restricted to specialised applications where fouling is not a problem. The plates are fabricated in a
variety of materials. A combination of gasketed and welded plate construction is also used. An
aggressive process fluid flowing between welded plates and a benign process stream, or service stream,
between gasketed plates. 12.12.3. Plate-fin Plate-fin exchangers consist essentially of plates separated
by corrugated sheets, which form the fins. They are made up in a block and are often referred to as
matrix exchangers; see Figure 12.63. They are usually constructed of aluminium and joined and sealed
by brazing. The main application of plate-fin exchangers has been in the cryogenics industries, such as
air separation plants, where large heat transfer surface areas are needed. They are now finding wider
applications in the chemical processes industry, where large surface area, compact, exchangers are
required. Their compact size and low weight have lead to some use in off-shore applications. The brazed
aluminium construction is limited to pressures up to around 60 bar and temperatures up to 150ŽC. The
units cannot be mechanically cleaned, so their use is restricted to clean process and service steams. The
Figure 12.63. Plate-fin exchanger HEAT-TRANSFER EQUIPMENT 765 construction and design of plate-fin
exchangers and their applications are discussed by Saunders (1988) and Burley (1991), and their use in
cryogenic service by Lowe (1987). 12.12.4. Spiral heat exchangers A spiral heat exchanger can be
considered as a plate heat exchanger in which the plates are formed into a spiral. The fluids flow
through the channels formed between the plates. The exchanger is made up from long sheets, between
150 to 1800 mm wide, formed into a pair of concentric spiral channels. The channels are closed by
gasketed end-plates bolted to an outer case. Inlet and outlet nozzles are fitted to the case and connect
to the channels, see Figure 12.64. The gap between the sheets varies between 4 to 20 mm; depending
on the size of the exchanger and the application. They can be fabricated in any material that can be
cold-worked and welded. Figure 12.64. Spiral heat exchanger Spiral heat exchangers are compact units:
a unit with around 250 m2 area occupying a volume of approximately 10 m3. The maximum operating
pressure is limited to 20 bar and the temperature to 400ŽC. For a given duty, the pressure drop over a
spiral heat exchanger will usually be lower than that for the equivalent shell-and-tube exchanger. Spiral
heat exchangers give true counter-current flow and can be used where the temperature correction
factor Ft for a shell-and-tube exchanger would be too low; see Section 12.6. Because they are easily
cleaned and the turbulence in the channels is high, spiral heat exchangers can be used for very dirty
process fluids and slurries. The correlations for flow in conduits can be used to estimate the heat
transfer coefficient and pressure drop in the channels; using the hydraulic mean diameter as the
characteristic dimension. The design of spiral heat exchangers is discussed by Minton (1970) 766
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 12.13. DIRECT-CONTACT HEAT EXCHANGERS In direct-contact heat exchange
the hot and cold streams are brought into contact without any separating wall, and high rates of heat
transfer are achieved. Applications include: reactor off-gas quenching, vacuum condensers, cooler-
condensers, desuperheating and humidification. Water-cooling towers are a particular example of
direct-contact heat exchange. In direct-contact cooler-condensers the condensed liquid is frequently
used as the coolant, Figure 12.65. Gas out Gas in Figure 12.65. Typical direct-contact cooler (baffle
plates) Direct-contact heat exchangers should be considered whenever the process stream and coolant
are compatible. The equipment used is basically simple and cheap, and is suitable for use with heavily
fouling fluids and with liquids containing solids; spray chambers, spray columns, and plate and packed
columns are used. There is no general design method for direct contact exchangers. Most applications
will involve the transfer of latent heat as well as sensible heat, and the process is one of simultaneous
heat and mass transfer. When the approach to thermal equilibrium is rapid, as it will be in many
applications, the size of the contacting vessel is not critical and the design can be based on experience
with similar processes. For other situations the designer must work from first principles, setting up the
differential equations for mass and heat transfer, and using judgement in making the simplifications
necessary to achieve a solution. The design procedures used are analogous to those for gas absorption
and distillation. The rates of heat transfer will be high; with coefficients for packed columns typically in
the range 2000 to 20,000 W/m3ŽC (i.e. per cubic meter of packing). 770 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 3.
Direct-fired reactors; for example, the pyrolysis of dichloroethane to form vinyl chloride. 4. Reformers
for hydrogen production, giving outlet temperatures of 800 900ŽC. 5. Steam boilers. Fan Air Motor
Support fluid out Hot fluid in Hot channels Section-support Air Tube supports Air Tube supports Hot fluid
in Hot fluid out Motor Air Fan Air Gear Finned tubes (a) (b) Figure 12.68. Air-cooled exchangers 12.17.1.
Basic construction Many different designs and layouts are used, depending on the application, see
Bergman (1979a). The basic construction consists of a rectangular or cylindrical steel chamber, lined
with refractory bricks. Tubes are arranged around the wall, in either horizontal or vertical banks. The
fluid to be heated flows through the tubes. Typical layouts are shown in Figure 12.69a, b and c. A more
detailed diagram of a pyrolysis furnace is given in Figure 12.70. Heat transfer to the tubes on the furnace
walls is predominantly by radiation. In modern designs this radiant section is surmounted by a smaller
section in which the combustion HEAT-TRANSFER EQUIPMENT 771 Figure 12.69. Fired heaters. (a)
Vertical-cylindrical, all radiant (b) Vertical-cylindrical, helical coil (c) Verticalcylindrical with convection
section gases flow over banks of tubes and transfer heat by convection. Extended surface tubes, with
fins or pins, are used in the convection section to improve the heat transfer from the combustion gases.
Plain tubes are used in the bottom rows of the convection section to act as a heat shield from the hot
gases in the radiant section. Heat transfer in the shield section will be by both radiation and convection.
The tube sizes used will normally be between 75 and 150 mm diameter. The tube size and number of
passes used depending on the application and the process-fluid flow-rate. Typical tube velocities will be
from 1 to 2 m/s for heaters, with lower rates used for reactors. Carbon steel is used for low temperature
duties; stainless steel and special alloy steels for elevated temperatures. For high temperatures, a
material that resists creep must be used. The burners are positioned at base or sides of radiant section.
Gaseous and liquid fuels are used. The combustion air may be preheated in tubes in the convection
section. 12.17.2. Design Computer programs for the design of fired heaters are available from
commercial organisations; such as HTFS and HTRI, see Section 12.1. Manual calculation methods,
suitable for the preliminary design of fired heaters, are given by Kern (1950), Wimpress (1978) and
Evans (1980). A brief review of the factors to be considered is given in the following sections. HEAT-
TRANSFER EQUIPMENT 773 where Qr D radiant heat transfer rate, W Acp D the “cold-plane” area of the
tubes D number of tubes ð the exposed length ð tube pitch ˛ D the absorption efficiency factor F D the
radiation exchange factor Tg D temperature of the hot gases, K Tt D tube surface temperature, K Part of
the radiation from the hot combustion gases will strike the tubes and be absorbed, and part will pass
through the spaces between the tubes and be radiated back into the furnace. If the tubes are in front of
the wall, some of the radiation from the wall will also be absorbed by the tubes. This complex situation
is allowed for by calculating what is known as the cold plane area of the tubes Acp, and then applying
the absorption efficiency factor ˛ to allow for the fact that the tube area will not be as effective as a
plane area. The absorption efficiency factor is a function of the tube arrangement and will vary from
around 0.4 for widely spaced tubes, to 1.0 for the theoretical situation when the tubes are touching. It
will be around 0.7 to 0.8 when the pitch equals the tube diameter. Values for ˛ are available in
handbooks for a range of tube arrangements; see Perry et al. (1997), and Wimpress (1978). The
radiation exchange factor F depends on the arrangement of the surfaces and their emissivity and
absorptivity. Combustion gases are poor radiators, because only the carbon dioxide and water vapour,
about 20 to 25 per cent of the total, will emit radiation in the thermal spectrum. For a fired heater the
exchange factor will depend on the partial pressure and emissivity of these gases, and the layout of the
heater. The partial pressure is dependent on the kind of fuel used, liquid or gas, and the amount of
excess air. The gas emissivity is a function of temperature. Methods for estimating the exchange factor
for typical furnace designs are given in the handbooks; see Perry et al. (1997), and Wimpress (1978). The
heat flux to the tubes in the radiant section will lie between 20 to 40 kW/m2, for most applications. A
value of 30 kW/m2 can be used to make a rough estimate of the tube area needed in this section. A
small amount of heat will be transferred to the tubes by convection in the radiant section, but as the
superficial velocity of the gases will be low, the heat transfer coefficient will be low, around 10 Wm2
ŽC1. Convection section The combustion gases flow across the tube banks in the convection section and
the correlations for cross-flow in tube banks can be used to estimate the heat transfer coefficient. The
gas side coefficient will be low, and where extended surfaces are used an allowance must be made for
the fin efficiency. Procedures are given in the tube vendors literature, and in handbooks, see Section
12.14, and Bergman (1978b). The overall coefficient will depend on the gas velocity and temperature,
and the tube size. Typical values range from 20 to 50 Wm2 ŽC1. The lower tubes in the shield bank in the
convection section will receive heat by radiation from the radiant section. This can be allowed for by
including the area of the lower row of tubes with the tubes in the radiant section. HEAT-TRANSFER
EQUIPMENT 775 0.2 0.5 for each row of plain tubes 1.0 2.0 for each row of finned tubes 0.5 for the stack
entrance 1.0 for the stack exit 1.5 for the stack damper 12.17.7. Thermal efficiency Modern fired heaters
operate at thermal efficiencies of between 80 to 90 per cent, depending on the fuel and the excess air
requirement. In some applications additional excess air may be used to reduce the flame temperature,
to avoid overheating of the tubes. Where the inlet temperature of the process fluid is such that the
outlet temperature from the convection section would be excessive, giving low thermal efficiency, this
excess heat can be used to preheat the air to the furnace. Tubes would be installed above the process
fluid section in the convection section. Forced draft operation would be needed to drive the air flow
through the preheat section. Heat losses from the heater casing are normally between 1.5 to 2.5 per
cent of the heat input. 12.18. HEAT TRANSFER TO VESSELS The simplest way to transfer heat to a
process or storage vessel is to fit an external jacket, or an internal coil. 12.18.1. Jacketed vessels
Conventional jackets The most commonly used type jacket is that shown in Figure 12.71. It consists of an
outer cylinder which surrounds part of the vessel. The heating or cooling medium circulates in the
annular space between the jacket and vessel walls and the heat is transferred through the wall of the
vessel. Circulation baffles are usually installed in the annular space to increase the velocity of the liquid
flowing through the jacket and improve the heat transfer coefficient, see Figure 12.72a. The same effect
can be obtained by introducing the fluid through a series of nozzles spaced down the jacket. The
momentum of the jets issuing from the nozzles sets up a swirling motion in the jacket liquid; Figure
12.72d. The spacing between the jacket and vessel wall will depend on the size of the vessel, but will
typically range from 50 mm for small vessels to 300 mm for large vessels. Half-pipe jackets Half-pipe
jackets are formed by welding sections of pipe, cut in half along the longitudinal axis, to the vessel wall.
The pipe is usually wound round the vessel in a helix; Figure 12.72c. 776 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Figure
12.71. Jacketed vessel Figure 12.72. Jacketed vessels. (a) Spirally baffled jacket (b) Dimple jacket (c) Half-
pipe jacket (d) Agitation nozzle The pitch of the coils and the area covered can be selected to provide
the heat transfer area required. Standard pipe sizes are used; ranging from 60 to 120 mm outside
diameter. The half-pipe construction makes a strong jacket capable of withstanding pressure better than
the conventional jacket design. HEAT-TRANSFER EQUIPMENT 777 Dimpled jackets Dimpled jackets are
similar to the conventional jackets but are constructed of thinner plates. The jacket is strengthened by a
regular pattern of hemispherical dimples pressed into the plate and welded to the vessel wall, Figure
12.72b. Jacket selection Factors to consider when selecting the type of jacket to use are listed below: 1.
Cost: in terms of cost the designs can be ranked, from cheapest to most expensive, as: simple, no baffles
agitation nozzles spiral baffle dimple jacket half-pipe jacket 2. Heat transfer rate required: select a
spirally baffled or half-pipe jacket if high rates are required. 3. Pressure: as a rough guide, the pressure
rating of the designs can be taken as: jackets, up to 10 bar dimpled jackets, up to 20 bar half-pipe, up to
70 bar. So, half-pipe jaclets would be used for high pressure. Jacket heat transfer and pressure drop The
heat transfer coefficient to the vessel wall can be estimated using the correlations for forced convection
in conduits, such as equation 12.11. The fluid velocity and the path length can be calculated from the
geometry of the jacket arrangement. The hydraulic mean diameter (equivalent diameter, de) of the
channel or half-pipe should be used as the characteristic dimension in the Reynolds and Nusselt
numbers; see Section 12.8.1. In dimpled jackets a velocity of 0.6 m can be used to estimate the heat
transfer coefficient. A method for calculating the heat transfer coefficient for dimpled jackets is given
by Makovitz (1971). The coefficients for jackets using agitation nozzles will be similar to that given by
using baffles. A method for calculating the heat transfer coefficient using agitation nozzles is given by
Bolliger (1982). To increase heat transfer rates, the velocity through a jacket can be increased by
recirculating the cooling or heating liquid. For simple jackets without baffles, heat transfer will be mainly
by natural convection and the heat transfer coefficient will range from 200 to 400 Wm2ŽC1. 12.18.2.
Internal coils The simplest and cheapest form of heat transfer surface for installation inside a vessel is a
helical coil; see Figure 12.73. The pitch and diameter of the coil can be made to suit the 782 CHEMICAL
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Outside area of bare tube L2 Ap Area of a port plate heat exchanger L2 As Cross-flow area between
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exit temperature q U Overall heat-transfer coefficient MT3q1 U0 Uncorrected overall coefficient,
equation 12.72 MT3q1 Uc Corrected overall coefficient, equation 12.72 MT3q1 Uo Overall heat-transfer
coefficient based on tube outside area MT3q1 u Fluid velocity LT1 uL Liquid velocity, equation 12.55 LT1
up Fluid velocity in a plate heat exchanger LT1 upt Velocity through the ports of a plate heat exchanger
LT1 up Velocity through channels of a plate heat exchanger LT1 us Shell-side fluid velocity LT1 ut Tube-
side fluid velocity LT1 uv Vapour velocity, equation 12.55 LT1 uOv Maximum vapour velocity in kettle
reboiler LT1 uw Velocity in window zone LT1 uz Geometric mean velocity LT1 W Mass flow-rate of fluid
MT1 w Mass flow through the channels and ports in a plate heat exchanger MT1 Wc Total condensate
mass flow-rate MT1 Ws Shell-side fluid mass flow-rate MT1 Xtt Lockhart-Martinelli two-phase flow
parameter x Mass fraction of vapour Z Ratio of change in sensible heat of gas stream to change in total
heat of gas stream (sensible + latent) ˛ Absorption efficiency factor ˛ Factor in equation 12.30 ˇL Factor
in equation 12.31, for heat transfer ˇ0 L Factor in equation 12.31, for pressure drop b Angle subtended
by baffle chord
Latent heat L2T2
Viscosity at bulk fluid temperature ML1T1
L Liquid viscosity ML1T1
v Vapour viscosity ML1T1
w Viscosity at wall temperature ML1T1 Fluid density ML3 L Liquid density ML3 v Vapour density ML3
Stephen-Boltzman constant MT3q4
Surface tension MT2 Tube loading ML1T1 h Condensate loading on a horizontal tube ML1T1 v
Condensate loading on a vertical tube ML1T1 Dimensionless numbers Nu Nusselt number Pr Prandtl
number Prc Prandtl number for condensate film Re Reynolds number Rec Reynolds number for
condensate film ReL Reynolds number for liquid phase St Stanton number (1) Note: in Volumes 1 and 2
this symbol is used for pressure difference, and pressure drop (negative pressure gradient) indicated by
a minus sign. In this chapter, as the symbol is only used for pressure drop, the minus sign has been
omitted for convenience. 790 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 12.21. PROBLEMS 12.1 A solution of sodium
hydroxide leaves a dissolver at 80ŽC and is to be cooled to 40ŽC, using cooling water. The maximum
flow-rate of the solution will be 8000 kg/h. The maximum inlet temperature of the cooling water will be
20ŽC and the temperature rise is limited to 20ŽC. Design a double-pipe exchanger for this duty, using
standard carbon steel pipe and fittings. Use pipe of 50 mm inside diameter, 55 mm outside diameter for
the inner pipe, and 75 mm inside diameter pipe for the outer. Make each section 5 m long. The physical
properties of the caustic solution are: temperature, ŽC 40 80 specific heat, kJkg1ŽC1 3.84 3.85 density,
kg/m3 992.2 971.8 thermal conductivity, Wm1ŽC1 0.63 0.67 viscosity, mN m2s 1.40 0.43 12.2. A double-
pipe heat exchanger is to be used to heat 6000 kg/h of 22 mol per cent hydrochloric acid. The exchanger
will be constructed from karbate (impervious carbon) and steel tubing. The acid will flow through the
inner, karbate, tube and saturated steam at 100ŽC will be used for heating. The tube dimensions will be:
karbate tube inside diameter 50 mm, outside diameter 60 mm; steel tube inside diameter 100 mm. The
exchanger will be constructed in sections, with an effective length of 3 m each. How many sections will
be needed to heat the acid from 15 to 65ŽC? Physical properties of 22 % HCl at 40ŽC: specific heat 4.93
kJkg1Ž C1 , thermal conductivity 0.39 Wm1ŽC1 , density 866 kg/m3 . Viscosity: temperature 20 30 40 50
60 70ŽC mN m2s 0.68 0.55 0.44 0.36 0.33 0.30 Karbate thermal conductivity 480 Wm1ŽC1 . 12.3. In a
food processing plant there is a requirement to heat 50,000 kg/h of towns water from 10 to 70ŽC. Steam
at 2.7 bar is available for heating the water. An existing heat exchanger is available, with the following
specification: Shell inside diameter 337 mm, E type. Baffles 25 per cent cut, set at a spacing of 106 mm.
Tubes 15 mm inside diameter, 19 mm outside diameter, 4094 mm long. Tube pitch 24 mm, triangular.
Number of tubes 124, arranged in a single pass. Would this exchanger be suitable for the specified duty?
12.4. Design a shell and tube exchanger to heat 50,000 kg/h of liquid ethanol from 20ŽC to 80ŽC. Steam
at 1.5 bar is available for heating. Assign the ethanol to the tube-side. The total pressure drop must not
exceed 0.7 bar for the alcohol stream. Plant practice requires the use of carbon steel tubes, 25 mm
inside diameter, 29 mm outside diameter, 4 m long. HEAT-TRANSFER EQUIPMENT 791 Set out your
design on a data sheet and make a rough sketch of the heat exchanger. The physical properties of
ethanol can be readily found in the literature. 12.5. 4500 kg/h of ammonia vapour at 6.7 bara pressure is
to be cooled from 120ŽC to 40ŽC, using cooling water. The maximum supply temperature of the cooling
water available is 30ŽC, and the outlet temperature is to be restricted to 40ŽC. The pressure drops over
the exchanger must not exceed 0.5 bar for the ammonia stream and 1.5 bar for the cooling water. A
contractor has proposed using a shell and tube exchanger with the following specification for this duty.
Shell: E-type, inside diameter 590 mm. Baffles: 25 per cent cut, 300 mm spacing. Tubes: carbon steel, 15
mm inside diameter, 19 mm outside diameter, 2400 mm long, number 360. Tube arrangement: 8
passes, triangular tube pitch, pitch 23.75 mm. Nozzles: shell 150 mm inside diameter, tube headers 75
mm inside diameter. It is proposed to put the cooling water though the tubes. Is the proposed design
suitable for the duty? Physical properties of ammonia at the mean temperature of 80ŽC: specific heat
2.418 kJkg1Ž C1 , thermal conductivity 0.0317 Wm1Ž C1 , density 4.03 kg/m3, viscosity 1.21 ð 105 N
m2s. 12.6. A vaporiser is required to evaporate 10,000 kg/h of a process fluid, at 6 bar. The liquid is fed
to the vaporiser at 20ŽC. The plant has a spare kettle reboiler available with the following specification.
U-tube bundle, 50 tubes, mean length 4.8 m, end to end. Carbon steel tubes, inside diameter 25 mm,
outside diameter 30 mm, square pitch 45 mm. Steam at 1.7 bara will be used for heating. Check if this
reboiler would be suitable for the duty specified. Only check the thermal design. You may take it that
the shell will handle the vapour rate. Take the physical properties of the process fluid as: liquid: density
535 kg/m3 , specific heat 2.6 kJkg1Ž C1 , thermal conductivity 0.094 Wm1ŽC1, viscosity 0.12 mN m2s,
surface tension 0.85 N/m, heat of vaporisation 322 kJ/kg. Vapour density 14.4 kg/m3. Vapour pressure:
temperatureŽC 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 pressure bar 5.0 6.4 8.1 10.1 12.5 15.3 18.5 20.1 12.7. A
condenser is required to condense n-propanol vapour leaving the top of a distillation column. The n-
propanol is essentially pure, and is a saturated vapour at a pressure of 2.1 bara. The condensate needs
to be sub-cooled to 45ŽC. Design a horizontal shell and tube condenser capable of handling a vapour
rate of 30,000 kg/h. Cooling water is available at 30ŽC and the temperature rise is to be limited to 30ŽC.
The pressure drop on the vapour stream is to be less than 50 kN/m2 , and on the water stream less than
70 kN/m2. The preferred tube size is 16 mm inside diameter, 19 mm outside diameter, and 2.5 m long.
HEAT-TRANSFER EQUIPMENT 793 Channel width 3 mm. Flow arrangement two pass: two pass. Port
diameters 150 mm. Check if this exchanger is likely to be suitable for the thermal duty required, and
estimate the pressure drop for each stream. Take the physical properties of the dilute potassium
carbonate solution to be the same as those for water. CHAPTER 13 Mechanical Design of Process
Equipment 13.1. INTRODUCTION This chapter covers those aspects of the mechanical design of chemical
plant that are of particular interest to chemical engineers. The main topic considered is the design of
pressure vessels. The design of storage tanks, centrifuges and heat-exchanger tube sheets are also
discussed briefly. The chemical engineer will not usually be called on to undertake the detailed
mechanical design of a pressure vessel. Vessel design is a specialised subject, and will be carried out by
mechanical engineers who are conversant with the current design codes and practices, and methods of
stress analysis. However, the chemical engineer will be responsible for developing and specifying the
basic design information for a particular vessel, and needs to have a general appreciation of pressure
vessel design to work effectively with the specialist designer. The basic data needed by the specialist
designer will be: 1. Vessel function. 2. Process materials and services. 3. Operating and design
temperature and pressure. 4. Materials of construction. 5. Vessel dimensions and orientation. 6. Type of
vessel heads to be used. 7. Openings and connections required. 8. Specification of heating and cooling
jackets or coils. 9. Type of agitator. 10. Specification of internal fittings. A data sheet for pressure vessel
design is given in Appendix G. There is no strict definition of what constitutes a pressure vessel, but it is
generally accepted that any closed vessel over 150 mm diameter subject to a pressure difference of
more than 0.5 bar should be designed as a pressure vessel. It is not possible to give a completely
comprehensive account of vessel design in one chapter. The design methods and data given should be
sufficient for the preliminary design of conventional vessels. Sufficient for the chemical engineer to
check the feasibility of a proposed equipment design; to estimate the vessel cost for an economic
analysis; and to determine the vessel’s general proportions and weight for plant layout purposes. For a
more detailed account of pressure vessel design the reader should refer to the books 794 MECHANICAL
DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT 795 by Singh and Soler (1992), Escoe (1994) and Moss (1987). Other
useful books on the mechanical design of process equipment are listed in the bibliography at the end of
this chapter. An elementary understanding of the principles of the “Strength of Materials” (Mechanics of
Solids) will be needed to follow this chapter. Readers who are not familiar with the subject should
consult one of the many textbooks available; such as those by Case et al. (1999), Mott, R. L. (2001), Seed
(2001) and Gere and Timoshenko (2000). 13.1.1. Classification of pressure vessels For the purposes of
design and analysis, pressure vessels are sub-divided into two classes depending on the ratio of the wall
thickness to vessel diameter: thin-walled vessels, with a thickness ratio of less than 1 : 10; and thick-
walled above this ratio. The principal stresses (see Section 13.3.1) acting at a point in the wall of a
vessel, due to a pressure load, are shown in Figure 13.1. If the wall is thin, the radial stress 3 will be
small and can be neglected in comparison with the other stresses, and the longitudinal and
circumferential stresses 1 and 2 can be taken as constant over the wall thickness. In a thick wall, the
magnitude of the radial stress will be significant, and the circumferential stress will vary across the wall.
The majority of the vessels used in the chemical and allied industries are classified as thin-walled
vessels. Thick-walled vessels are used for high pressures, and are discussed in Section 13.15. σ3 σ1 σ2 σ3
σ1 σ2 Figure 13.1. Principal stresses in pressure-vessel wall 13.2. PRESSURE VESSEL CODES AND
STANDARDS In all the major industrialised countries the design and fabrication of thin-walled pressure
vessels is covered by national standards and codes of practice. In most countries the standards and
codes are legally enforceable. In the United Kingdom all conventional pressure vessels for use in the
chemical and allied industries will invariably be designed and fabricated according to the British
Standard PD 5500 or the European Standard EN 13445; or an equivalent code such as the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers code Section VIII (the ASME code). The codes and standards cover
design, materials of construction, fabrication (manufacture and 798 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING The
maximum shear stress will depend on the sign of the principal stresses as well as their magnitude, and in
a two-dimensional stress system, such as that in the wall of a thin-walled pressure vessel, the maximum
value of the shear stress may be that given by putting 3 D 0 in equations 13.3b and c. The maximum
shear stress theory is often called Tresca’s, or Guest’s, theory. Maximum strain energy theory: which
postulates that failure will occur in a complex stress system when the total strain energy per unit
volume reaches the value at which failure occurs in simple tension. The maximum shear-stress theory
has been found to be suitable for predicting the failure of ductile materials under complex loading and is
the criterion normally used in the pressure-vessel design. 13.3.3. Elastic stability Under certain loading
conditions failure of a structure can occur not through gross yielding or plastic failure, but by buckling,
or wrinkling. Buckling results in a gross and sudden change of shape of the structure; unlike failure by
plastic yielding, where the structure retains the same basic shape. This mode of failure will occur when
the structure is not elastically stable: when it lacks sufficient stiffness, or rigidity, to withstand the load.
The stiffness of a structural member is dependent not on the basic strength of the material but on its
elastic properties (E and v) and the cross-sectional shape of the member. The classic example of failure
due to elastic instability is the buckling of tall thin columns (struts), which is described in any elementary
text on the “Strength of Materials”. For a structure that is likely to fail by buckling there will be a certain
critical value of load below which the structure is stable; if this value is exceeded catastrophic failure
through buckling can occur. The walls of pressure vessels are usually relatively thin compared with the
other dimensions and can fail by buckling under compressive loads. Elastic buckling is the decisive
criterion in the design of thin-walled vessels under external pressure. 13.3.4. Membrane stresses in
shells of revolution A shell of revolution is the form swept out by a line or curve rotated about an axis. (A
solid of revolution is formed by rotating an area about an axis.) Most process vessels are made up from
shells of revolution: cylindrical and conical sections; and hemispherical, ellipsoidal and torispherical
heads; Figure 13.3. The walls of thin vessels can be considered to be “membranes”; supporting loads
without significant bending or shear stresses; similar to the walls of a balloon. The analysis of the
membrane stresses induced in shells of revolution by internal pressure gives a basis for determining the
minimum wall thickness required for vessel shells. The actual thickness required will also depend on the
stresses arising from the other loads to which the vessel is subjected. 800 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
Figure 13.4(a)(b). Stress in a shell of revolution (c)(d). Forces acting on sides of element abcd 810
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Secondary stresses are those stresses that arise from the constraint of
adjacent parts of the vessel. Secondary stresses are self-limiting; local yielding or slight distortion will
satisfy the conditions causing the stress, and failure would not be expected to occur in one application
of the loading. The “thermal stress” set up by the differential expansion of parts of the vessel, due to
different temperatures or the use of different materials, is an example of a secondary stress. The
discontinuity that occurs between the head and the cylindrical section of a vessel is a major source of
secondary stress. If free, the dilation of the head would be different from that of the cylindrical section
(see Section 13.3.6); they are constrained to the same dilation by the welded joint between the two
parts. The induced bending moment and shear force due to the constraint give rise to secondary
bending and shear stresses at the junction. The magnitude of these discontinuity stresses can be
estimated by analogy with the behaviour of beams on elastic foundations; see Hetenyi (1958) and
Harvey (1974). The estimation of the stresses arising from discontinuities is covered in the books by
Bednar (1990), and Jawad and Farr (1989). Other sources of secondary stresses are the constraints
arising at flanges, supports, and the change of section due to reinforcement at a nozzle or opening (see
Section 13.6). Though secondary stresses do not affect the “bursting strength” of the vessel, they are an
important consideration when the vessel is subject to repeated pressure loading. If local yielding has
occurred, residual stress will remain when the pressure load is removed, and repeated pressure cycling
can lead to fatigue failure. 13.4. GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS: PRESSURE VESSELS 13.4.1. Design
pressure A vessel must be designed to withstand the maximum pressure to which it is likely to be
subjected in operation. For vessels under internal pressure, the design pressure is normally taken as the
pressure at which the relief device is set. This will normally be 5 to 10 per cent above the normal
working pressure, to avoid spurious operation during minor process upsets. When deciding the design
pressure, the hydrostatic pressure in the base of the column should be added to the operating pressure,
if significant. Vessels subject to external pressure should be designed to resist the maximum differential
pressure that is likely to occur in service. Vessels likely to be subjected to vacuum should be designed for
a full negative pressure of 1 bar, unless fitted with an effective, and reliable, vacuum breaker. 13.4.2.
Design temperature The strength of metals decreases with increasing temperature (see Chapter 7) so
the maximum allowable design stress will depend on the material temperature. The design temperature
at which the design stress is evaluated should be taken as the maximum working temperature of the
material, with due allowance for any uncertainty involved in predicting vessel wall temperatures.
MECHANICAL DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT 811 13.4.3. Materials Pressure vessels are constructed
from plain carbon steels, low and high alloy steels, other alloys, clad plate, and reinforced plastics.
Selection of a suitable material must take into account the suitability of the material for fabrication
(particularly welding) as well as the compatibility of the material with the process environment. The
pressure vessel design codes and standards include lists of acceptable materials; in accordance with the
appropriate material standards. 13.4.4. Design stress (nominal design strength) For design purposes it is
necessary to decide a value for the maximum allowable stress (nominal design strength) that can be
accepted in the material of construction. This is determined by applying a suitable “design stress factor”
(factor of safety) to the maximum stress that the material could be expected to withstand without
failure under standard test conditions. The design stress factor allows for any uncertainty in the design
methods, the loading, the quality of the materials, and the workmanship. For materials not subject to
high temperatures the design stress is based on the yield stress (or proof stress), or the tensile strength
(ultimate tensile stress) of the material at the design temperature. For materials subject to conditions at
which the creep is likely to be a consideration, the design stress is based on the creep characteristics of
the material: the average stress to produce rupture after 105 hours, or the average stress to produce a 1
per cent strain after 105 hours, at the design temperature. Typical design stress factors for pressure
components are shown in Table 13.1. Table 13.1. Design stress factors Property Material Carbon
Austenitic Non-ferrous Carbon-manganese, stainless metals low alloy steels steels Minimum yield stress
or 0.2 per cent proof stress, at the design temperature 1.5 1.5 1.5 Minimum tensile strength, at room
temperature 2.35 2.5 4.0 Mean stress to produce rupture at 105 h at the design temperature 1.5 1.5 1.0
In the British Standard, PD 5500, the nominal design strengths (allowable design stresses), for use with
the design methods given, are listed in the standard, for the range 812 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING of
materials covered by the standard. The standard should be consulted for the principles and design stress
factors used in determining the nominal design strengths. Typical design stress values for some common
materials are shown in Table 13.2. These may be used for preliminary designs. The standards and codes
should be consulted for the values to be used for detailed vessel design. Table 13.2. Typical design
stresses for plate (The appropriate material standards should be consulted for particular grades and
plate thicknesses) Material Tensile Design stress at temperature °C (N/mm2) strength (N/mm2) 0 to 50
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 Carbon steel (semi-killed or silicon killed) 360 135 125 115 105 95
85 80 70 Carbon-manganese steel (semi-killed or silicon killed) 460 180 170 150 140 130 115 105 100
Carbon-molybdenum steel, 0.5 per cent Mo 450 180 170 145 140 130 120 110 110 Low alloy steel (Ni,
Cr, Mo, V) 550 240 240 240 240 240 235 230 220 190 170 Stainless steel 18Cr/8Ni unstabilised (304) 510
165 145 130 115 110 105 100 100 95 90 Stainless steel 18Cr/8Ni Ti stabilised (321) 540 165 150 140 135
130 130 125 120 120 115 Stainless steel 18Cr/8Ni Mo 2 1 2 per cent (316) 520 175 150 135 120 115 110
105 105 100 95 13.4.5. Welded joint efficiency, and construction categories The strength of a welded
joint will depend on the type of joint and the quality of the welding. The soundness of welds is checked
by visual inspection and by non-destructive testing (radiography). The possible lower strength of a
welded joint compared with the virgin plate is usually allowed for in design by multiplying the allowable
design stress for the material by a “welded joint factor” J. The value of the joint factor used in design will
depend on the type of joint and amount of radiography required by the design code. Typical values are
shown in Table 13.3. Taking the factor as 1.0 implies that the joint is equally as strong as the virgin plate;
this is achieved by radiographing the complete weld length, and cutting out and remaking any defects.
The use of lower joint factors in design, though saving costs on radiography, will result in a thicker,
heavier, vessel, and the designer must balance any cost savings on inspection and fabrication against the
increased cost of materials. MECHANICAL DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT 813 Table 13.3. Maximum
allowable joint efficiency Type of joint Degree of radiography 100 spot none per cent Double-welded
butt or equivalent 1.0 0.85 0.7 Single-weld butt joint with bonding strips 0.9 0.80 0.65 The national
codes and standards divide vessel construction into different categories, depending on the amount of
non-destructive testing required. The higher categories require 100 per cent radiography of the welds,
and allow the use of highest values for the weldjoint factors. The lower-quality categories require less
radiography, but allow only lower joint-efficiency factors, and place restrictions on the plate thickness
and type of materials that can be used. The highest category will invariably be specified for process-
plant pressure vessels. The standards should be consulted to determine the limitations and
requirements of the construction categories specified. Welded joint efficiency factors are not used, as
such, in the design equations given in BS PD 5500; instead limitations are placed on the values of the
nominal design strength (allowable design stress) for materials in the lower construction category. The
standard specifies three construction categories: Category 1: the highest class, requires 100 per cent
non-destructive testing (NDT) of the welds; and allows the use of all materials covered by the standard,
with no restriction on the plate thickness. Category 2: requires less non-destructive testing but places
some limitations on the materials which can be used and the maximum plate thickness. Category 3: the
lowest class, requires only visual inspection of the welds, but is restricted to carbon and carbon-
manganese steels, and austenitic stainless steel; and limits are placed on the plate thickness and the
nominal design stress. For carbon and carbonmanganese steels the plate thickness is restricted to less
than 13 mm and the design stress is about half that allowed for categories 1 and 2. For stainless steel
the thickness is restricted to less than 25 mm and the allowable design stress is around 80 per cent of
that for the other categories. 13.4.6. Corrosion allowance The “corrosion allowance” is the additional
thickness of metal added to allow for material lost by corrosion and erosion, or scaling (see Chapter 7).
The allowance to be used should be agreed between the customer and manufacturer. Corrosion is a
complex phenomenon, and it is not possible to give specific rules for the estimation of the corrosion
allowance required for all circumstances. The allowance should be based on experience with the
material of construction under similar service conditions to those for the proposed design. For carbon
and low-alloy steels, where severe corrosion is not expected, a minimum allowance of 2.0 mm should be
used; where more severe conditions are anticipated this should be increased to 4.0 mm. Most design
codes and standards specify a minimum allowance of 1.0 mm. 814 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 13.4.7.
Design loads A structure must be designed to resist gross plastic deformation and collapse under all the
conditions of loading. The loads to which a process vessel will be subject in service are listed below.
They can be classified as major loads, that must always be considered in vessel design, and subsidiary
loads. Formal stress analysis to determine the effect of the subsidiary loads is only required in the codes
and standards where it is not possible to demonstrate the adequacy of the proposed design by other
means; such as by comparison with the known behaviour of existing vessels. Major loads 1. Design
pressure: including any significant static head of liquid. 2. Maximum weight of the vessel and contents,
under operating conditions. 3. Maximum weight of the vessel and contents under the hydraulic test
conditions. 4. Wind loads. 5. Earthquake (seismic) loads. 6. Loads supported by, or reacting on, the
vessel. Subsidiary loads 1. Local stresses caused by supports, internal structures and connecting pipes. 2.
Shock loads caused by water hammer, or by surging of the vessel contents. 3. Bending moments caused
by eccentricity of the centre of the working pressure relative to the neutral axis of the vessel. 4. Stresses
due to temperature differences and differences in the coefficient expansion of materials. 5. Loads
caused by fluctuations in temperature and pressure. A vessel will not be subject to all these loads
simultaneously. The designer must determine what combination of possible loads gives the worst
situation, and design for that loading condition. 13.4.8. Minimum practical wall thickness There will be a
minimum wall thickness required to ensure that any vessel is sufficiently rigid to withstand its own
weight, and any incidental loads. As a general guide the wall thickness of any vessel should not be less
than the values given below; the values include a corrosion allowance of 2 mm: Vessel diameter (m)
Minimum thickness (mm) 1 5 1 to 2 7 2 to 2.5 9 2.5 to 3.0 10 3.0 to 3.5 12 816 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
Figure 13.9. Flat-end closures (a) Flanged plate (b) Welded plate (c) Welded plate (d) Bolted cover (e)
Bolted cover Hemispherical, ellipsoidal and torispherical heads are collectively referred to as domed
heads. They are formed by pressing or spinning; large diameters are fabricated from formed sections.
Torispherical heads are often referred to as dished ends. The preferred proportions of domed heads are
given in the standards and codes. Choice of closure Flat plates are used as covers for manways, and as
the channel covers of heat exchangers. Formed flat ends, known as “flange-only” ends, are
manufactured by turning over a flange with a small radius on a flat plate, Figure 13.9a. The corner radius
reduces the abrupt MECHANICAL DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT 817 Figure 13.10. Domed heads (a)
Hemispherical (b) Ellipsoidal (c) Torispherical change of shape, at the junction with the cylindrical
section; which reduces the local stresses to some extent: “Flange-only” heads are the cheapest type of
formed head to manufacture, but their use is limited to low-pressure and small-diameter vessels.
Standard torispherical heads (dished ends) are the most commonly used end closure for vessels up to
operating pressures of 15 bar. They can be used for higher pressures, but above 10 bar their cost should
be compared with that of an equivalent ellipsoidal head. Above 15 bar an ellipsoidal head will usually
prove to be the most economical closure to use. A hemispherical head is the strongest shape; capable of
resisting about twice the pressure of a torispherical head of the same thickness. The cost of forming a
hemispherical head will, however, be higher than that for a shallow torispherical head. Hemispherical
heads are used for high pressures. 13.5.3. Design of flat ends Though the fabrication cost is low, flat
ends are not a structurally efficient form, and very thick plates would be required for high pressures or
large diameters. The design equations used to determine the thickness of flat ends are based on the
analysis of stresses in flat plates; Section 13.3.5. MECHANICAL DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT 823
yyyyyy yyy yyy yy y (a) (b) (c) Figure 13.12. Types of compensation for openings (a) Welded pad (b) Inset
nozzle (c) Forged ring The simplest method of providing compensation is to weld a pad or collar around
the opening, Figure 13.12a. The outer diameter of the pad is usually between 11 2 to 2 times the
diameter of the hole or branch. This method, however, does not give the best disposition of the
reinforcing material about the opening, and in some circumstances high thermal stress can arise due to
the poor thermal conductivity of the pad to shell junction. At a branch, the reinforcement required can
be provided, with or without a pad, by allowing the branch, to protrude into the vessel, Figure 13.12b.
This arrangement should be used with caution for process vessels, as the protrusion will act as a trap for
crud, and local corrosion can occur. Forged reinforcing rings, Figure 13.12c, provide the most effective
method of compensation, but are expensive. They would be used for any large openings and branches in
vessels operating under severe conditions. Calculation of reinforcement required The “equal area
method” is the simplest method used for calculating the amount of reinforcement required, and is
allowed in most design codes and standards. The principle used is to provide reinforcement local to the
opening, equal in cross-sectional area to the area removed in forming the opening, Figure 13.13. If the
actual thickness of the vessel 844 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING The maximum compressive stress will occur
when the vessel is not under pressure D 7.4 C 61.1 D 68.5, well below the critical buckling stress. So
design is satisfactory. Could reduce the plate thickness and recalculate. 13.9. VESSEL SUPPORTS The
method used to support a vessel will depend on the size, shape, and weight of the vessel; the design
temperature and pressure; the vessel location and arrangement; and the internal and external fittings
and attachments. Horizontal vessels are usually mounted on two saddle supports; Figure 13.22. Skirt
supports are used for tall, vertical columns; Figure 13.23. Brackets, or lugs, are used for all types of
vessel; Figure 13.24. The supports must be designed to carry the weight of the vessel and contents, and
any superimposed loads, such as wind loads. Supports will impose localised loads on the vessel wall, and
the design must be checked to ensure that the resulting stress concentrations are below the maximum
allowable design stress. Supports should be designed to allow easy access to the vessel and fittings for
inspection and maintenance. Figure 13.22. Horizontal cylindrical vessel on saddle supports 13.9.1.
Saddle supports Though saddles are the most commonly used support for horizontal cylindrical vessels,
legs can be used for small vessels. A horizontal vessel will normally be supported at two cross-sections; if
more than two saddles are used the distribution of the loading is uncertain. A vessel supported on two
saddles can be considered as a simply supported beam, with an essentially uniform load, and the
distribution of longitudinal axial bending moment will be as shown in Figure 13.22. Maxima occur at the
supports and at mid-span. The MECHANICAL DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT 845 Figure 13.23. Typical
skirt-support designs (a) Straight skirt (b) Conical skirt yyyy yy (b) (a) Figure 13.24. Bracket supports (a)
Supported on legs (b) Supported from steel-work theoretical optimum position of the supports to give
the least maximum bending moment will be the position at which the maxima at the supports and at
mid-span are equal in magnitude. For a uniformly loaded beam the position will be at 21 per cent of the
span, in from each end. The saddle supports for a vessel will usually be located nearer the ends than this
value, to make use of the stiffening effect of the ends. MECHANICAL DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT
847 book. A complete analysis of the stress induced in the shell by the supports is given by Zick (1951).
Zick’s method forms the basis of the design methods given in the national codes and standards. The
method is also given by Brownell and Young (1959), Escoe (1994) and Megyesy (2001). Design of saddles
The saddles must be designed to withstand the load imposed by the weight of the vessel and contents.
They are constructed of bricks or concrete, or are fabricated from steel plate. The contact angle should
not be less than 120Ž, and will not normally be greater than 150Ž. Wear plates are often welded to the
shell wall to reinforce the wall over the area of contact with the saddle. The dimensions of typical
“standard” saddle designs are given in Figure 13.26. To take up any thermal expansion of the vessel,
such as that in heat exchangers, the anchor bolt holes in one saddle can be slotted. Procedures for the
design of saddle supports are given by Brownell and Young (1959), Megyesy (2001), Escoe (1994) and
Moss (2003). Dimensions (m) mm Vessel Maximum diam. weight Bolt Bolt (m) (kN) V Y C E J G t2 t1
diam. holes 0.6 35 0.48 0.15 0.55 0.24 0.190 0.095 6 5 20 25 0.8 50 0.58 0.15 0.70 0.29 0.225 0.095 8 5
20 25 0.9 65 0.63 0.15 0.81 0.34 0.275 0.095 10 6 20 25 1.0 90 0.68 0.15 0.91 0.39 0.310 0.095 11 8 20
25 1.2 180 0.78 0.20 1.09 0.45 0.360 0.140 12 10 24 30 All contacting edges fillet welded (a) Figure
13.26. Standard steel saddles (adapted from Bhattacharyya, 1976). (a) for vessels up to 1.2 m 848
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Dimensions (m) mm Vessel Maximum diam. weight Bolt Bolt (m) (kN) V Y C E J
G t2 t1 diam. holes 1.4 230 0.88 0.20 1.24 0.53 0.305 0.140 12 10 24 30 1.6 330 0.98 0.20 1.41 0.62
0.350 0.140 12 10 24 30 1.8 380 1.08 0.20 1.59 0.71 0.405 0.140 12 10 24 30 2.0 460 1.18 0.20 1.77 0.80
0.450 0.140 12 10 24 30 2.2 750 1.28 0.225 1.95 0.89 0.520 0.150 16 12 24 30 2.4 900 1.38 0.225 2.13
0.98 0.565 0.150 16 12 27 33 2.6 1000 1.48 0.225 2.30 1.03 0.590 0.150 16 12 27 33 2.8 1350 1.58 0.25
2.50 1.10 0.625 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.0 1750 1.68 0.25 2.64 1.18 0.665 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.2 2000 1.78
0.25 2.82 1.26 0.730 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.6 2500 1.98 0.25 3.20 1.40 0.815 0.150 16 12 27 33 All
contacting edges fillet welded (b) Figure 13.26. (b) for vessels greater than 1.2 m 13.9.2. Skirt supports A
skirt support consists of a cylindrical or conical shell welded to the base of the vessel. A flange at the
bottom of the skirt transmits the load to the foundations. Typical designs are shown in Figure 13.23.
Openings must be provided in the skirt for access and for any connecting pipes; the openings are
normally reinforced. The skirt may be welded to the bottom head of the vessel. Figure 13.27a; or
welded flush with the shell, Figure 13.27b; or welded to the outside of the vessel shell, Figure 13.27c.
The arrangement shown in Figure 13.27b is usually preferred. Skirt supports are recommended for
vertical vessels as they do not impose concentrated loads on the vessel shell; they are particularly
suitable for use with tall columns subject to wind loading. Skirt thickness The skirt thickness must be
sufficient to withstand the dead-weight loads and bending moments imposed on it by the vessel; it will
not be under the vessel pressure. 850 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING J D weld joint factor, if applicable, s D
base angle of a conical skirt, normally 80Ž to 90Ž. The minimum thickness should be not less than 6 mm.
Where the vessel wall will be at a significantly higher temperature than the skirt, discontinuity stresses
will be set up due to differences in thermal expansion. Methods for calculating the thermal stresses in
skirt supports are given by Weil and Murphy (1960) and Bergman (1963). Base ring and anchor bolt
design The loads carried by the skirt are transmitted to the foundation slab by the skirt base ring
(bearing plate). The moment produced by wind and other lateral loads will tend to overturn the vessel;
this will be opposed by the couple set up by the weight of the vessel and the tensile load in the anchor
bolts. A variety of base ring designs is used with skirt supports. The simplest types, suitable for small
vessels, are the rolled angle and plain flange rings shown in Figure 13.28a and b. For larger columns a
double ring stiffened by gussets, Figure 13.18c, or chair supports, Figure 13.30, are used. Design
methods for base rings, and methods for sizing the anchor bolts, are given by Brownell and Young
(1959). For preliminary design, the short-cut method and nomographs given by Scheiman (1963) can be
used. Scheiman’s method is based on a more detailed procedure for the design of base rings and
foundations for columns and stacks given by Marshall (1958). Scheiman’s method is outlined belo w and
illustrated in Example 13.4. (a) Gusset (b) (c) Figure 13.28. Flange ring designs (a) Rolled-angle (b)
Single plate with gusset (c) Double plate with gusset 852 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Figure 13.29. Flange
ring dimensionsyyyy yyyy yyy yyyG tb 50 min F 12.5 E 12.5 305 mm C A B D All contacting edges fillet
welded Dimensions mm Bolt Root size area A B C DEFG M24 353 45 76 64 13 19 30 36 M30 561 50 76 64
13 25 36 42 M36 817 57 102 76 16 32 42 48 M42 1120 60 102 76 16 32 48 54 M48 1470 67 127 89 19 38
54 60 M56 2030 75 150 102 25 45 60 66 M64 2680 83 152 102 25 50 70 76 70 89 178 127 32 64 76 83 76
95 178 127 32 64 83 89 Bolt size = Nominal dia. (BS 4190: 1967) Figure 13.30. Anchor bolt chair design
where Lr D the distance from the edge of the skirt to the outer edge of the ring, mm; Figure 13.29, tb D
base ring thickness, mm, f0 c D actual bearing pressure on base, N/mm2, fr D allowable design stress in
the ring material, typically 140 N/mm2. 856 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 50 170 75 40 305 45 All
dimensions mm 13.9.3. Bracket supports Brackets, or lugs, can be used to support vertical vessels. The
bracket may rest on the building structural steel work, or the vessel may be supported on legs; Figure
13.24. The main load carried by the brackets will be the weight of the vessel and contents; in addition
the bracket must be designed to resist the load due to any bending moment due to wind, or other loads.
If the bending moment is likely to be significant skirt supports should be considered in preference to
bracket supports. As the reaction on the bracket is eccentric, Figure 13.31, the bracket will impose a
bending moment on the vessel wall. The point of support, at which the reaction acts, should be made as
close to the vessel wall as possible; allowing for the thickness of any insulation. Methods for estimating
the magnitude of the stresses induced in the vessel Bending moment Backing plate Reaction Figure
13.31. Loads on a bracket support MECHANICAL DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT 859 Figure 13.33.
Flange types (a) Welding-neck (b) Slip-on (c) Lap-joint (d) Screwed Lap-joint flanges, Figure 13.33c: are
used for piped work. They are economical when used with expensive alloy pipe, such as stainless steel,
as the flange can be made from inexpensive carbon steel. Usually a short lapped nozzle is welded to the
pipe, but with some schedules of pipe the lap can be formed on the pipe itself, and this will give a cheap
method of pipe assembly. Lap-joint flanges are sometimes known as “Van-stone flanges”. Screwed
flanges, Figure 13.33d: are used to connect screwed fittings to flanges. They are also sometimes used for
alloy pipe which is difficult to weld satisfactorily. Blind flanges (blank flanges): are flat plates, used to
blank off flange connections, and as covers for manholes and inspection ports. 13.10.2. Gaskets Gaskets
are used to make a leak-tight joint between two surfaces. It is impractical to machine flanges to the
degree of surface finish that would be required to make a satisfactory seal under pressure without a
gasket. Gaskets are made from “semi-plastic” materials; which will deform and flow under load to fill the
surface irregularities between the flange faces, yet retain sufficient elasticity to take up the changes in
the flange alignment that occur under load. 860 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Table 13.4. Gasket materials
(Based on a similar table in BS 5500: 1991; see BS PD 5500 2003) Min. design Minimum Gasket seating
gasket factor stress width Gasket material m y(N/mm2) Sketches (mm) Rubber without fabric or a high
percentage of asbestos fibre; hardness: below 75° IRH 0.50 0 10 75° IRH or higher 1.00 1.4 Asbestos with
a suitable binder 3.2 mm thick 2.00 11.0 for the operating conditions 1.6 mm thick 2.75 25.5 10 0.8 mm
thick 3.50 44.8 Rubber with cotton fabric insertion 1.25 2.8 10 3-ply 2.25 15.2 Rubber with asbestos
fabric insertion, with or without wire 2-ply 2.50 20.0 10 reinforcement 1-ply 2.75
25.5 Vegetable fibre 1.75 7.6 10 Carbon 2.50 20.0 Spiral-wound metal, asbestos Stainless or 3.00 31.0
10 filled monel Corrugated metal, Soft aluminium 2.50 20.0 asbestos inserted Soft copper or brass 2.75
25.5 or Iron or soft steel 3.00 31.0 10 Corrugated metal, Monel or 4 to 6 jacketed asbestos filled per cent
chrome 3.25 37.9 Stainless steels 3.50 44.8 Soft aluminium 2.75 25.5 Soft copper or brass 3.00 31.0
Corrugated metal Iron or soft steel 3.25 37.9 10 Monel or 4 to 6 per cent chrome 3.50 44.8 Stainless
steels 3.75 52.4 Soft aluminium 3.25 37.9 Soft copper or brass 3.50 44.8 Flat metal jacketed Iron or soft
steel 3.75 52.4 asbestos filled Monel 3.50 55.1 10 4 to 6 per cent chrome 3.75 62.0 Stainless steels 3.75
62.0 Soft aluminium 3.25 37.9 Soft copper or brass 3.50 44.8 Grooved metal Iron or soft steel 3.75 52.4
10 Monel or 4 to 6 per cent chrome 3.75 62.0 Stainless steels 4.25 69.5 Soft aluminium 4.00 60.6 Soft
copper or brass 4.75 89.5 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT 861 Table 13.4. (continued)
Min. design Minimum Gasket seating gasket factor stress width Gasket material m y(N/mm2) Sketches
(mm) Solid flat metal Iron or soft steel 5.50 124 6 Monel or 4 to 6 per cent chrome 6.00 150 Stainless
steels 6.50 179 Ring joint Iron or soft steel 5.50 124 Monel or 4 to 6 per cent chrome 6.00 150 6
Stainless steels 6.50 179 A great variety of proprietary gasket materials is used, and reference should be
made to the manufacturers’ catalogues and technical manuals when selecting gaskets for a particular
application. Design data for some of the more commonly used gasket materials are given in Table 13.4.
Further data can be found in the pressure vessel codes and standards and in various handbooks; Perry et
al. (1997). The minimum seating stress y is the force per unit area (pressure) on the gasket that is
required to cause the material to flow and fill the surface irregularities in the gasket face. The gasket
factor m is the ratio of the gasket stress (pressure) under the operating conditions to the internal
pressure in the vessel or pipe. The internal pressure will force the flanges’ faces apart, so the pressure
on the gasket under operating conditions will be lower than the initial tightening-up pressure. The
gasket factor gives the minimum pressure that must be maintained on the gasket to ensure a
satisfactory seal. The following factors must be considered when selecting a gasket material: 1. The
process conditions: pressure, temperature, corrosive nature of the process fluid. 2. Whether repeated
assembly and disassembly of the joint is required. 3. The type of flange and flange face (see Section
13.10.3). Up to pressures of 20 bar, the operating temperature and corrosiveness of the process fluid
will be the controlling factor in gasket selection. Vegetable fibre and synthetic rubber gaskets can be
used at temperatures of up to 100ŽC. Solid polyfluorocarbon (Teflon) and compressed asbestos gaskets
can be used to a maximum temperature of about 260ŽC. Metal-reinforced gaskets can be used up to
around 450ŽC. Plain soft metal gaskets are normally used for higher temperatures. 13.10.3. Flange faces
Flanges are also classified according to the type of flange face used. There are two basic types: 1. Full-
faced flanges, Figure 13.34a: where the face contact area extends outside the circle of bolts; over the
full face of the flange. 862 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Figure 13.34. Flange types and faces (a) Full-face (b)
Gasket within bolt circle (c) Spigot and socket (d) Ring type joint 2. Narrow-faced flanges, Figure 13.34b,
c, d: where the face contact area is located within the circle of bolts. Full face, wide-faced, flanges are
simple and inexpensive, but are only suitable for low pressures. The gasket area is large, and an
excessively high bolt tension would be needed to achieve sufficient gasket pressure to maintain a good
seal at high operating pressures. The raised face, narrow-faced, flange shown in Figure 13.34b is
probably the most commonly used type of flange for process equipment. Where the flange has a plain
face, as in Figure 13.34b, the gasket is held in place by friction between the gasket and flange surface. In
the spigot and socket, and tongue and grooved faces, Figure 13.34c, the gasket is confined in a groove,
which prevents failure by “blow-out”. Matched pairs of flanges are required, which increases the cost,
but this type is suitable for high pressure and high vacuum service. Ring joint flanges, Figure 13.34d, are
used for high temperatures and high pressure services. 13.10.4. Flange design Standard flanges will be
specified for most applications (see Section 13.10.5). Special designs would be used only if no suitable
standard flange were available; or for large MECHANICAL DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT 863 flanges,
such as the body flanges of vessels, where it may be cheaper to size a flange specifically for the duty
required rather than to accept the nearest standard flange, which of necessity would be over-sized.
Figure 13.35 shows the forces acting on a flanged joint. The bolts hold the faces together, resisting the
forces due to the internal pressure and the gasket sealing pressure. As these forces are offset the flange
is subjected to a bending moment. It can be considered as a cantilever beam with a concentrated load. A
flange assembly must be sized so as to have sufficient strength and rigidity to resist this bending
moment. A flange that lacks sufficient rigidity will rotate slightly, and the joint will leak; Figure 13.36.
The principles of flange design are discussed by Singh and Soler (1992), and Azbel and Cheremisinoff
(1982). Singh and Soler give a computer programme for flange design. Design procedures and work
sheets for non-standard flanges are given in the national codes and standards. Figure 13.35. Forces
acting on an integral flange Figure 13.36. Deflection of a weak flange (exaggerated) 866 CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING STEEL SLIP-ON BOSS FLANGE FOR WELDING Nominal pressure 6 bar Nom. Pipe Flange
Raised face Bolting Drilling Boss size o.d. d1 ³ D bhd4 f No. d2 k d3 10 17.2 75 12 20 35 2 M10 4 11 50 25
15 21.3 80 12 20 40 2 M10 4 11 55 30 20 26.9 90 14 24 50 2 M10 4 11 65 40 25 33.7 100 14 24 60 2 M10
4 11 75 50 32 42.4 120 14 26 70 2 M12 4 14 90 60 40 48.3 130 14 26 80 3 M12 4 14 100 70 50 60.3 140
14 28 90 3 M12 4 14 110 80 65 76.1 160 14 32 110 3 M12 4 14 130 100 80 88.9 190 16 34 128 3 M16 4
18 150 110 100 114.3 210 16 40 148 3 M16 4 18 170 130 125 139.7 240 18 44 178 3 M16 8 18 200 160
150 168.3 265 18 44 202 3 M16 8 18 225 185 200 219.1 320 20 44 258 3 M16 8 18 280 240 250 273 375
22 44 312 3 M16 12 18 335 295 300 323.9 440 22 44 365 4 M20 12 22 395 355 Figure 13.37. Typical
standard flange design (All dimensions mm) The flange class number required for a particular application
will depend on the design pressure and temperature, and the material of construction. The reduction in
temperature, approximately 300ŽC. The straining also work-hardens the inner part of the 882 CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING Critical speed If the centre of gravity of the rotating load does not coincide with the axis
of rotation of the bowl an uneven force will be exerted on the machine spindle. In a self-balancing
machine (or a suspended fixed-spindle machine) this will cause the spindle to deflect from the vertical
position and the bowl will develop a whirling vibration. The phenomenon is analogous with the whirling
of the shafts in other rotating machinery; such as compressors, pumps, and agitators; which is
considered under the general heading of the “whirling of shafts” in standard texts on the “Theory of
Machines”. The simple analysis given below is based on that used to determine the whirling speed of a
shaft with a single concentrated mass. Figure 13.49 shows the position of the centre of gravity of a
rotating mass mc with an initial displacement hc. Let xc be the additional displacement caused by the
action of centrifugal force, and s the restoring force, assumed to be proportional to the displacement.
The radial outward centrifugal force due to the displacement of the centre of the gravity from the axis of
method A study by van Edmonds (1994), using the HTFS TREB4 program, found that Frank and Pricket’s
method gave acceptable predictions for pure components and binary mixtures with water, but that the
results were unreliable for other mixtures. Also, van Edmonds’ results predicted higher flux values than
those obtained by Pricket and Frank. For preliminary designs for pure components, or near pure
components, Pricket and Frank’s method should give a conservative estimate of the operating heat flux.
It is not recommended for mixtures, other than binary mixtures with water. Approximate design method
for mixtures For mixtures, the simplified analysis used by Kern (1954) can be used to obtain an
approximate estimate of the number of tubes required; see also Aerstin and Street (1978) and Hewitt et
al. (1994). This method uses simple, unsophisticated, methods to estimate the two-phase pressure drop
through the exchanger and piping, and the convective boiling heat transfer coefficient. The calculation
procedure is set out below and illustrated in Example 12.11 Procedure 1. Determine the heat duty. 2.
Estimate the heat transfer area, using the maximum allowable heat flux. Take as 39,700 W/m2 for
vertical and 47,300 W/m2 for horizontal reboilers. 3. Choose the tube diameters and length. Calculate
the number of tubes required. 4. Estimate the recirculation ratio, not less than 3. 5. Calculated the
vapour flow rate leaving the reboiler for the duty and liquid heat of vaporisation. 6. Calculate the liquid
flow rate leaving the reboiler for the vapour rate and recirculation ratio. 7. Estimate the two-phase
pressure drop though the tubes, due to friction. Use the homogenous model or another simple method,
such as the Lochart Martenelli equation; see Volume 1, Chapter 5. 8. Estimate the static head in the
tubes. 9. Estimate the available head. 10. Compare the total estimated pressure drop and the available
head. If the available head is greater by a sufficient amount to allow for the pressure drop through the
inlet and outlet piping, proceed. If the available head is not sufficient, return to step 2, and increase the
number of tubes. 11. Calculate the convective heat transfer coefficient using simple methods, such as
assuming convection only, or Chens’ method; see Section 12.11.3. HEAT-TRANSFER EQUIPMENT 745 12.
Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient. 13. Calculate the required overall coefficient and compare
with that estimated. If satisfactory, accept the design, if unsatisfactory return to step 2 and increase the
estimated area. Maximum heat flux Thermosyphon reboilers can suffer from flow instabilities if too high
a heat flux is used. The liquid and vapour flow in the tubes is not smooth but tends to pulsate, and at
high heat fluxes the pulsations can become large enough to cause vapour locking. A good practice is to
install a flow restriction in the inlet line, a valve or orifice plate, so that the flow resistance can be
adjusted should vapour locking occur in operation. Kern recommends that the heat flux in
thermosyphon reboilers, based on the total heat-transfer area, should not exceed 37,900 W/m2 (12,000
Btu/ft2 h). For horizontal thermosyphon reboilers, Collins recommends a maximum flux ranging from
47,300 W/m2 for 20-mm tubes to 56,800 W/m2 for 25-mm tubes (15,000 to 18,000 Btu/ft2h). These
“rule of thumb” values are now thought to be too conservative; see Skellence et al. (1968) and Furzer
(1990). Correlations for determining the maximum heat flux for vertical thermosyphons are given by Lee
et al. (1956) and Palen et al. (1974); and for horizontal thermosyphons by Yilmaz (1987). General design
considerations The tube lengths used for vertical thermosyphon reboilers vary from 1.83 m (6 ft) for
vacuum service to 3.66 m (12 ft) for pressure operation. A good size for general applications is 2.44 m (8
ft) by 25 mm internal diameter. Larger tube diameters, up to 50 mm, are used for fouling systems. The
top tube sheet is normally aligned with the liquid level in the base of the column; Figure 12.58. The
outlet pipe should be as short as possible, and have a cross-sectional area at least equal to the total
cross-sectional area of the tubes. Example 12.10 Make a preliminary design for a vertical thermosyphon
for a column distilling crude aniline. The column will operate at atmospheric pressure and a vaporisation
rate of 6000 kg/h is required. Steam is available at 22 bar (300 psig). Take the column bottom pressure
as 1.2 bar. Solution Physical properties, taken as those of aniline: Boiling point at 1.2 bar 190ŽC
Molecular weight 93.13 Tc 699 K Latent heat 42,000 kJ/kmol Steam saturation temperature 217ŽC. 756
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 12.12. PLATE HEAT EXCHANGERS 12.12.1. Gasketed plate heat exchangers A
gasketed plate heat exchanger consists of a stack of closely spaced thin plates clamped together in a
frame. A thin gasket seals the plates round their edges. The plates are normally between 0.5 and 3 mm
thick and the gap between them 1.5 to 5 mm. Plate surface areas range from 0.03 to 1.5 m2, with a
plate width:length ratio from 2.0 to 3.0. The size of plate heat exchangers can vary from very small, 0.03
m2, to very large, 1500 m2. The maximum flow-rate of fluid is limited to around 2500 m3/h. The basic
layout and flow arrangement for a gasketed plate heat exchanger is shown in Figure 12.60. Corner ports
in the plates direct the flow from plate to plate. The plates are embossed with a pattern of ridges, which
increase the rigidity of the plate and improve the heat transfer performance. Plates are available in a
wide range of metals and alloys; including stainless steel, aluminium and titanium. A variety of gasket
materials is also used; see Table 12.8. Selection The advantages and disadvantages of plate heat
exchangers, compared with conventional shell and tube exchangers are listed below: Advantages 1.
Plates are attractive when material costs are high. 2. Plate heat exchangers are easier to maintain.
Figure 12.60. Gasketed plate heat exchanger HEAT-TRANSFER EQUIPMENT 757 Table 12.8. Typical
gasket materials for plated heat exchangers Material Approximate temperature Fluids limit, °C Styrene-
butane rubber 85 Aqueous systems Acrylonitrile-butane rubber 140 Aqueous system, fats, aliphatic
hydrocarbons Ethylene-propylene rubber 150 Wide range of chemicals Fluorocarbon rubber 175 Oils
Compressed asbestos 250 General resistance to organic chemicals 3. Low approach temps can be used,
as low as 1 ŽC, compared with 5 to 10 ŽC for shell and tube exchangers. 4. Plate heat exchangers are
more flexible, it is easy to add extra plates. 5. Plate heat exchangers are more suitable for highly viscous
materials. 6. The temperature correction factor, Ft, will normally be higher with plate heat exchangers,
as the flow is closer to true counter-current flow. 7. Fouling tends to be significantly less in plate heat
exchangers; see Table 12.9. Disadvantages 1. A plate is not a good shape to resist pressure and plate
heat exchangers are not suitable for pressures greater than about 30 bar. 2. The selection of a suitable
gasket is critical; see Table 12.8. 3. The maximum operating temperature is limited to about 250 ŽC, due
to the performance of the available gasket materials. Plate heat exchangers are used extensively in the
food and beverage industries, as they can be readily taken apart for cleaning and inspection. Their use in
the chemical industry will depend on the relative cost for the particular application compared with a
conventional shell and tube exchanger; see Parker (1964) and Trom (1990). Table 12.9. Fouling factors
(coefficients), typical values for plate heat exchangers Fluid Coefficient (W/m2 °C) Factor (m2 °C/W)
Process water 30,000 0.00003 Towns water (soft) 15,000 0.00007 Towns water (hard) 6000 0.00017
Cooling water (treated) 8000 0.00012 Sea water 6000 0.00017 Lubricating oil 6000 0.00017 Light
organics 10,000 0.0001 Process fluids 5000 20,000 0.0002 0.00005 Plate heat exchanger design It is not
possible to give exact design methods for plate heat exchangers. They are proprietary designs, and will
normally be specified in consultation with the manufacturers. Information on the performance of the
various patterns of plate used is not generally 758 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING available. Emerson (1967)
gives performance data for some proprietary designs, and Kumar (1984) and Bond (1980) have
published design data for APV chevron patterned plates. The approximate method given below can be
used to size an exchanger for comparison with a shell and tube exchanger, and to check performance of
an existing exchanger for new duties. More detailed design methods are given by Hewitt et al. (1994)
and Cooper and Usher (1983). Procedure The design procedure is similar to that for shell and tube
exchangers. 1. Calculate duty, the rate of heat transfer required. 2. If the specification is incomplete,
determine the unknown fluid temperature or fluid flow-rate from a heat balance. 3. Calculate the log
mean temperature difference, TLM. 4. Determine the log mean temperature correction factor, Ft; see
method given below. 5. Calculate the corrected mean temperature difference Tm D Ft ð TLM. 6.
Estimate the overall heat transfer coefficient; see Table 12.1. 7. Calculate the surface area required;
equation 12.1. 8. Determine the number of plates required D total surface area/area of one plate. 9.
Decide the flow arrangement and number of passes. 10. Calculate the film heat transfer coefficients for
each stream; see method given below. 11. Calculate the overall coefficient, allowing for fouling factors.
12. Compare the calculated with the assumed overall coefficient. If satisfactory, say 0% to C 10% error,
proceed. If unsatisfactory return to step 8 and increase or decrease the number of plates. 13. Check the
pressure drop for each stream; see method given below. This design procedure is illustrated in Example
12.13. Flow arrangements The stream flows can be arranged in series or parallel, or a combination of
series and parallel, see Figure 12.61. Each stream can be sub-divided into a number of passes; analogous
to the passes used in shell and tube exchangers. Estimation of the temperature correction factor For
plate heat exchangers it is convenient to express the log mean temperature difference correction factor,
Ft, as a function of the number of transfer units, NTU, and the flow arrangement (number of passes);
see Figure 12.62. The correction will normally be higher for a plate heat exchanger than for a shell and
tube exchanger operating with the same temperatures. For rough sizing purposes, the factor can be
taken as 0.95 for series flow. 764 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Total pressure drop D 26,547 C 50,999 D
77,546 N/m2 , 0.78 bar Could increase the port diameter to reduce the pressure drop. The trial design
should be satisfactory, so a plate heat exchanger could be considered for this duty. 12.12.2. Welded
plate Welded plate heat exchangers use plates similar to those in gasketed plate exchangers but the
plate edges are sealed by welding. This increases the pressure and temperature rating to up to 80 bar
and temperatures in excess of 500ŽC. They retain the advantages of plate heat exchangers (compact size
and good rates of heat transfer) whilst giving security against leakage. An obvious disadvantage is that
the exchangers cannot be dismantled for cleaning. So, their use is restricted to specialised applications
where fouling is not a problem. The plates are fabricated in a variety of materials. A combination of
gasketed and welded plate construction is also used. An aggressive process fluid flowing between
welded plates and a benign process stream, or service stream, between gasketed plates. 12.12.3. Plate-
fin Plate-fin exchangers consist essentially of plates separated by corrugated sheets, which form the fins.
They are made up in a block and are often referred to as matrix exchangers; see Figure 12.63. They are
usually constructed of aluminium and joined and sealed by brazing. The main application of plate-fin
exchangers has been in the cryogenics industries, such as air separation plants, where large heat
transfer surface areas are needed. They are now finding wider applications in the chemical processes
industry, where large surface area, compact, exchangers are required. Their compact size and low
weight have lead to some use in off-shore applications. The brazed aluminium construction is limited to
pressures up to around 60 bar and temperatures up to 150ŽC. The units cannot be mechanically
cleaned, so their use is restricted to clean process and service steams. The Figure 12.63. Plate-fin
exchanger HEAT-TRANSFER EQUIPMENT 765 construction and design of plate-fin exchangers and their
applications are discussed by Saunders (1988) and Burley (1991), and their use in cryogenic service by
Lowe (1987). 12.12.4. Spiral heat exchangers A spiral heat exchanger can be considered as a plate heat
exchanger in which the plates are formed into a spiral. The fluids flow through the channels formed
between the plates. The exchanger is made up from long sheets, between 150 to 1800 mm wide,
formed into a pair of concentric spiral channels. The channels are closed by gasketed end-plates bolted
to an outer case. Inlet and outlet nozzles are fitted to the case and connect to the channels, see Figure
12.64. The gap between the sheets varies between 4 to 20 mm; depending on the size of the exchanger
and the application. They can be fabricated in any material that can be cold-worked and welded. Figure
12.64. Spiral heat exchanger Spiral heat exchangers are compact units: a unit with around 250 m2 area
occupying a volume of approximately 10 m3. The maximum operating pressure is limited to 20 bar and
the temperature to 400ŽC. For a given duty, the pressure drop over a spiral heat exchanger will usually
be lower than that for the equivalent shell-and-tube exchanger. Spiral heat exchangers give true
counter-current flow and can be used where the temperature correction factor Ft for a shell-and-tube
exchanger would be too low; see Section 12.6. Because they are easily cleaned and the turbulence in the
channels is high, spiral heat exchangers can be used for very dirty process fluids and slurries. The
correlations for flow in conduits can be used to estimate the heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop
in the channels; using the hydraulic mean diameter as the characteristic dimension. The design of spiral
heat exchangers is discussed by Minton (1970) 766 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 12.13. DIRECT-CONTACT
HEAT EXCHANGERS In direct-contact heat exchange the hot and cold streams are brought into contact
without any separating wall, and high rates of heat transfer are achieved. Applications include: reactor
off-gas quenching, vacuum condensers, cooler-condensers, desuperheating and humidification. Water-
cooling towers are a particular example of direct-contact heat exchange. In direct-contact cooler-
condensers the condensed liquid is frequently used as the coolant, Figure 12.65. Gas out Gas in Figure
12.65. Typical direct-contact cooler (baffle plates) Direct-contact heat exchangers should be considered
whenever the process stream and coolant are compatible. The equipment used is basically simple and
cheap, and is suitable for use with heavily fouling fluids and with liquids containing solids; spray
chambers, spray columns, and plate and packed columns are used. There is no general design method
for direct contact exchangers. Most applications will involve the transfer of latent heat as well as
sensible heat, and the process is one of simultaneous heat and mass transfer. When the approach to
thermal equilibrium is rapid, as it will be in many applications, the size of the contacting vessel is not
critical and the design can be based on experience with similar processes. For other situations the
designer must work from first principles, setting up the differential equations for mass and heat
transfer, and using judgement in making the simplifications necessary to achieve a solution. The design
procedures used are analogous to those for gas absorption and distillation. The rates of heat transfer
will be high; with coefficients for packed columns typically in the range 2000 to 20,000 W/m3ŽC (i.e. per
cubic meter of packing). 770 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 3. Direct-fired reactors; for example, the pyrolysis
of dichloroethane to form vinyl chloride. 4. Reformers for hydrogen production, giving outlet
temperatures of 800 900ŽC. 5. Steam boilers. Fan Air Motor Support fluid out Hot fluid in Hot channels
Section-support Air Tube supports Air Tube supports Hot fluid in Hot fluid out Motor Air Fan Air Gear
Finned tubes (a) (b) Figure 12.68. Air-cooled exchangers 12.17.1. Basic construction Many different
designs and layouts are used, depending on the application, see Bergman (1979a). The basic
construction consists of a rectangular or cylindrical steel chamber, lined with refractory bricks. Tubes are
arranged around the wall, in either horizontal or vertical banks. The fluid to be heated flows through the
tubes. Typical layouts are shown in Figure 12.69a, b and c. A more detailed diagram of a pyrolysis
furnace is given in Figure 12.70. Heat transfer to the tubes on the furnace walls is predominantly by
radiation. In modern designs this radiant section is surmounted by a smaller section in which the
combustion HEAT-TRANSFER EQUIPMENT 771 Figure 12.69. Fired heaters. (a) Vertical-cylindrical, all
radiant (b) Vertical-cylindrical, helical coil (c) Verticalcylindrical with convection section gases flow over
banks of tubes and transfer heat by convection. Extended surface tubes, with fins or pins, are used in
the convection section to improve the heat transfer from the combustion gases. Plain tubes are used in
the bottom rows of the convection section to act as a heat shield from the hot gases in the radiant
section. Heat transfer in the shield section will be by both radiation and convection. The tube sizes used
will normally be between 75 and 150 mm diameter. The tube size and number of passes used depending
on the application and the process-fluid flow-rate. Typical tube velocities will be from 1 to 2 m/s for
heaters, with lower rates used for reactors. Carbon steel is used for low temperature duties; stainless
steel and special alloy steels for elevated temperatures. For high temperatures, a material that resists
creep must be used. The burners are positioned at base or sides of radiant section. Gaseous and liquid
fuels are used. The combustion air may be preheated in tubes in the convection section. 12.17.2. Design
Computer programs for the design of fired heaters are available from commercial organisations; such as
HTFS and HTRI, see Section 12.1. Manual calculation methods, suitable for the preliminary design of
fired heaters, are given by Kern (1950), Wimpress (1978) and Evans (1980). A brief review of the factors
to be considered is given in the following sections. HEAT-TRANSFER EQUIPMENT 773 where Qr D radiant
heat transfer rate, W Acp D the “cold-plane” area of the tubes D number of tubes ð the exposed length
ð tube pitch ˛ D the absorption efficiency factor F D the radiation exchange factor Tg D temperature of
the hot gases, K Tt D tube surface temperature, K Part of the radiation from the hot combustion gases
will strike the tubes and be absorbed, and part will pass through the spaces between the tubes and be
radiated back into the furnace. If the tubes are in front of the wall, some of the radiation from the wall
will also be absorbed by the tubes. This complex situation is allowed for by calculating what is known as
the cold plane area of the tubes Acp, and then applying the absorption efficiency factor ˛ to allow for the
fact that the tube area will not be as effective as a plane area. The absorption efficiency factor is a
function of the tube arrangement and will vary from around 0.4 for widely spaced tubes, to 1.0 for the
theoretical situation when the tubes are touching. It will be around 0.7 to 0.8 when the pitch equals the
tube diameter. Values for ˛ are available in handbooks for a range of tube arrangements; see Perry et al.
(1997), and Wimpress (1978). The radiation exchange factor F depends on the arrangement of the
surfaces and their emissivity and absorptivity. Combustion gases are poor radiators, because only the
carbon dioxide and water vapour, about 20 to 25 per cent of the total, will emit radiation in the thermal
spectrum. For a fired heater the exchange factor will depend on the partial pressure and emissivity of
these gases, and the layout of the heater. The partial pressure is dependent on the kind of fuel used,
liquid or gas, and the amount of excess air. The gas emissivity is a function of temperature. Methods for
estimating the exchange factor for typical furnace designs are given in the handbooks; see Perry et al.
(1997), and Wimpress (1978). The heat flux to the tubes in the radiant section will lie between 20 to 40
kW/m2, for most applications. A value of 30 kW/m2 can be used to make a rough estimate of the tube
area needed in this section. A small amount of heat will be transferred to the tubes by convection in the
radiant section, but as the superficial velocity of the gases will be low, the heat transfer coefficient will
be low, around 10 Wm2 ŽC1. Convection section The combustion gases flow across the tube banks in
the convection section and the correlations for cross-flow in tube banks can be used to estimate the
heat transfer coefficient. The gas side coefficient will be low, and where extended surfaces are used an
allowance must be made for the fin efficiency. Procedures are given in the tube vendors literature, and
in handbooks, see Section 12.14, and Bergman (1978b). The overall coefficient will depend on the gas
velocity and temperature, and the tube size. Typical values range from 20 to 50 Wm2 ŽC1. The lower
tubes in the shield bank in the convection section will receive heat by radiation from the radiant section.
This can be allowed for by including the area of the lower row of tubes with the tubes in the radiant
section. HEAT-TRANSFER EQUIPMENT 775 0.2 0.5 for each row of plain tubes 1.0 2.0 for each row of
finned tubes 0.5 for the stack entrance 1.0 for the stack exit 1.5 for the stack damper 12.17.7. Thermal
efficiency Modern fired heaters operate at thermal efficiencies of between 80 to 90 per cent, depending
on the fuel and the excess air requirement. In some applications additional excess air may be used to
reduce the flame temperature, to avoid overheating of the tubes. Where the inlet temperature of the
process fluid is such that the outlet temperature from the convection section would be excessive, giving
low thermal efficiency, this excess heat can be used to preheat the air to the furnace. Tubes would be
installed above the process fluid section in the convection section. Forced draft operation would be
needed to drive the air flow through the preheat section. Heat losses from the heater casing are
normally between 1.5 to 2.5 per cent of the heat input. 12.18. HEAT TRANSFER TO VESSELS The simplest
way to transfer heat to a process or storage vessel is to fit an external jacket, or an internal coil. 12.18.1.
Jacketed vessels Conventional jackets The most commonly used type jacket is that shown in Figure
12.71. It consists of an outer cylinder which surrounds part of the vessel. The heating or cooling medium
circulates in the annular space between the jacket and vessel walls and the heat is transferred through
the wall of the vessel. Circulation baffles are usually installed in the annular space to increase the
velocity of the liquid flowing through the jacket and improve the heat transfer coefficient, see Figure
12.72a. The same effect can be obtained by introducing the fluid through a series of nozzles spaced
down the jacket. The momentum of the jets issuing from the nozzles sets up a swirling motion in the
jacket liquid; Figure 12.72d. The spacing between the jacket and vessel wall will depend on the size of
the vessel, but will typically range from 50 mm for small vessels to 300 mm for large vessels. Half-pipe
jackets Half-pipe jackets are formed by welding sections of pipe, cut in half along the longitudinal axis, to
the vessel wall. The pipe is usually wound round the vessel in a helix; Figure 12.72c. 776 CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING Figure 12.71. Jacketed vessel Figure 12.72. Jacketed vessels. (a) Spirally baffled jacket (b)
Dimple jacket (c) Half-pipe jacket (d) Agitation nozzle The pitch of the coils and the area covered can be
selected to provide the heat transfer area required. Standard pipe sizes are used; ranging from 60 to 120
mm outside diameter. The half-pipe construction makes a strong jacket capable of withstanding
pressure better than the conventional jacket design. HEAT-TRANSFER EQUIPMENT 777 Dimpled jackets
Dimpled jackets are similar to the conventional jackets but are constructed of thinner plates. The jacket
is strengthened by a regular pattern of hemispherical dimples pressed into the plate and welded to the
vessel wall, Figure 12.72b. Jacket selection Factors to consider when selecting the type of jacket to use
are listed below: 1. Cost: in terms of cost the designs can be ranked, from cheapest to most expensive,
as: simple, no baffles agitation nozzles spiral baffle dimple jacket half-pipe jacket 2. Heat transfer rate
required: select a spirally baffled or half-pipe jacket if high rates are required. 3. Pressure: as a rough
guide, the pressure rating of the designs can be taken as: jackets, up to 10 bar dimpled jackets, up to 20
bar half-pipe, up to 70 bar. So, half-pipe jaclets would be used for high pressure. Jacket heat transfer
and pressure drop The heat transfer coefficient to the vessel wall can be estimated using the
correlations for forced convection in conduits, such as equation 12.11. The fluid velocity and the path
length can be calculated from the geometry of the jacket arrangement. The hydraulic mean diameter
(equivalent diameter, de) of the channel or half-pipe should be used as the characteristic dimension in
the Reynolds and Nusselt numbers; see Section 12.8.1. In dimpled jackets a velocity of 0.6 m can be
used to estimate the heat transfer coefficient. A method for calculating the heat transfer coefficient for
dimpled jackets is given by Makovitz (1971). The coefficients for jackets using agitation nozzles will be
similar to that given by using baffles. A method for calculating the heat transfer coefficient using
agitation nozzles is given by Bolliger (1982). To increase heat transfer rates, the velocity through a jacket
can be increased by recirculating the cooling or heating liquid. For simple jackets without baffles, heat
transfer will be mainly by natural convection and the heat transfer coefficient will range from 200 to 400
Wm2ŽC1. 12.18.2. Internal coils The simplest and cheapest form of heat transfer surface for installation
inside a vessel is a helical coil; see Figure 12.73. The pitch and diameter of the coil can be made to suit
the 782 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 12.19. REFERENCES AERSTIN, F. and STREET, G. (1978) Applied
Chemical Process Design. (Plenum Press). BELL, K. J. (1960) Petro/Chem. 32 (Oct.) C26. Exchanger
design: based on the Delaware research report. BELL, K. J. (1963) Final Report of the Co-operative
Research Program on Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers, University of Delaware, Eng. Expt. Sta. Bull. 5
(University of Delaware). BELL, K. J., TABOREK, J. and FENOGLIO, F. (1970) Chem. Eng. Prog. Symp. Ser.
No. 102, 66, 154. Interpretation of horizontal in-tube condensation heat transfer correlations with a
two-phase flow regime map. BELL, K. J. and GHALY, M. A. (1973) Chem. Eng. Prog. Symp. Ser. No. 131,
69, 72. An approximate generalized design method for multicomponent/partial condensers. BERGMAN,
H. L. (1978a) Chem. Eng., NY 85 (June 19th) 99. Fired heaters Finding the basic design for your
application. BERGMAN, H. L. (1978b) Chem. Eng., NY 85 (Aug. 14th) 129. Fired heaters How combustion
conditions influence design and operation. BOLLIGER, D. H. (1982) Chem. Eng., NY 89 (Sept.) 95.
Assessing heat transfer in process-vessel jackets. BOND, M. P. (1981) Chem. Engr., London No. 367
(April) 162. Plate heat exchanger for effective heat transfer. BOTT, T. R. (1990) Fouling Notebook
(Institution of Chemical Engineers, London). BOYKO, L. D. and KRUZHILIN, G. N. (1967) Int. J. Heat Mass
Transfer 10, 361. Heat transfer and hydraulic resistance during condensation of steam in a horizontal
tube and in a bundle of tubes. BRIGGS, D. E. and YOUNG, E. H. (1963) Chem. Eng. Prog. Symp. Ser. No.
59, 61, 1. Convection heat transfer and pressure drop of air flowing across triangular pitch banks of
finned tubes. BROMLEY, L. A. (1950) Chem. Eng. Prog. 46, 221. Heat transfer in stable film boiling.
BROWN, R. (1978) Chem. Eng., NY 85 (March 27th) 414. Design of air-cooled heat exchangers: a
procedure for preliminary estimates. BURLEY, J. R. (1991) Chem. Eng., NY 98 (Aug.) 90. Don’t overlook
compact heat exchangers. BUTTERWORTH, D. (1973) Conference on Advances in Thermal and
Mechanical Design of Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers, NEL Report No. 590. (National Engineering
Laboratory, East Kilbride, Glasgow, UK). A calculation method for shell and tube heat exchangers in
which the overall coefficient varies along the length. BUTTERWORTH, D. (1977) Introduction to Heat
Transfer, Engineering Design Guide No. 18 (Oxford U.P.). BUTTERWORTH, D. (1978) Course on the
Design of Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers (National Engineering Laboratory, East Kilbride, Glasgow, UK).
Condensation 1 - Heat transfer across the condensed layer. CHANTRY, W. A. and CHURCH, D. M. (1958)
Chem. Eng. Prog. 54 (Oct.) 64. Design of high velocity forced circulation reboilers for fouling service.
CHEN, J. C. (1966) Ind. Eng. Chem. Proc. Des. Dev. 5, 322. A correlation for boiling heat transfer to
saturated fluids in convective flow. CHEN-CHIA, H. and FAIR, J. R. (1989) Heat Transfer Engineering, 10
by baffle chord
Latent heat L2T2
diam. holes 0.6 35 0.48 0.15 0.55 0.24 0.190 0.095 6 5 20 25 0.8 50 0.58 0.15 0.70 0.29 0.225 0.095 8 5
20 25 0.9 65 0.63 0.15 0.81 0.34 0.275 0.095 10 6 20 25 1.0 90 0.68 0.15 0.91 0.39 0.310 0.095 11 8 20
G t2 t1 diam. holes 1.4 230 0.88 0.20 1.24 0.53 0.305 0.140 12 10 24 30 1.6 330 0.98 0.20 1.41 0.62
0.350 0.140 12 10 24 30 1.8 380 1.08 0.20 1.59 0.71 0.405 0.140 12 10 24 30 2.0 460 1.18 0.20 1.77 0.80
0.450 0.140 12 10 24 30 2.2 750 1.28 0.225 1.95 0.89 0.520 0.150 16 12 24 30 2.4 900 1.38 0.225 2.13
0.98 0.565 0.150 16 12 27 33 2.6 1000 1.48 0.225 2.30 1.03 0.590 0.150 16 12 27 33 2.8 1350 1.58 0.25
2.50 1.10 0.625 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.0 1750 1.68 0.25 2.64 1.18 0.665 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.2 2000 1.78
0.25 2.82 1.26 0.730 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.6 2500 1.98 0.25 3.20 1.40 0.815 0.150 16 12 27 33 All
13 25 36 42 M36 817 57 102 76 16 32 42 48 M42 1120 60 102 76 16 32 48 54 M48 1470 67 127 89 19 38
54 60 M56 2030 75 150 102 25 45 60 66 M64 2680 83 152 102 25 50 70 76 70 89 178 127 32 64 76 83 76
15 21.3 80 12 20 40 2 M10 4 11 55 30 20 26.9 90 14 24 50 2 M10 4 11 65 40 25 33.7 100 14 24 60 2 M10
4 11 75 50 32 42.4 120 14 26 70 2 M12 4 14 90 60 40 48.3 130 14 26 80 3 M12 4 14 100 70 50 60.3 140
14 28 90 3 M12 4 14 110 80 65 76.1 160 14 32 110 3 M12 4 14 130 100 80 88.9 190 16 34 128 3 M16 4
18 150 110 100 114.3 210 16 40 148 3 M16 4 18 170 130 125 139.7 240 18 44 178 3 M16 8 18 200 160
150 168.3 265 18 44 202 3 M16 8 18 225 185 200 219.1 320 20 44 258 3 M16 8 18 280 240 250 273 375
by baffle chord
Latent heat L2T2
diam. holes 0.6 35 0.48 0.15 0.55 0.24 0.190 0.095 6 5 20 25 0.8 50 0.58 0.15 0.70 0.29 0.225 0.095 8 5
20 25 0.9 65 0.63 0.15 0.81 0.34 0.275 0.095 10 6 20 25 1.0 90 0.68 0.15 0.91 0.39 0.310 0.095 11 8 20
G t2 t1 diam. holes 1.4 230 0.88 0.20 1.24 0.53 0.305 0.140 12 10 24 30 1.6 330 0.98 0.20 1.41 0.62
0.350 0.140 12 10 24 30 1.8 380 1.08 0.20 1.59 0.71 0.405 0.140 12 10 24 30 2.0 460 1.18 0.20 1.77 0.80
0.450 0.140 12 10 24 30 2.2 750 1.28 0.225 1.95 0.89 0.520 0.150 16 12 24 30 2.4 900 1.38 0.225 2.13
0.98 0.565 0.150 16 12 27 33 2.6 1000 1.48 0.225 2.30 1.03 0.590 0.150 16 12 27 33 2.8 1350 1.58 0.25
2.50 1.10 0.625 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.0 1750 1.68 0.25 2.64 1.18 0.665 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.2 2000 1.78
0.25 2.82 1.26 0.730 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.6 2500 1.98 0.25 3.20 1.40 0.815 0.150 16 12 27 33 All
13 25 36 42 M36 817 57 102 76 16 32 42 48 M42 1120 60 102 76 16 32 48 54 M48 1470 67 127 89 19 38
54 60 M56 2030 75 150 102 25 45 60 66 M64 2680 83 152 102 25 50 70 76 70 89 178 127 32 64 76 83 76
15 21.3 80 12 20 40 2 M10 4 11 55 30 20 26.9 90 14 24 50 2 M10 4 11 65 40 25 33.7 100 14 24 60 2 M10
4 11 75 50 32 42.4 120 14 26 70 2 M12 4 14 90 60 40 48.3 130 14 26 80 3 M12 4 14 100 70 50 60.3 140
14 28 90 3 M12 4 14 110 80 65 76.1 160 14 32 110 3 M12 4 14 130 100 80 88.9 190 16 34 128 3 M16 4
18 150 110 100 114.3 210 16 40 148 3 M16 4 18 170 130 125 139.7 240 18 44 178 3 M16 8 18 200 160
150 168.3 265 18 44 202 3 M16 8 18 225 185 200 219.1 320 20 44 258 3 M16 8 18 280 240 250 273 375
by baffle chord
Latent heat L2T2
diam. holes 0.6 35 0.48 0.15 0.55 0.24 0.190 0.095 6 5 20 25 0.8 50 0.58 0.15 0.70 0.29 0.225 0.095 8 5
20 25 0.9 65 0.63 0.15 0.81 0.34 0.275 0.095 10 6 20 25 1.0 90 0.68 0.15 0.91 0.39 0.310 0.095 11 8 20
G t2 t1 diam. holes 1.4 230 0.88 0.20 1.24 0.53 0.305 0.140 12 10 24 30 1.6 330 0.98 0.20 1.41 0.62
0.350 0.140 12 10 24 30 1.8 380 1.08 0.20 1.59 0.71 0.405 0.140 12 10 24 30 2.0 460 1.18 0.20 1.77 0.80
0.450 0.140 12 10 24 30 2.2 750 1.28 0.225 1.95 0.89 0.520 0.150 16 12 24 30 2.4 900 1.38 0.225 2.13
0.98 0.565 0.150 16 12 27 33 2.6 1000 1.48 0.225 2.30 1.03 0.590 0.150 16 12 27 33 2.8 1350 1.58 0.25
2.50 1.10 0.625 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.0 1750 1.68 0.25 2.64 1.18 0.665 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.2 2000 1.78
0.25 2.82 1.26 0.730 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.6 2500 1.98 0.25 3.20 1.40 0.815 0.150 16 12 27 33 All
13 25 36 42 M36 817 57 102 76 16 32 42 48 M42 1120 60 102 76 16 32 48 54 M48 1470 67 127 89 19 38
54 60 M56 2030 75 150 102 25 45 60 66 M64 2680 83 152 102 25 50 70 76 70 89 178 127 32 64 76 83 76
15 21.3 80 12 20 40 2 M10 4 11 55 30 20 26.9 90 14 24 50 2 M10 4 11 65 40 25 33.7 100 14 24 60 2 M10
4 11 75 50 32 42.4 120 14 26 70 2 M12 4 14 90 60 40 48.3 130 14 26 80 3 M12 4 14 100 70 50 60.3 140
14 28 90 3 M12 4 14 110 80 65 76.1 160 14 32 110 3 M12 4 14 130 100 80 88.9 190 16 34 128 3 M16 4
18 150 110 100 114.3 210 16 40 148 3 M16 4 18 170 130 125 139.7 240 18 44 178 3 M16 8 18 200 160
150 168.3 265 18 44 202 3 M16 8 18 225 185 200 219.1 320 20 44 258 3 M16 8 18 280 240 250 273 375
by baffle chord
Latent heat L2T2
diam. holes 0.6 35 0.48 0.15 0.55 0.24 0.190 0.095 6 5 20 25 0.8 50 0.58 0.15 0.70 0.29 0.225 0.095 8 5
20 25 0.9 65 0.63 0.15 0.81 0.34 0.275 0.095 10 6 20 25 1.0 90 0.68 0.15 0.91 0.39 0.310 0.095 11 8 20
G t2 t1 diam. holes 1.4 230 0.88 0.20 1.24 0.53 0.305 0.140 12 10 24 30 1.6 330 0.98 0.20 1.41 0.62
0.350 0.140 12 10 24 30 1.8 380 1.08 0.20 1.59 0.71 0.405 0.140 12 10 24 30 2.0 460 1.18 0.20 1.77 0.80
0.450 0.140 12 10 24 30 2.2 750 1.28 0.225 1.95 0.89 0.520 0.150 16 12 24 30 2.4 900 1.38 0.225 2.13
0.98 0.565 0.150 16 12 27 33 2.6 1000 1.48 0.225 2.30 1.03 0.590 0.150 16 12 27 33 2.8 1350 1.58 0.25
2.50 1.10 0.625 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.0 1750 1.68 0.25 2.64 1.18 0.665 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.2 2000 1.78
0.25 2.82 1.26 0.730 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.6 2500 1.98 0.25 3.20 1.40 0.815 0.150 16 12 27 33 All
13 25 36 42 M36 817 57 102 76 16 32 42 48 M42 1120 60 102 76 16 32 48 54 M48 1470 67 127 89 19 38
54 60 M56 2030 75 150 102 25 45 60 66 M64 2680 83 152 102 25 50 70 76 70 89 178 127 32 64 76 83 76
15 21.3 80 12 20 40 2 M10 4 11 55 30 20 26.9 90 14 24 50 2 M10 4 11 65 40 25 33.7 100 14 24 60 2 M10
4 11 75 50 32 42.4 120 14 26 70 2 M12 4 14 90 60 40 48.3 130 14 26 80 3 M12 4 14 100 70 50 60.3 140
14 28 90 3 M12 4 14 110 80 65 76.1 160 14 32 110 3 M12 4 14 130 100 80 88.9 190 16 34 128 3 M16 4
18 150 110 100 114.3 210 16 40 148 3 M16 4 18 170 130 125 139.7 240 18 44 178 3 M16 8 18 200 160
150 168.3 265 18 44 202 3 M16 8 18 225 185 200 219.1 320 20 44 258 3 M16 8 18 280 240 250 273 375
The radial outward centrifugal force due to tmethod A study by van Edmonds (1994), using the HTFS
TREB4 program, found that Frank and Pricket’s method gave acceptable predictions for pure
components and binary mixtures with water, but that the results were unreliable for other mixtures.
Also, van Edmonds’ results predicted higher flux values than those obtained by Pricket and Frank. For
preliminary designs for pure components, or near pure components, Pricket and Frank’s method should
give a conservative estimate of the operating heat flux. It is not recommended for mixtures, other than
binary mixtures with water. Approximate design method for mixtures For mixtures, the simplified
analysis used by Kern (1954) can be used to obtain an approximate estimate of the number of tubes
required; see also Aerstin and Street (1978) and Hewitt et al. (1994). This method uses simple,
unsophisticated, methods to estimate the two-phase pressure drop through the exchanger and piping,
and the convective boiling heat transfer coefficient. The calculation procedure is set out below and
illustrated in Example 12.11 Procedure 1. Determine the heat duty. 2. Estimate the heat transfer area,
using the maximum allowable heat flux. Take as 39,700 W/m2 for vertical and 47,300 W/m2 for
horizontal reboilers. 3. Choose the tube diameters and length. Calculate the number of tubes required.
4. Estimate the recirculation ratio, not less than 3. 5. Calculated the vapour flow rate leaving the reboiler
for the duty and liquid heat of vaporisation. 6. Calculate the liquid flow rate leaving the reboiler for the
vapour rate and recirculation ratio. 7. Estimate the two-phase pressure drop though the tubes, due to
friction. Use the homogenous model or another simple method, such as the Lochart Martenelli
equation; see Volume 1, Chapter 5. 8. Estimate the static head in the tubes. 9. Estimate the available
head. 10. Compare the total estimated pressure drop and the available head. If the available head is
greater by a sufficient amount to allow for the pressure drop through the inlet and outlet piping,
proceed. If the available head is not sufficient, return to step 2, and increase the number of tubes. 11.
Calculate the convective heat transfer coefficient using simple methods, such as assuming convection
only, or Chens’ method; see Section 12.11.3. HEAT-TRANSFER EQUIPMENT 745 12. Calculate the overall
heat transfer coefficient. 13. Calculate the required overall coefficient and compare with that estimated.
If satisfactory, accept the design, if unsatisfactory return to step 2 and increase the estimated area.
Maximum heat flux Thermosyphon reboilers can suffer from flow instabilities if too high a heat flux is
used. The liquid and vapour flow in the tubes is not smooth but tends to pulsate, and at high heat fluxes
the pulsations can become large enough to cause vapour locking. A good practice is to install a flow
restriction in the inlet line, a valve or orifice plate, so that the flow resistance can be adjusted should
vapour locking occur in operation. Kern recommends that the heat flux in thermosyphon reboilers,
based on the total heat-transfer area, should not exceed 37,900 W/m2 (12,000 Btu/ft2 h). For horizontal
thermosyphon reboilers, Collins recommends a maximum flux ranging from 47,300 W/m2 for 20-mm
tubes to 56,800 W/m2 for 25-mm tubes (15,000 to 18,000 Btu/ft2h). These “rule of thumb” values are
now thought to be too conservative; see Skellence et al. (1968) and Furzer (1990). Correlations for
determining the maximum heat flux for vertical thermosyphons are given by Lee et al. (1956) and Palen
et al. (1974); and for horizontal thermosyphons by Yilmaz (1987). General design considerations The
tube lengths used for vertical thermosyphon reboilers vary from 1.83 m (6 ft) for vacuum service to 3.66
m (12 ft) for pressure operation. A good size for general applications is 2.44 m (8 ft) by 25 mm internal
diameter. Larger tube diameters, up to 50 mm, are used for fouling systems. The top tube sheet is
normally aligned with the liquid level in the base of the column; Figure 12.58. The outlet pipe should be
as short as possible, and have a cross-sectional area at least equal to the total cross-sectional area of the
tubes. Example 12.10 Make a preliminary design for a vertical thermosyphon for a column distilling
crude aniline. The column will operate at atmospheric pressure and a vaporisation rate of 6000 kg/h is
required. Steam is available at 22 bar (300 psig). Take the column bottom pressure as 1.2 bar. Solution
Physical properties, taken as those of aniline: Boiling point at 1.2 bar 190ŽC Molecular weight 93.13 Tc
699 K Latent heat 42,000 kJ/kmol Steam saturation temperature 217ŽC. 756 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
12.12. PLATE HEAT EXCHANGERS 12.12.1. Gasketed plate heat exchangers A gasketed plate heat
exchanger consists of a stack of closely spaced thin plates clamped together in a frame. A thin gasket
seals the plates round their edges. The plates are normally between 0.5 and 3 mm thick and the gap
between them 1.5 to 5 mm. Plate surface areas range from 0.03 to 1.5 m2, with a plate width:length
ratio from 2.0 to 3.0. The size of plate heat exchangers can vary from very small, 0.03 m2, to very large,
1500 m2. The maximum flow-rate of fluid is limited to around 2500 m3/h. The basic layout and flow
arrangement for a gasketed plate heat exchanger is shown in Figure 12.60. Corner ports in the plates
direct the flow from plate to plate. The plates are embossed with a pattern of ridges, which increase the
rigidity of the plate and improve the heat transfer performance. Plates are available in a wide range of
metals and alloys; including stainless steel, aluminium and titanium. A variety of gasket materials is also
used; see Table 12.8. Selection The advantages and disadvantages of plate heat exchangers, compared
with conventional shell and tube exchangers are listed below: Advantages 1. Plates are attractive when
material costs are high. 2. Plate heat exchangers are easier to maintain. Figure 12.60. Gasketed plate
heat exchanger HEAT-TRANSFER EQUIPMENT 757 Table 12.8. Typical gasket materials for plated heat
exchangers Material Approximate temperature Fluids limit, °C Styrene-butane rubber 85 Aqueous
systems Acrylonitrile-butane rubber 140 Aqueous system, fats, aliphatic hydrocarbons Ethylene-
propylene rubber 150 Wide range of chemicals Fluorocarbon rubber 175 Oils Compressed asbestos 250
General resistance to organic chemicals 3. Low approach temps can be used, as low as 1 ŽC, compared
with 5 to 10 ŽC for shell and tube exchangers. 4. Plate heat exchangers are more flexible, it is easy to
add extra plates. 5. Plate heat exchangers are more suitable for highly viscous materials. 6. The
temperature correction factor, Ft, will normally be higher with plate heat exchangers, as the flow is
closer to true counter-current flow. 7. Fouling tends to be significantly less in plate heat exchangers; see
Table 12.9. Disadvantages 1. A plate is not a good shape to resist pressure and plate heat exchangers are
not suitable for pressures greater than about 30 bar. 2. The selection of a suitable gasket is critical; see
Table 12.8. 3. The maximum operating temperature is limited to about 250 ŽC, due to the performance
of the available gasket materials. Plate heat exchangers are used extensively in the food and beverage
industries, as they can be readily taken apart for cleaning and inspection. Their use in the chemical
industry will depend on the relative cost for the particular application compared with a conventional
shell and tube exchanger; see Parker (1964) and Trom (1990). Table 12.9. Fouling factors (coefficients),
typical values for plate heat exchangers Fluid Coefficient (W/m2 °C) Factor (m2 °C/W) Process water
30,000 0.00003 Towns water (soft) 15,000 0.00007 Towns water (hard) 6000 0.00017 Cooling water
(treated) 8000 0.00012 Sea water 6000 0.00017 Lubricating oil 6000 0.00017 Light organics 10,000
0.0001 Process fluids 5000 20,000 0.0002 0.00005 Plate heat exchanger design It is not possible to give
exact design methods for plate heat exchangers. They are proprietary designs, and will normally be
specified in consultation with the manufacturers. Information on the performance of the various
patterns of plate used is not generally 758 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING available. Emerson (1967) gives
performance data for some proprietary designs, and Kumar (1984) and Bond (1980) have published
design data for APV chevron patterned plates. The approximate method given below can be used to size
an exchanger for comparison with a shell and tube exchanger, and to check performance of an existing
exchanger for new duties. More detailed design methods are given by Hewitt et al. (1994) and Cooper
and Usher (1983). Procedure The design procedure is similar to that for shell and tube exchangers. 1.
Calculate duty, the rate of heat transfer required. 2. If the specification is incomplete, determine the
unknown fluid temperature or fluid flow-rate from a heat balance. 3. Calculate the log mean
temperature difference, TLM. 4. Determine the log mean temperature correction factor, Ft; see
by baffle chord
Latent heat L2T2
diam. holes 0.6 35 0.48 0.15 0.55 0.24 0.190 0.095 6 5 20 25 0.8 50 0.58 0.15 0.70 0.29 0.225 0.095 8 5
20 25 0.9 65 0.63 0.15 0.81 0.34 0.275 0.095 10 6 20 25 1.0 90 0.68 0.15 0.91 0.39 0.310 0.095 11 8 20
G t2 t1 diam. holes 1.4 230 0.88 0.20 1.24 0.53 0.305 0.140 12 10 24 30 1.6 330 0.98 0.20 1.41 0.62
0.350 0.140 12 10 24 30 1.8 380 1.08 0.20 1.59 0.71 0.405 0.140 12 10 24 30 2.0 460 1.18 0.20 1.77 0.80
0.450 0.140 12 10 24 30 2.2 750 1.28 0.225 1.95 0.89 0.520 0.150 16 12 24 30 2.4 900 1.38 0.225 2.13
0.98 0.565 0.150 16 12 27 33 2.6 1000 1.48 0.225 2.30 1.03 0.590 0.150 16 12 27 33 2.8 1350 1.58 0.25
2.50 1.10 0.625 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.0 1750 1.68 0.25 2.64 1.18 0.665 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.2 2000 1.78
0.25 2.82 1.26 0.730 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.6 2500 1.98 0.25 3.20 1.40 0.815 0.150 16 12 27 33 All
13 25 36 42 M36 817 57 102 76 16 32 42 48 M42 1120 60 102 76 16 32 48 54 M48 1470 67 127 89 19 38
54 60 M56 2030 75 150 102 25 45 60 66 M64 2680 83 152 102 25 50 70 76 70 89 178 127 32 64 76 83 76
15 21.3 80 12 20 40 2 M10 4 11 55 30 20 26.9 90 14 24 50 2 M10 4 11 65 40 25 33.7 100 14 24 60 2 M10
4 11 75 50 32 42.4 120 14 26 70 2 M12 4 14 90 60 40 48.3 130 14 26 80 3 M12 4 14 100 70 50 60.3 140
14 28 90 3 M12 4 14 110 80 65 76.1 160 14 32 110 3 M12 4 14 130 100 80 88.9 190 16 34 128 3 M16 4
18 150 110 100 114.3 210 16 40 148 3 M16 4 18 170 130 125 139.7 240 18 44 178 3 M16 8 18 200 160
150 168.3 265 18 44 202 3 M16 8 18 225 185 200 219.1 320 20 44 258 3 M16 8 18 280 240 250 273 375
The radial outward centrifugal force due to the displacememethod A study by van Edmonds (1994),
using the HTFS TREB4 program, found that Frank and Pricket’s method gave acceptable predictions for
pure components and binary mixtures with water, but that the results were unreliable for other
mixtures. Also, van Edmonds’ results predicted higher flux values than those obtained by Pricket and
Frank. For preliminary designs for pure components, or near pure components, Pricket and Frank’s
method should give a conservative estimate of the operating heat flux. It is not recommended for
mixtures, other than binary mixtures with water. Approximate design method for mixtures For mixtures,
the simplified analysis used by Kern (1954) can be used to obtain an approximate estimate of the
number of tubes required; see also Aerstin and Street (1978) and Hewitt et al. (1994). This method uses
simple, unsophisticated, methods to estimate the two-phase pressure drop through the exchanger and
piping, and the convective boiling heat transfer coefficient. The calculation procedure is set out below
and illustrated in Example 12.11 Procedure 1. Determine the heat duty. 2. Estimate the heat transfer
area, using the maximum allowable heat flux. Take as 39,700 W/m2 for vertical and 47,300 W/m2 for
by baffle chord
Latent heat L2T2
diam. holes 0.6 35 0.48 0.15 0.55 0.24 0.190 0.095 6 5 20 25 0.8 50 0.58 0.15 0.70 0.29 0.225 0.095 8 5
20 25 0.9 65 0.63 0.15 0.81 0.34 0.275 0.095 10 6 20 25 1.0 90 0.68 0.15 0.91 0.39 0.310 0.095 11 8 20
G t2 t1 diam. holes 1.4 230 0.88 0.20 1.24 0.53 0.305 0.140 12 10 24 30 1.6 330 0.98 0.20 1.41 0.62
0.350 0.140 12 10 24 30 1.8 380 1.08 0.20 1.59 0.71 0.405 0.140 12 10 24 30 2.0 460 1.18 0.20 1.77 0.80
0.450 0.140 12 10 24 30 2.2 750 1.28 0.225 1.95 0.89 0.520 0.150 16 12 24 30 2.4 900 1.38 0.225 2.13
0.98 0.565 0.150 16 12 27 33 2.6 1000 1.48 0.225 2.30 1.03 0.590 0.150 16 12 27 33 2.8 1350 1.58 0.25
2.50 1.10 0.625 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.0 1750 1.68 0.25 2.64 1.18 0.665 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.2 2000 1.78
0.25 2.82 1.26 0.730 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.6 2500 1.98 0.25 3.20 1.40 0.815 0.150 16 12 27 33 All
13 25 36 42 M36 817 57 102 76 16 32 42 48 M42 1120 60 102 76 16 32 48 54 M48 1470 67 127 89 19 38
54 60 M56 2030 75 150 102 25 45 60 66 M64 2680 83 152 102 25 50 70 76 70 89 178 127 32 64 76 83 76
15 21.3 80 12 20 40 2 M10 4 11 55 30 20 26.9 90 14 24 50 2 M10 4 11 65 40 25 33.7 100 14 24 60 2 M10
4 11 75 50 32 42.4 120 14 26 70 2 M12 4 14 90 60 40 48.3 130 14 26 80 3 M12 4 14 100 70 50 60.3 140
14 28 90 3 M12 4 14 110 80 65 76.1 160 14 32 110 3 M12 4 14 130 100 80 88.9 190 16 34 128 3 M16 4
18 150 110 100 114.3 210 16 40 148 3 M16 4 18 170 130 125 139.7 240 18 44 178 3 M16 8 18 200 160
150 168.3 265 18 44 202 3 M16 8 18 225 185 200 219.1 320 20 44 258 3 M16 8 18 280 240 250 273 375
nt of the centre of the gravity from the axis of
he displacement of the centre of the gravity from the axis of
by baffle chord
Latent heat L2T2
diam. holes 0.6 35 0.48 0.15 0.55 0.24 0.190 0.095 6 5 20 25 0.8 50 0.58 0.15 0.70 0.29 0.225 0.095 8 5
20 25 0.9 65 0.63 0.15 0.81 0.34 0.275 0.095 10 6 20 25 1.0 90 0.68 0.15 0.91 0.39 0.310 0.095 11 8 20
G t2 t1 diam. holes 1.4 230 0.88 0.20 1.24 0.53 0.305 0.140 12 10 24 30 1.6 330 0.98 0.20 1.41 0.62
0.350 0.140 12 10 24 30 1.8 380 1.08 0.20 1.59 0.71 0.405 0.140 12 10 24 30 2.0 460 1.18 0.20 1.77 0.80
0.450 0.140 12 10 24 30 2.2 750 1.28 0.225 1.95 0.89 0.520 0.150 16 12 24 30 2.4 900 1.38 0.225 2.13
0.98 0.565 0.150 16 12 27 33 2.6 1000 1.48 0.225 2.30 1.03 0.590 0.150 16 12 27 33 2.8 1350 1.58 0.25
2.50 1.10 0.625 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.0 1750 1.68 0.25 2.64 1.18 0.665 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.2 2000 1.78
0.25 2.82 1.26 0.730 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.6 2500 1.98 0.25 3.20 1.40 0.815 0.150 16 12 27 33 All
13 25 36 42 M36 817 57 102 76 16 32 42 48 M42 1120 60 102 76 16 32 48 54 M48 1470 67 127 89 19 38
54 60 M56 2030 75 150 102 25 45 60 66 M64 2680 83 152 102 25 50 70 76 70 89 178 127 32 64 76 83 76
15 21.3 80 12 20 40 2 M10 4 11 55 30 20 26.9 90 14 24 50 2 M10 4 11 65 40 25 33.7 100 14 24 60 2 M10
4 11 75 50 32 42.4 120 14 26 70 2 M12 4 14 90 60 40 48.3 130 14 26 80 3 M12 4 14 100 70 50 60.3 140
14 28 90 3 M12 4 14 110 80 65 76.1 160 14 32 110 3 M12 4 14 130 100 80 88.9 190 16 34 128 3 M16 4
18 150 110 100 114.3 210 16 40 148 3 M16 4 18 170 130 125 139.7 240 18 44 178 3 M16 8 18 200 160
150 168.3 265 18 44 202 3 M16 8 18 225 185 200 219.1 320 20 44 258 3 M16 8 18 280 240 250 273 375
The radial outward centrifugal force due to thmethod A study by van Edmonds (1994), using the HTFS
TREB4 program, found that Frank and Pricket’s method gave acceptable predictions for pure
components and binary mixtures with water, but that the results were unreliable for other mixtures.
Also, van Edmonds’ results predicted higher flux values than those obtained by Pricket and Frank. For
preliminary designs for pure components, or near pure components, Pricket and Frank’s method should
give a conservative estimate of the operating heat flux. It is not recommended for mixtures, other than
binary mixtures with water. Approximate design method for mixtures For mixtures, the simplified
analysis used by Kern (1954) can be used to obtain an approximate estimate of the number of tubes
required; see also Aerstin and Street (1978) and Hewitt et al. (1994). This method uses simple,
unsophisticated, methods to estimate the two-phase pressure drop through the exchanger and piping,
and the convective boiling heat transfer coefficient. The calculation procedure is set out below and
illustrated in Example 12.11 Procedure 1. Determine the heat duty. 2. Estimate the heat transfer area,
using the maximum allowable heat flux. Take as 39,700 W/m2 for vertical and 47,300 W/m2 for
by baffle chord
Latent heat L2T2
diam. holes 0.6 35 0.48 0.15 0.55 0.24 0.190 0.095 6 5 20 25 0.8 50 0.58 0.15 0.70 0.29 0.225 0.095 8 5
20 25 0.9 65 0.63 0.15 0.81 0.34 0.275 0.095 10 6 20 25 1.0 90 0.68 0.15 0.91 0.39 0.310 0.095 11 8 20
G t2 t1 diam. holes 1.4 230 0.88 0.20 1.24 0.53 0.305 0.140 12 10 24 30 1.6 330 0.98 0.20 1.41 0.62
0.350 0.140 12 10 24 30 1.8 380 1.08 0.20 1.59 0.71 0.405 0.140 12 10 24 30 2.0 460 1.18 0.20 1.77 0.80
0.450 0.140 12 10 24 30 2.2 750 1.28 0.225 1.95 0.89 0.520 0.150 16 12 24 30 2.4 900 1.38 0.225 2.13
0.98 0.565 0.150 16 12 27 33 2.6 1000 1.48 0.225 2.30 1.03 0.590 0.150 16 12 27 33 2.8 1350 1.58 0.25
2.50 1.10 0.625 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.0 1750 1.68 0.25 2.64 1.18 0.665 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.2 2000 1.78
0.25 2.82 1.26 0.730 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.6 2500 1.98 0.25 3.20 1.40 0.815 0.150 16 12 27 33 All
13 25 36 42 M36 817 57 102 76 16 32 42 48 M42 1120 60 102 76 16 32 48 54 M48 1470 67 127 89 19 38
54 60 M56 2030 75 150 102 25 45 60 66 M64 2680 83 152 102 25 50 70 76 70 89 178 127 32 64 76 83 76
15 21.3 80 12 20 40 2 M10 4 11 55 30 20 26.9 90 14 24 50 2 M10 4 11 65 40 25 33.7 100 14 24 60 2 M10
4 11 75 50 32 42.4 120 14 26 70 2 M12 4 14 90 60 40 48.3 130 14 26 80 3 M12 4 14 100 70 50 60.3 140
14 28 90 3 M12 4 14 110 80 65 76.1 160 14 32 110 3 M12 4 14 130 100 80 88.9 190 16 34 128 3 M16 4
18 150 110 100 114.3 210 16 40 148 3 M16 4 18 170 130 125 139.7 240 18 44 178 3 M16 8 18 200 160
150 168.3 265 18 44 202 3 M16 8 18 225 185 200 219.1 320 20 44 258 3 M16 8 18 280 240 250 273 375
The radial outward centrifugal force due to the displacement of the centre of the gravity from the axis
ofe displacement of the centre of the gravity from the axis ofmethod A study by van Edmonds (1994),
using the HTFS TREB4 program, found that Frank and Pricket’s method gave acceptable predictions for
pure components and binary mixtures with water, but that the results were unreliable for other
mixtures. Also, van Edmonds’ results predicted higher flux values than those obtained by Pricket and
Frank. For preliminary designs for pure components, or near pure components, Pricket and Frank’s
method should give a conservative estimate of the operating heat flux. It is not recommended for
mixtures, other than binary mixtures with water. Approximate design method for mixtures For mixtures,
the simplified analysis used by Kern (1954) can be used to obtain an approximate estimate of the
number of tubes required; see also Aerstin and Street (1978) and Hewitt et al. (1994). This method uses
simple, unsophisticated, methods to estimate the two-phase pressure drop through the exchanger and
piping, and the convective boiling heat transfer coefficient. The calculation procedure is set out below
and illustrated in Example 12.11 Procedure 1. Determine the heat duty. 2. Estimate the heat transfer
area, using the maximum allowable heat flux. Take as 39,700 W/m2 for vertical and 47,300 W/m2 for
by baffle chord
Latent heat L2T2
diam. holes 0.6 35 0.48 0.15 0.55 0.24 0.190 0.095 6 5 20 25 0.8 50 0.58 0.15 0.70 0.29 0.225 0.095 8 5
20 25 0.9 65 0.63 0.15 0.81 0.34 0.275 0.095 10 6 20 25 1.0 90 0.68 0.15 0.91 0.39 0.310 0.095 11 8 20
G t2 t1 diam. holes 1.4 230 0.88 0.20 1.24 0.53 0.305 0.140 12 10 24 30 1.6 330 0.98 0.20 1.41 0.62
0.350 0.140 12 10 24 30 1.8 380 1.08 0.20 1.59 0.71 0.405 0.140 12 10 24 30 2.0 460 1.18 0.20 1.77 0.80
0.450 0.140 12 10 24 30 2.2 750 1.28 0.225 1.95 0.89 0.520 0.150 16 12 24 30 2.4 900 1.38 0.225 2.13
0.98 0.565 0.150 16 12 27 33 2.6 1000 1.48 0.225 2.30 1.03 0.590 0.150 16 12 27 33 2.8 1350 1.58 0.25
2.50 1.10 0.625 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.0 1750 1.68 0.25 2.64 1.18 0.665 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.2 2000 1.78
0.25 2.82 1.26 0.730 0.150 16 12 27 33 3.6 2500 1.98 0.25 3.20 1.40 0.815 0.150 16 12 27 33 All
13 25 36 42 M36 817 57 102 76 16 32 42 48 M42 1120 60 102 76 16 32 48 54 M48 1470 67 127 89 19 38
54 60 M56 2030 75 150 102 25 45 60 66 M64 2680 83 152 102 25 50 70 76 70 89 178 127 32 64 76 83 76
15 21.3 80 12 20 40 2 M10 4 11 55 30 20 26.9 90 14 24 50 2 M10 4 11 65 40 25 33.7 100 14 24 60 2 M10
4 11 75 50 32 42.4 120 14 26 70 2 M12 4 14 90 60 40 48.3 130 14 26 80 3 M12 4 14 100 70 50 60.3 140
14 28 90 3 M12 4 14 110 80 65 76.1 160 14 32 110 3 M12 4 14 130 100 80 88.9 190 16 34 128 3 M16 4
18 150 110 100 114.3 210 16 40 148 3 M16 4 18 170 130 125 139.7 240 18 44 178 3 M16 8 18 200 160
150 168.3 265 18 44 202 3 M16 8 18 225 185 200 219.1 320 20 44 258 3 M16 8 18 280 240 250 273 375
The radial outward cen Microeconomics, 10e (Parkin) Chapter 15 Oligopoly 1 What is Oligopoly? 1) An
oligopoly is a market structure in which there are A) only a few buyers but many sellers. B) only a few
sellers selling either an identical or differentiated product. C) many sellers selling a differentiated
product. D) a few products sold by many sellers. Answer: B Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question
history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 2) Which of the following is a
distinguishing characteristic of oligopoly? A) A small number of firms compete. B) No one firm's actions
directly affect the actions of the other firms. C) Firms are free to enter and exit the industry. D) Natural
barriers cannot prevent the entry of new firms. Answer: A Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question
history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 3) When only a small number of
producers compete with each other is a defining characteristic of A) inelastic supply. B) monopolistic
competition. C) efficient competition. D) oligopoly. Answer: D Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition
Education, Inc. 4) In oligopolistic markets, A) there are many firms. B) there are no barriers to entry. C)
there are only a few firms. D) all firms are price takers. Answer: C Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition
Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 5) A market structure in which
a small number of firms compete is called ________. A) a monopoly B) a small-number market C) an
oligopoly D) monopolistic competition Answer: C Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 6) The key feature of an oligopoly is that there
A) are many buyers and sellers. B) is one seller. C) exists product differentiation. D) are only a few
sellers. Answer: D Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15
AACSB: Reflective Thinking 7) In an oligopoly A) there are only a few firms. B) there is no product
differentiation. C) there is free entry and exit. D) firms' decisions are unrelated to each other. Answer: A
Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective
Thinking 2 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8) A market structure in which a small number of
producers compete against each other is A) monopolistic competition. B) oligopoly. C) monopoly. D)
perfect competition. Answer: B Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition,
Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 9) If firms in an industry differentiated their products and made
economic profits in the shortrun, what other characteristic would be important to determine if this is an
oligopoly or a monopolistically competitive market? A) The number of firms in the market. B) The
number of close substitutes for the good being produced. C) The number of buyers in the market. D) If
the good being sold is a normal or inferior good. Answer: A Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question
history: New 10th edition AACSB: Reflective Thinking 10) The distinguishing features of oligopoly are
________ and a ________ in the industry. A) barriers to entry; large number of firms B) no barriers to
entry; few firms C) barriers to entry; few firms D) no barriers to entry; large number of firms Answer: C
Thinking 11) Oligopoly is A) like monopoly because there are barriers to entry. B) like perfect
competition because oligopoly firms all sell homogeneous goods. C) like monopolistic competition
because oligopoly firms all sell differentiated goods D) like perfect competition because there are many
firms in the industry Answer: A Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition,
Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 3 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 12) Which of the
following is a distinguishing characteristic of oligopoly? A) A large number of firms compete. B) No one
firm's actions directly affect the actions of the other firms. C) Firms are free to enter and exit the
industry. D) Natural or legal barriers prevent the entry of new firms. Answer: D Topic: Oligopoly Skill:
following is a defining characteristic of oligopoly? A) barriers to entry B) selling a homogeneous good C)
selling a differentiated good D) collusion Answer: A Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 14) Natural oligopoly is a situation where A) the
level of demand can support only a few firms. B) there is only one firm. C) there are only two firms. D)
there are legal barriers to entry. Answer: A Topic: Natural Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 15) A natural oligopoly can form A) if there are
economies of scale B) only if firms sell a differentiated good C) only if firms sell a homogeneous good D)
if there is only one firm in the industry Answer: A Topic: Natural Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question
Inc. 16) In a small town the level of demand is capable of supporting only two gas stations. This market is
A) a natural duopoly. B) perfectly competitive because a homogeneous good is being sold. C) operating
as if it was a monopoly. D) an example of monopolistic competition. Answer: A Topic: Natural Oligopoly
Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 17) One
difference between oligopoly and monopolistic competition is that A) a monopolistically competitive
industry has fewer firms. B) in monopolistic competition, the products are identical. C) monopolistic
competition has barriers to entry. D) fewer firms compete in oligopoly than in monopolistic competition.
Reflective Thinking 18) Which of the following is a distinguishing characteristic of oligopoly? A) A large
number of firms compete. B) Each firm's actions influence the profits of all the other firms. C) Firms are
free to enter and exit the industry. D) Natural barriers cannot prevent the entry of new firms. Answer: B
Thinking 19) Consider a market in which each firm must predict the price and quantity decisions of other
firms, as well as how those price and quantity decisions will affect the first firm's revenue and profit.
This market is best described as A) an oligopoly. B) monopolistic competition. C) a monopoly. D) perfect
competition. Answer: A Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: Modified 10th edition
AACSB: Reflective Thinking 5 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 20) In ________ market
structure, a firm's output depends ________. A) an oligopoly; only on its own marginal revenue and
marginal cost curves B) a monopolistically competitive; in part on its competitors' price and quantity
decisions C) an oligopoly; in part on its competitors' price and quantity decisions D) a monopolistically
competitive; only on its marginal revenue curve Answer: C Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Conceptual Question
history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 21) If firms in an industry make output
decisions that are partially based on the price and output decisions of their competitors, then these
firms are in ________ market have ________ with the other firms in the market. A) an oligopoly;
interdependence B) an oligopoly; no interdependence C) an oligopoly or monopolistically competitive;
interdependence D) a monopolistically competitive; no interdependence Answer: A Topic: Oligopoly
Skill: Recognition Question history: New 10th edition AACSB: Reflective Thinking 22) Of the following
market structures, which has the fewest number of firms competing against each other? A) monopolistic
competition B) oligopoly C) perfect competition D) Both answers A and C are correct. Answer: B Topic:
23) A duopoly occurs when ________. A) there are only two producers of a particular good competing in
the same market B) there are two producers of two goods competing in an oligopoly market C) there are
numerous producers of two goods competing in a competitive market D) the one producer of two goods
sells the goods in a monopoly market Answer: A Topic: Duopoly Skill: Recognition Question history:
A duopoly is a form of A) perfect competition. B) monopolistic competition. C) oligopoly. D) monopoly.
Answer: C Topic: Duopoly Skill: Conceptual Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB:
Reflective Thinking In the figure, D is the demand curve for taxi rides in a town, and ATC is the average
total cost curve of a taxi company. 25) In the scenario above, the market is: A) A natural duopoly B) A
natural oligopoly with three firms C) A natural monopoly D) Monopolistically competitive Answer: A
Topic: Duopoly Skill: Analytical Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 7
edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 86 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.trifugal force
due to the displacement of the centre of the gravity from the axis of Microeconomics, 10e (Parkin)
Chapter 15 Oligopoly 1 What is Oligopoly? 1) An oligopoly is a market structure in which there are A)
only a few buyers but many sellers. B) only a few sellers selling either an identical or differentiated
product. C) many sellers selling a differentiated product. D) a few products sold by many sellers. Answer:
B Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective
Thinking 2) Which of the following is a distinguishing characteristic of oligopoly? A) A small number of
firms compete. B) No one firm's actions directly affect the actions of the other firms. C) Firms are free to
enter and exit the industry. D) Natural barriers cannot prevent the entry of new firms. Answer: A Topic:
When only a small number of producers compete with each other is a defining characteristic of A)
inelastic supply. B) monopolistic competition. C) efficient competition. D) oligopoly. Answer: D Topic:
Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 1
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4) In oligopolistic markets, A) there are many firms. B) there
are no barriers to entry. C) there are only a few firms. D) all firms are price takers. Answer: C Topic:
A market structure in which a small number of firms compete is called ________. A) a monopoly B) a
small-number market C) an oligopoly D) monopolistic competition Answer: C Topic: Oligopoly Skill:
Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 6) The key
feature of an oligopoly is that there A) are many buyers and sellers. B) is one seller. C) exists product
differentiation. D) are only a few sellers. Answer: D Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 7) In an oligopoly A) there are only a few firms.
B) there is no product differentiation. C) there is free entry and exit. D) firms' decisions are unrelated to
each other. Answer: A Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15
AACSB: Reflective Thinking 2 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8) A market structure in which a
small number of producers compete against each other is A) monopolistic competition. B) oligopoly. C)
monopoly. D) perfect competition. Answer: B Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history:
Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 9) If firms in an industry differentiated their
products and made economic profits in the shortrun, what other characteristic would be important to
determine if this is an oligopoly or a monopolistically competitive market? A) The number of firms in the
market. B) The number of close substitutes for the good being produced. C) The number of buyers in the
market. D) If the good being sold is a normal or inferior good. Answer: A Topic: Oligopoly Skill:
produced. C) The number of buyers in the market. D) If the good being sold is a normal or inferior good.
Answer: A Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: New 10th edition AACSB: Reflective
Thinking 10) The distinguishing features of oligopoly are ________ and a ________ in the industry. A)
barriers to entry; large number of firms B) no barriers to entry; few firms C) barriers to entry; few firms
D) no barriers to entry; large number of firms Answer: C Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question
history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 11) Oligopoly is A) like monopoly
because there are barriers to entry. B) like perfect competition because oligopoly firms all sell
homogeneous goods. C) like monopolistic competition because oligopoly firms all sell differentiated
goods D) like perfect competition because there are many firms in the industry Answer: A Topic:
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 12) Which of the following is a distinguishing characteristic of
oligopoly? A) A large number of firms compete. B) No one firm's actions directly affect the actions of the
other firms. C) Firms are free to enter and exit the industry. D) Natural or legal barriers prevent the entry
of new firms. Answer: D Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter
15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 13) Which of the following is a defining characteristic of oligopoly? A)
barriers to entry B) selling a homogeneous good C) selling a differentiated good D) collusion Answer: A
Thinking 14) Natural oligopoly is a situation where A) the level of demand can support only a few firms.
B) there is only one firm. C) there are only two firms. D) there are legal barriers to entry. Answer: A
Reflective Thinking 15) A natural oligopoly can form A) if there are economies of scale B) only if firms sell
a differentiated good C) only if firms sell a homogeneous good D) if there is only one firm in the industry
Answer: A Topic: Natural Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15
AACSB: Reflective Thinking 4 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 16) In a small town the level of
demand is capable of supporting only two gas stations. This market is A) a natural duopoly. B) perfectly
edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 86 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Educatio Microeconomics, 10e
(Parkin) Chapter 15 Oligopoly 1 What is Oligopoly? 1) An oligopoly is a market structure in which there
are A) only a few buyers but many sellers. B) only a few sellers selling either an identical or
differentiated product. C) many sellers selling a differentiated product. D) a few products sold by many
sellers. Answer: B Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition, Chapter 15
AACSB: Reflective Thinking 2) Which of the following is a distinguishing characteristic of oligopoly? A) A
small number of firms compete. B) No one firm's actions directly affect the actions of the other firms. C)
Firms are free to enter and exit the industry. D) Natural barriers cannot prevent the entry of new firms.
Reflective Thinking 3) When only a small number of producers compete with each other is a defining
characteristic of A) inelastic supply. B) monopolistic competition. C) efficient competition. D) oligopoly.
Reflective Thinking 1 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4) In oligopolistic markets, A) there are
many firms. B) there are no barriers to entry. C) there are only a few firms. D) all firms are price takers.
Reflective Thinking 5) A market structure in which a small number of firms compete is called ________.
A) a monopoly B) a small-number market C) an oligopoly D) monopolistic competition Answer: C Topic:
The key feature of an oligopoly is that there A) are many buyers and sellers. B) is one seller. C) exists
product differentiation. D) are only a few sellers. Answer: D Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question
history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 7) In an oligopoly A) there are only a
few firms. B) there is no product differentiation. C) there is free entry and exit. D) firms' decisions are
unrelated to each other. Answer: A Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question history: Previous edition,
Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 2 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8) A market structure
in which a small number of producers compete against each other is A) monopolistic competition. B)
oligopoly. C) monopoly. D) perfect competition. Answer: B Topic: Oligopoly Skill: Recognition Question
history: Previous edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Reflective Thinking 9) If firms in an industry differentiated
their products and made economic profits in the shortrun, what other characteristic would be important
to determine if this is an oligopoly or a monopolistically competitive market? A) The number of firms in
the market. B) The number of close substitutes for the good being produced. C) The number of buyers in
the market. D) If the good being sold is a normal or inferior good. Answer: A Topic: Oligopoly Skill:
edition, Chapter 15 AACSB: Analytical Skills 86 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.n, Inc.
Education, Inc. 85) In an oligopoly with a collusive agreement, the total indust

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Microeconomics, 10e (Parkin) Chapter 15 Oligopoly 1 What is Oligopoly?

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