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One of the simplest supervised classifiers is the parallelopiped method. But on this page we employ a
(usually) somewhat better approach (in terms of greater accuracy) known as the Minimum Distance
classifier. This sets up clusters in multidimensional space, each defining a distinct (named) class. Any
pixel is then assigned to that class it is closest to (shortest vector distance).

Minimum Distance Classification

We initiate our exemplification of Supervised Classification by producing one using the

Minimum Distance routine. The IDRISI program acts on DNs in multidimensional band space
to organize the pixels into the classes we choose. Each unknown pixel is then placed in the
class closest to the mean vector in this band space. For Morro Bay, the resulting classification
image consists of 16 gray levels, each representing a class, to which we can then assign any
color on the computer. We can elect to combine classes to have either color themes (similar
colors for related classes) and/or to set apart spatially adjacent classes by using disparate
colors. Examine this Minimum Distance classification below, in which we use all seven TM
bands, including the thermal. Study it in relation to your acquired knowledge of this scene from
the preceding pages in this section and compare it with the classifications we show on the next
page.

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Primary Author: Nicholas M. Short, Sr. email: nmshort@ptd.net

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The most powerful classifier in common use is that of Maximum Likelihood. Based on statistics (mean;
variance/covariance), a (Bayesian) Probability Function is calculated from the inputs for classes
established from training sites. Each pixel is then judged as to the class to which it most probably
belong. This is done with the Morro Bay TM data, using first the six reflected radiation bands and then
with the longer wavelength thermal band added. The result is a pair of quite believable classification
maps whose patterns (the classes) seem to closely depict reality but keep in mind that several classes are
not normal components of the actual ground scene, e.g., shadows. A later classification (made using
IDRISI for Windows) using a smaller number of classes give a somewhat different end product.

Maximum Likelihood Classification

We made this Supervised Classification using the Maximum Likelihood classifier acting on all
seven bands. Again, multiband classes are derived statistically and each unknown pixel is
assigned to a class using the maximum likelihood method.

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1-23: While the minimum distance and this first Maximum Likelihood classifications are,
for the most part, quite similar, there are some differences. Mention several. ANSWER

In this image we omit thermal Band 6 and define 16 classes (this is the maximum allowable in
the IDRISI program). These classes are identical to the previous ones recorded in the
Minimum Distance image. In both instances, the Sediment class has been subdivided into
three levels (I and II in the ocean and a third in the Bay) and two Urban classes (I = Morro Bay;
II = Los Osos) are attempted, to account for visual differences between them (mainly street
patterns). Look at this image classification and decide how believable it is. Compare it with the
minimum distance image as well. To assist you in comparing similar classes, we used the
same color assignments. Next, look at a Supervised Classification that uses Band 6 and again
specifies 16 classes. Notice how each urban area becomes more homogeneous. There is a
similar increase in spatial homogeneity of vegetation and slopes in general with Band 6 added,
but overall adding Band 6 didn't show much differences.

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Each 16-class Maximum Likelihood version is a fairly dazzling image, with many classes "right
on". Both Breakers and sand bar (Beach) seem uniformly classified. The sediment load
distribution is credible. There are enough color tone differences between Morro Bay and Los
Osos to justify the decision to make them two Urban classes (Los Osos differs in its street
patterns and in the presence of the orange-brown soil, seen in the composite of Bands 1,2,
and 3). However, color elements of one Urban class are mixed with the other, in differing
proportions, as one would expect. The bright orange given to the coastal Marsh area occupies
a slightly larger area than its equivalent does in the Minimum Distance classification and is
also distributed in small patches around the Los Osos coastline, and again along the river.
Thus it is probably a true condition, in that, we expect such vegetation to be more widespread.
No doubt the most uncertain group of classes is spread over the hills. The categories SunLit
Slope and Shadow Slope are somewhat artificial, in that they refer mostly to an illumination
condition. Whereas the grass and trees classes may be a mix of lighting effects and a lighter or
darker surface. The class Cleared Land is, again, a depiction of land surfaces that may
support, not only thin natural vegetation or even be partially barren but also may in some
places have a shadowing effect. The Grasslands is properly placed in this image but appears
to spread over wider areas than indicated in several other images, so it is doubtless a valid
case. The Green Vegetation category proxies well for the actual distribution of reflective
organic material (in Band 4) but in this choice of class assignments, several types of growing
ground cover are not singled out. Thus, elements of the golf course and the mountain crest
forest are shown as "like" and are not distinguished from field crops, etc. We could tell them
apart to some degree of correctness, if we had given each its own class and selected training
sites.

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Nearly two years after the above Supervised Classifications were generated, an occasion
arose to redo the same scene using new IDRISI software that operates from Windows, Version
1, rather than DOS 3.1. In performing this Supervised Classification, we used the same
Maximum Likelihood classifier with all seven TM bands and 15 classes. But, as an experiment,
we decided to drop several class categories and select new ones instead. Also, we established
some slightly different training site polygons for each class. In effect, we achieved an
independent classification without peeking at the results, shown above, for guidance. And,
instead of using the natural color scene from which to pick training sites, we used the false
color image. This is the result:

(ERROR: For some reason, the Windows IDRISI does not show the 15th class in the legend.
This class should be "Trees", in dark green, present mainly in the upper right corner of the
class map. Also, the first legend box (black here; blue in the two other classifications above)
has no label; it is not a named class but refers to the color used outside the map image as
background.)

Note that for some of the classes, we assigned different colors than used in the first two
maxlike classifications, which makes it rather difficult to compare the results with the earlier
classifications. Nevertheless, scrolling between this and the 7-band, Supervised Classification
just above, reveals differences and similarities.

In the Windows version, the two Sediment classes are combined. Also, the class, called Fields
in the DOS 3.1 version, is here renamed GreenVeg, and includes fields with crops and also

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some natural vegetation (probably local woodlands). Both show bright red in the false color
rendition. The distribution of the class Trees is similar in both classifications but is a bit more
widespread in the Windows version (but harder to see because dark green and black shadows
do not show contrast well). The classes Scrubland and Cleared in the DOS 3.1 version are
partially represented by Scrub in the Windows version. In DOS 3.1, Urban II (focused on the
Los Osos street pattern) is olive and is orange in the Windows version. In both cases, the
distribution of the Urban II class pattern is much more extensive than is the real situation.
Town structures or clusters of buildings do not exist in the long orange strip near the highway,
nor in the lower right part of the image. Apparently, some natural surfaces, as interpreted from
the true and false color composite images, give rise to signatures that resemble this urban
class. In the Windows version, several very bright areas, mainly around Los Osos, have been
named Sandpit. This is a guess, because they may be excavated ground or inland remnants of
beach sand (although they classify as distinct from the Sand Class); only an on-site visit could
ascertain a correct identity.

The point in running and comparing these two classifications is probably obvious: the precise
end result is sensitive to the variables involved and the choices we made - mainly in
extrapolating classes from their training sites to the identities and distribution of the selected
classes, i.e., the overall appearance and accuracy of the classifications. Interpretations differ
depending on the colors and other factors present in the training image, by which we choose
separable classes and block efficient training sites. The number of classes, the validity (purity)
of the enclosed space in the training sites (and the number of pixels in the polygons assigned
to each class), the nature of a class (the Urban division is somewhat artificial and Scrub may
be rather dissimilar classes or features in the real world), the colors assigned to the final map,
and other considerations all contribute to differences. Once again, we emphasize the argument
that field work, if logistically possible, before and after computer-based classification of an
image, is the key to selecting and then checking class locations. Thus it is the best insurance
for achieving a quality product. But, if an on-site visit is not feasible, a skilled interpreter can
develop a fairly reasonable classification based mainly on his/her abilities in recognizing
obvious ground features in the scene. The writer (NMS) has achieved believable classifications
of many parts of the world without any field work, but just from his knowledge of the
appearance of the common components of a landscape or land-use categories.

Primary Author: Nicholas M. Short, Sr. email: nmshort@ptd.net

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Staff of the original sponsor of this Tutorial, Code 935 at Goddard Space Flight Center, have developed
an image processing program called PIT, which is attached to the Tutorial in Appendix C. It includes a
Maximum Likelihood classifier. Another classifier devised at 935 uses neural network theory to produce
a Probablistic Neural Network (PNN) means of classification. An example is shown which is apparently
less accurate than those used on the preceding two pages; however, the number of classes was limited to
10 so their geographic distribution would diverge from those other classifiers using more classes.
Section 1 closes with a challenge to the individual(s) working through this Tutorial: to take an "Exam"
that tests your mastery of some of the concepts developed in the Introduction and this section.

Probabilistic Neural Network Classifier

The Applied Information Sciences Branch (Code 935) at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
has developed a program called Photo Interpretation Toolkit (PIT) which performs
classification operations similar to those we've introduced from IDRISI. The chief difference is
in the mode of selecting training sites. Instead of circumscribing these sites with polygons, as
in IDRISI, the PIT allows the user to block out continuous clusters of individually-sized sample
squares. The user can display the clusters directly in the screen image at selected site
positions. Users can also select one of several classifiers to match unknown pixels to those for
classes with similar statistics, derived from the training-site blocks. We show an example next,
that uses PIT's Probabilistic Neural Network classifier. (Note: the person doing this
classification at Goddard was a programmer with limited experience in actually identifying
classes.)

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In this version, only 10 classes were established (the upper limit at the time). The resulting
product shows similarities to the IDRISI Minimum Distance version (in which, there are 13
classes) but it is a simplification of the latter that fosters easier interpretation. However, several
classes show notable misclassifications: areas of blue assigned to Water are found scattered
inland (these are probably associated with shadows which have similar, low DN values); the
reds related to Marsh (which should be confined to the river delta) also appear in widespread
places, including the higher mountains; and the red-brown color given to Urban is in too many
places that are certainly not urban. The orange, identified as Shad2, is definitely not shadows,
but corresponds to areas in the scene that have bright tones in the color composite images.
This was a bad choice of a class.

In Appendix B, the PIT image processing program is fully described. It is now accessible to you
for interactive use by downloading either from the Internet or from the CD-ROM; instructions
on how to do this are given in that appendix. Among the several data sets included is this
Morro Bay subscene, of which you are now quite familiar. If you feel adventuresome after this
exposure to image processing, you may want to try your hand at carrying out your own
processing on the Morro Bay subscene, using the PIT processor, after teaching its procedures
to yourself using the "cookbook" in Appendix B. There are also several other data sets from
different Landsat or SPOT scenes which can be downloaded as well; some guidance as to
what you can do specifically with them is offered at the end of the appendix.

PIT is in the public domain and thus available for you to use as a training aid. A considerable

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number of image processing systems and programs are now on the market, i.e., are
commercial products. Perhaps the most widely used software packages are supplied by
ERDAS, Inc. of Atlanta, GA. A visit to the ERDAS Web Site (ERDAS is now part of Leica
Geosystems) can help you to appreciate these sophisticated systems. At that site, there are
online Tutorials on Remote Sensing, and on their MapComposer and IMAGINE processing
software which are very much worth time to work through. You will need to register and get a
password, and indicate whether you would like to be placed on their mailing list. To help you
envision what the systems look like on a computer screen, we have reproduced three
examples below (check the captions for details).

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Enough! If you have reached this point by working through this entire Section and reasoned
along with us in examining and analyzing the various Morro Bay images, you have become
well-schooled in the basics of image interpretation. You are ready, as curiosity prompts you, to
examine the processed images in the next Section - which starts with a geological study of a
prominent fold structure in Utah - as well as many of the images in other Sections that have
been processed to show outputs similar to those with which we have just become familiar. In

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most such cases, the interpretation has been done for you (as placed in the text) but the
knowledge gained from Section 1 will aid you in better appreciating the information content in
such images - perhaps to the extent that you can extract more from them than is stated in the
text.

At this stage you have two options. You can choose to continue reading sequentially through
this Tutorial, starting with what is offered in the next paragraph, or you can choose to pursue
this image processing theme and develop your own skills right away by interactively working
on the Morro Bay image set and/or three other image sets using the PIT processing program
described and accessed through Appendix B.

WAIT! If you are actually (or pretend to be) in a classroom as you access this Tutorial on the
Net or on the CD-ROM, you know the "curse" to expect after completing the first major block of
information. An Exam!. We have devised a rather comprehensive set of questions based on
image interpretations that we now invite (urge) you to undertake, in order to prove to yourself
that you have evolved into a full-fledged expert in analyzing remote sensing data. We have
reproduced a goodly number of scenes and computer maps that cover a single full Landsat
MSS scene, with in south-central Pennsylvania centered on the state capital, Harrisburg.
(These have been taken from the Landsat Tutorial Workbook.) All the relevant questions and
illustrations have been put on the special add-on page, which you can reach by clicking here.
These have their own answer sheet, accessed in the usual way. This, and a final Exam at the
end of Section 21, will be the ultimate Q & A challenge we toss at you in this Tutorial. Rise to it.
Press "here" - we dare you!!

For further background, information, and reading underlying Principles of Computer

Processing, with emphasis on Remote Sensing, consult:

Avery, T.E and G.L. Berlin, Fundamentals of Remote Sensing and Airphoto Interpretation, Ch.
15, Digital Image Processing, 1992, Macmillan Publ. Co.

Condit, C.D. and P.S. Chavez, Jr., Basic Concepts of Computerized Digital Image Processing
for Geologists, 1979, U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 1462, Wash. D.C.

Jensen, J.R., Introductory Digital Image Processing, 2nd Ed., 1996, Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Xiuping Jia, Remote Sensing Digital Image Analysis, 1999, Springer-Verlag

Lillesand, T.M. and R.W. Kiefer, Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation, Ch. 7, Digital Image
Processing, 2000, J. Wiley and Sons, Inc.

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Moik, J.G., Digital Processing of Remotely Sensed Images, 1980, NASA Special Paper 432, U.S. Govt.
Printing Office.

Russ, J.C., The Image Processing Handbook, 1995, CRC Press.

Sabins, F.F., Remote Sensing: Principles and Interpretation, Ch. 7, Digital Image Processing, 1997, W.
H. Freeman & Co.

Special Issue on Image Processing, 1990, Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, v. 56, no.
1.

Swain, P.H. and S.M. Davis, Remote Sensing - The Quantitative Approach, 1978. McGraw-Hill Book
Co.

Primary Author: Nicholas M. Short, Sr. email: nmshort@ptd.net

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The second Section concentrates on applications of remote sensing to geological studies. A

list of principal uses begins this page. Special attention is given to ways in which remote
sensing (especially through image classification) can aid in making geologic maps. The notion
of "formation" is discussed and reasons given as to why this standard geologic map unit
cannot be recognized as such in imagery alone. One of the pitfalls of making these maps
solely from imagery - namely, the presence of soil and/or vegetation cover - is mentioned.
Some typical spectral signatures of different rock types are displayed.

Many readers of the Tutorial and particularly Sections 2, 5, 17, and 19, will find the geological
concepts and underlying principles unfamiliar or even unknown to them. To assist these
individuals in building a quick background, a primer or review of the essential ideas of Geology
is offered as an added page, which you can access by clicking here. A similar opportunity is
provided in Section 14 dealing with Principles of Meteorology.

GEOLOGIC APPLICATIONS:

STRATIGRAPHY AND STRUCTURE

General Background

Geologists have used aerial photographs for decades to serve as databases from which they
can do the following:

1. Pick out rock units (stratigraphy)

2. Study the expression and modes of the origin of landforms (geomorphology)

3. Determine the structural arrangements of disturbed strata (folds and faults)

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4. Evaluate dynamic changes from natural events (e.g., floods; volcanic eruptions)

5. Seek surface clues (such as alteration and other signs of mineralization) to subsurface
deposits of ore minerals, oil and gas, and groundwater.

6. Function as a visual base on which a geologic map is drawn either directly or on a

transparent overlay.

With the advent of space imagery, geoscientists now can extend that use in three important
ways:

1) The advantage of large area or synoptic coverage allows them to examine in single scenes
(or in mosaics) the geological portrayal of Earth on a regional basis

2) The ability to analyze multispectral bands quantitatively in terms of numbers (DNs) permits
them to apply special computer processing routines to discern and enhance certain
compositional properties of Earth materials

3) The capability of merging different types of remote sensing products (e.g., reflectance
images with radar or with thermal imagery) or combining these with topographic elevation data
and with other kinds of information bases (e.g., thematic maps; geophysical measurements
and chemical sampling surveys) enables new solutions to determining interrelations among
various natural properties of earth phenomena.

While these new space-driven approaches have not yet revolutionized the ways in which
geoscientists conduct their field studies, they have proven to be indispensable techniques for
improving the geologic mapping process and carrying out practical exploration for mineral and
energy resources on a grand scale.

We now consider several examples of geologic applications using these new approaches. We
concentrate initially on how Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) data for a local region in Utah are
manipulated to identify different rock types, map them over a large area using supervised
classification, and correlate their spatial patterns with independent information on their
structural arrangement. Next, our focus changes to examination of geologic structures,
particularly lineaments, as displayed in regional settings in the U.S., Canada, and Africa. Then,
in Section 5, we will look at how space-acquired data fit into current methods of exploring for
mineral and hydrocarbon deposits by considering a case study of a mineralized zone and at a
large-area Landsat scene in Oklahoma. In Section 18, we will return to a geologic theme by
examining landforms at regional scales, (so-called mega-geomorphology), as the principal
subject in considering how remote sensing is used in basic science studies.

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Most geologic maps are also stratigraphic maps, that is, they record the location and identities
of sequences of rock types according to their relative ages. The fundamental rock unit is the
formation (abbreviated as Fm or fm), defined simply as a distinct mappable set of rocks (if
sedimentary, then usually layered) that has a specific geographic distribution. A formation
typically is characterized by one or two dominant types of rock materials.

The term "formation" is most commonly associated with strata, namely layers of sediments that
have hardened into sedimentary rocks. Under most conditions, sediments are laid down in
horizontal or nearly so layers on sea floors, lake bottoms, and transiently in river beds. Here is
a typical set of sedimentaary layers exposed in a road cut:

If we see sedimentary rocks inclined at more than a few degrees from the horizontal, we
should suspect that these are involved in displacements from their original horizontal state by
forces (tectonic) that cause the rocks to bend and curve (folds) or break (faults). Here is a
roadcut along a Maryland highway that is passing through the fold belt of the Appalachians.

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Any given formation is emplaced over some finite span of geologic time. We can approximate
its age by the fossils (evidence of past life) that were deposited with it during the time in which
these life forms existed. Age dating by determining the amounts of radioactive elements and
their decay-daughter products can usually produce even more accurate age estimates.
Another, less precise, approach to fixing the age (span) of a rock unit is to note its position in
the sequence of other rock units, some of whose ages are independently. We can correlate the
units with equivalent ones mapped elsewhere that have had their ages worked out. This
method tends to bracket the time in which the sedimentary formation was deposited but
erosional influences may lead to uncertainties. The association of sedimentary layers with
specific time intervals constitutes the field of stratigraphy. Igneous and metamorphic rocks also
have time significance and are treated as rock units (some may retain layered characteristics)
on geologic maps (which show all stratigraphic units in a legend).

Remote-sensing displays, whether they are aerial photos or space-acquired images, show the
surface distribution of the multiple formations usually present and, under appropriate
conditions, the type(s) of rocks in the formations. The formations show patterns that depend on
their proximity to the surface, their extent over the surveyed area, their relative thicknesses,
their structural attitude (horizontal or inclined layers), and their degree of erosion. Experienced
geologists can recognize some rock types just by their appearance in the photo/image. The
identify others types from their spectral signatures. Over the spectral range covered by the
Landsat TM bands, the types and ages of rocks show distinct variations at specific
wavelengths. This is evident in the following spectral plots showing laboratory-determined
curves obtained by a reflectance spectrometer for a group of diverse sedimentary rocks from
Wyoming:

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2-1 From these spectra, predict the general color of these four rock units: Niobrara Fm;
Chugwater Fm; Frontier Fm; Thermopolis Fm. ANSWER

2-2: What spectrally distinguishes the Mowry Fm from the Thermopolis Fm; the Jelm Fm
from the White River Conglomerate? ANSWER

A common way of mapping formation distribution is to rely on training sites at locations within
the photo/image. Geologists identify the rocks by consulting area maps or by visiting specific
sites in the field. They then extrapolate the rocks' appearance photographically or by their
spectral properties across the photo or image to locate the units in the areas beyond the site
(in effect, the supervised classification approach).

In doing geologic mapping from imagery, we know that formations are not necessarily exposed
everywhere. Instead they may be covered with soil or vegetation. In drawing a map, a
geologist learns to extrapolate surface exposures underneath covered areas, making logical
deductions as to which hidden units are likely to occur below the surface. In working with
imagery alone, these deductions may prove difficult and are a source of potential error. Also,
rock ages are not directly determined from spectral data, so that identifying a particular
formation requires some independent information (knowledge of a region's rock types and their

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sequence).

In exceptional instances, such as those to be shown on the next three pages, when geologic
strata are turned on their side (from folding; discussed on page 2-5) so that the successive
geologic units are visible as a sequence, the changes within and between each discrete unit
can be measured in terms of some spectral property, as for example, variations in the
reflectance of a given band, or a ratio of bands. When plotted as shown below the result are
tracings that resemble (analogously) those made from well logging of such properties as
electric resistivity, permeability, magnetic intensity and other geophysical parameters. Here are
two figures, the top showing the succession of sedimentary strata exposed along the Casper
Arch in central Wyoming; the bottom being reflectance "logs" derived from spectral traverses
along one of the lines in the upper image:

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In the lower diagram, the bottom unit is the Permian Phosphoria Formation, extending upward
from the Triassic Chugwater Formation to the Frontier sandstone (Cretaceous) at the top. On
the right the left tracing is of TM band 3 (red), with 0% reflectance on the right extending to
70% on the left, and the right tracing goes from 0% on left to 50% on the right.

Primary Author: Nicholas M. Short, Sr. email: nmshort@ptd.net

Collaborators: Code 935 NASA GSFC, GST, USAF Academy

Contributor Information

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 Remote Sensing Tutorial Section 2 Answers

ANSWERS

2-1: The Niobrara Fm is bright, having the highest average reflectances through the whole spectral interval. In
the visible, it has the highest reflectance in the red but reflectances in the green and blue are not much lower,
so there is a roughly even mix of the three primary colors, yield dominantly a white with a weak yellowish red
overtone. And that is how it looks in the field. The Niobrara typically is a chalky limestone which everywhere,
when freshly exposed, is whitish to gray. At the other extreme, the Thermopolis Fm is a black shale and this is
indicated by its low reflectances in the visible, having about the same value from blue to red (i.e., a low
reflectance, spectrally uniform material is black to dark gray). The Frontier Fm is commonly brownish, but has
a greenish member (from the mineral Glauconite); its spectral curve peaks in the green in the visible. The
Chugwater Fm has a spectral curve in the visible that rises from low to high reflectance from blue to red - it is
thus reddish. In the field, it is a distinctive unit visible for miles away by its medium-red color. BACK

2-2: As said in the previous answer, the Thermopolis is a blackish shale. The spectral curve for the Mowry Fm
is similar in shape to the Thermopolis but has a much higher average reflectance. It is medium-gray in hand
specimen and in the field (often with a grayish-yellow weathered surface). The Jelm Sandstone has a similar
spectral curve in the visible to that of the White River Conglomerate. Thus, they would not be readily
separable in a visible image. There is about a 5% difference in reflectance in the Near-IR segment (around 0.9
mm) sampled by MSS 7 and TM 4. The main distinction is at longer wavelengths in the Near-IR. The Jelm has
absorption bands at 1.9 and 2.3 mm; the White River doesn't have these bands. BACK

2-3: You probably feel confident in separating 4 to 5 or 6 units at most. Actually, there are 14 separable
formations (or, in one case, two members within a formation) present in the scene. Only one unit, which is
quite light toned, really stands in sharp contrast to all others. Other bands do a better job at separation, as we
will see later in this section. BACK

2-4: An anticline is an upfold, the rocks curving upwards in an arch, with the top being a crest and the sides
being inclined limbs moving downward in opposite directions. A syncline is the reverse, a downfold, with its
lowest point in the center or trough. These folds usually are layered and are three dimensional. They tend to
die out or plunge in either direction perpendicular to the place where they are maximally folded. Anticlines
grade into synclines in a fold belt (in the Harrisburg scene we studied at the end of Section 1, the ridges were
mostly anticlines that were eroded such that rock units resistant to erosion remained topographically above
weaker units). If you are familiar with the plot of the mathematical "sine" curve, its sequence of up and down
curves is analogous to anticlines and synclines. Up and down water waves are also comparable. We will see
images of these folds in other sections of the Tutorial. BACK

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2-5: At least four major units are distinguishable. Actually, there are several more formation present but these
are either thin and hard to see or occur at the base of the monocline. The black tone in the other aerial photo
is actually vegetation, as seen in the foreground of the first color photo. BACK

2-6: Band 7 is, overall, darker. The Navajo Fm, bright with high contrast in Band 1, shows only slight contrast
in Band 7. BACK

2-7: They both do a good job. But the Color Hybrid product appears to better define and distinguish units in
the left 2/3rd of the image and the PCA the remaining upper right 1/3rd. Choice of color assignment also helps
to discriminate differences, as for example, the color contrast between Upper and Lower Moenkopi members.
BACK

2-8: Some of the black is probably shadows related to cuts in the ridges, mesa walls, etc; the Navajo false
alarms may be an artifact of topography - certain slopes cut into rocks with normally different signatures may
be facing the incoming sun, an effect we noted in the Morro Bay scene; the alluvium is probably a mixture of
talus (rock debris that falls from cliffs) at the base of steep hills (note where some of the white is located),
slopewash from the higher ground on either side, and floodplain deposits from the small, usually dry creek.
The Mancos unit crops out upstream, and contains less of the alluvial cover, so that the Mancos signature
dominates. BACK

2-9: The first IDIMS classification, while not as colorful or bright, seems superior to the IDRISI one. The
precise choice of training sites may have been a factor; scene quality (relative reflectances) may also have
been a factor. Different maximum likelihood classifiers were used in IDRISI and IDIMS - perhaps the one
applied in the IDIMS system was more sensitive. The winter IDIMS image suffers in quality (hence, in
accuracy) to the summer one, largely because of low Sun angle, which did not illuminate the scene as
efficiently. The black patterns are mostly shadows in the erosional recesses in the hogback. BACK

2-10: Most of the eastern U.S. is covered by forests, grasses, crops, or urban areas; in fact, it has been
estimated that less than 2% of the eastern surface consists of exposed bedrock and that is strongly weathered
(abnormal) so that it doesn't show fresh rock. In the deserts, weathering can produce a thin weathered
surface, usually rich in iron, that coats the rock (in places more than 40% of the ground surface is outcrop) so
that those of different colors and other properties are masked by this uniform-appearing coating, making
discrimination of rock type difficult. The Waterpocket Fold area shows minimal coatings. BACK

2-11: The anticlines are both structurally and topographically high - making up the anticlinal mountains. The

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synclines are downcurves and here they occupy the valleys which are in process of being filled with erosional
debris (alluvium) washed in from mountain erosion. BACK

2-12: There is a belt of folding running diagonally across the image that strongly resembles the folds we saw
in central Pennsylvania in the Section 1 Exam. In Morocco, these folds are likewise ridges that stand out
because their strata are more erosionally-resistant than weaker strata in-between. In a sense, this arid Atlas
Mountains scene is like a Pennsylvania scene without the masking effect of vegetation. BACK

2-13: In the northern half of the mountains that run left-right across the central part of the scene, there is a
second strike-slip or wrench fault (part of it is occupied by a dry stream [thin] valley). It, too, is left-lateral, that
is, the northern half has moved westward. BACK

2-14: The Orthris Zone is hard to separate from the juxtaposed Pindus Zone. The Pelagonian Zone shows
more topographic variability than the others and has both a valley and a mountain component. This would
happen if that Zone were a thrust block that had internal stratigraphic continuity but its lower units were more
easily eroded than the upper ones (the mountains to the east). Both zones were likely identified as separate
primarily from field evidence, mainly as discontinuities in rock ages (i.e., juxtaposed rocks whose ages
indicate some age intervals are missing). BACK

2-15: A fracture (or joint) is just a crack or break in the rock in which the rock on either side springs apart
some small distance. A fault is a break in which the rock on one side slides or slips against the rock on the
other side so that each side is displaced some distance from the other. As seen from the air or space, in a
photo/image, a fracture is just a linear mark in which the tone of the rocks is the same on both sides. Most
faults cause enough movement for individual layers or even formations to be displaced, so that there may be
a sharp discontinuity in tonal pattern, in which one type of rock is brought against another. Or, in the China
image, topographic parts of a mountain systems are visibly offset by the faulting. BACK

2-16: This is the way it is done professionally: Place a tissue overlay on the image and trace the fractures as a
map. Now, start at any one fracture. Use a protractor to measure the angle it makes with the horizontal, from 0
to 180°. Record that angle. Mark the fracture line with a small cross-mark to indicate you have completed its
measurement. Do the same for all other fractures. Place the angles you measure in a table of ranges - thus
set up bins like 0 - 5°, 6 - 10°, 176 - 180°. Now make a plot of narrow wedges, each with a 5° angular width,
for all of the above intervals from 0 to 180°. Fill in each width to a length set by the number of individual
fractures in that angular interval (adopt some unit of length). You will end up with what is known as a "Rose
Diagram". To see what this looks like, simply go back to the page you left and scroll down to the bottom of the
second figure down. It has two such diagrams. Look at the fractures map and try to correlate their orientation
frequencies with the Rose Diagram. BACK

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2-17: You could use a geostationary satellite - one whose orbit is far out and has the satellite's velocity the
same as the rotating Earth below, so that it remains "fixed" relative to a point directly below (on the Equator).
This sees the Earth at all times of day and night, so the angular illumination effect progressively enhances
fracture/faults at different Sun azimuths. Trouble is, at that distance one would need a powerful telescope to
get adequate resolution. Or, you could launch an afternoon counterpart to a morning overpass satellite like
Landsat, with both travelling in the same orbital sequences but time staggered. However, nobody in NASA (or
Congress) would buy this idea unless more uses than just fracture detection can be found to justify the huge
expense. BACK

2-18: In the rose diagram for the West part of the scene, there is a notable trend running north-northwest that
isn't picked up by the satellites. This is probably a Sun angle effect - this trend is real but is largely missed
owing to illumination bias. BACK

2-19: The number of fractures (or, more properly, the density, or number per unit area) is less in the Superior
province then in the Grenville Province. BACK

2-20: The Landsat images, even when enlarged, did not clearly demarcate or otherwise bring to view the
cross-fracture system. The computer-based edge enhancement technique exposed the presence of these
fractures which might have been missed otherwise. Examination of the photos from the aircraft flight could
likely have done the same thing but that flight was expensive and really was done ex post facto to corroborate
the Landsat evidence. BACK

2-21: The image area is just south of the Dead Sea which you saw in the mosaic on page 2-7 (the south end
of the Dea Sea is just at the top). Running up-down in the center of the Landsat image is a continuous line
representing the Dead Sea fault in the Rift Zone. Two features help to define the linearity: 1) the straight linear
front of mountains just east of the fault; 2) in several places, a discontinuity in the lowlands filled with desert
sediment, seen as abrupt tonal changes. Go back and look if you missed this fault line. BACK

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The making of a geologic map with the aid of remote sensing imagery is illustrated for an area in Utah
known as the Waterpocket Fold (a monocline as defined on this page). Its location with the Colorado
Plateau is specified and that major geomorphic/structural unit is described and illustrated. A Landsat
TM 1 image of the Fold area is introduced and several aerial oblique photos and ground shots help one
to visualize the geologic units and terrain found there.

Using Landsat for Geological Studies

With these provisos in mind, we view the first scene to be analyzed. It's a demonstration of the
mapping capabilities of a subset from a Landsat TM image dominated by the Waterpocket Fold
that lies within the Capitol Reef National Park in south-central Utah about 35 miles south of
Caineville on Highway 24.

2-3: The Waterpocket Fold is shown in this image just above. Examine the Landsat TM
Band 2 scene closely. How many distinct and different units do you think you can
distinguish in this band, based solely on gray level variations? ANSWER

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The Capitol Reef Park is well within the Colorado Plateau, a major physiographic province that
extends across parts of Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah. The Plateau's best known
natural feature, of course, is the Grand Canyon. There, the Colorado River has cut nearly a
mile deep into horizontal rock strata of Paleozoic age. These horizontally layered sedimentary
rocks are the hallmark of the Plateau. Over most of the U.S., great forces from lateral
interactions between the North American and Pacific tectonic plates and other plates have
caused strata in the upper continental crust to be folded, faulted, and crushed into numerous
mountain belts, of which the Rocky Mountains, the Wasatch, the Pacific Coast Ranges and
many others are prime examples This is one of the central ideas in the great paradigm known
as Plate Tectonics (plates are subcontinental scale blocks or segments of the Earth's
lithosphere; the term "tectonics" refers to the large-scale deformation and movements of/in the
Earth's crust, leading to such structural features as folds, faults, thrust blocks, and fractures).
However, in one region in the West - the Colorado Plateau - the crust responded differently by
being lifted vertically while maintaining the initial horizontal orientation of the cover strata,
rather than being compressed laterally into deformed units.

In the Plateau, there is one structural exception to this. In places, the rocks are gently folded in
broad warps called anticlines and synclines, in which rock layers become inclined (we say they
dip) in opposing directions. Even more common are a type of folds called monoclines.

The scene below is a beautiful Landsat MSS full scene taken on June 13, 1977. That shows
the northwestern section of the Colorado Plateau, including parts of the so-called
Canyonlands. The subscene you will study is near its upper left corner; the black line marks
the flight line of a NASA aircraft overflight during which a multispectral scanner acquired data
(see next page).

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Most of the upper scene lies in Utah but the lowermost areas fall within northern Arizona.
Passing through the scene is the Colorado River that, backed up from the Glen Canyon Dam
(lower left) near the town of Page, Utah fills the steep-walled canyons to form Lake Powell.
The San Juan River joins the Colorado from the east. The prevalent yellow color in this image
(printed on Cibachrome, which improves both color quality and definition of features)
corresponds mainly to sandstones and some shales that are reds and oranges in nature. The
brown tones associate with rocks that are dark reds and browns in the field. Some fields are
tinged with reds in the image because vegetation in this IR version. Blues associate with
shales that in the field are often grayish. Areas with strong red (IR) tones include the Abajo
Peaks (upper right), the Henry Mountains (upper left), and the smaller, isolated Navajo
Mountain east of Lake Powell. The northernmost end of the forested Black Mesa appears
along bottom center. The cluster of isolated mountains to its north are the collection of mesas
and buttes, known as the Hopi Buttes district. Instead of being made from sedimentary rocks,
as occurs in Monument Valley to the north, these are actually eroded volcanic necks and
diatreme fills. From the ground they look like this:

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Along the right side of the Landsat image is a long band of folded rocks that comprise Comb
Ridge. In the upper left is the monoclinal fold (crossed by a black line) known as the
Waterpocket Fold, which is the topic of the next few pages of Section 2.

In a monocline, forces cause rocks to change their inclination in only one direction and then
resume the initial direction, as depicted in this sketch which presents a side view (as though it
was along a vertical

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cut into the Earth's surface layers) of a monocline. At the top is a line which represents a
profile of the ground surface. At B, above the inclined layers, rocks that are more resistant to
erosion are shown as ridges (often called "hogbacks" or "flatirons"). At A, a rock unit labeled X
lies just beneath the surface, but at B it has dipped downward such that it is now well below
the ground. A unit labeled Y at C is well on top of X. These rock units and the rocks in between
follow the stratigraphic Law of Superposition, which states the obvious: younger rocks are
deposited on, and thus rest above, older rocks. If we follow Y to the left along a dashed line, it
bends upward at B and also lies above the ground at A. In other words, it was once there but
has been removed by erosion.

2-4: The two most common types of folds are called anticlines and synclines. Do you
know what these structural terms mean? If not, check the answer. ANSWER

This is the situation at the Waterpocket Fold, a monocline which runs across this subscene. A
black & white view followed by a color view, both taken looking to the northwest from low-flying
airplanes, show a

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hogback ridge dominated by a whitish unit, the famed Navajo Sandstone (the principal rock
formation at Zion National Park) and several other (reddish) units near its base. The thick red
unit beyond (west) the Navajo Sandstone is the Wingate Formation. These several units dip at
angles as steep as 45 degrees. Younger gently dipping rocks in the foreground (bottom of
photo) are part of the lower bench of the Tarantula Mesa whose top (east of the photo;
equivalent to C in the above diagram) is actually higher in elevation than the fold. We can
barely see older rocks (equivalent to A) below the distant western horizon. These make up the
Circle Cliffs. A third aerial view taken from the west side of the fold looking to the northeast,
presents these older rocks to the left and younger rocks in the distance, with the Fold
highlighted by the Navajo Sandstone and standing out as a narrow band of outcrops along the
structurally-controlled topographic ridge.

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Now, we take two close-up looks from the ground, one looking up against the Fold with the
Navajo Sandstone near the top and the Entrada Sandstone (reddish) below it but
stratigraphically young.

The second photo looks eastward at Tarantula Mesa (a stepped, flat-topped, plateau) with the
Mesaverde Sandstone capping it; the famous Henry Mountains (where Gilbert conceived the
idea of a laccolithic intrusion) against the skyline; and the Dakota Sandstone as a blocky

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outcrop in the foreground.

2-5: In the first aerial oblique color photo (which the writer made literally hanging out
the window of a light aircraft), how many rock units within the steeply inclined limb of
the monocline can you separate visually. In the black and white aerial oblique photo, the
slightly inclined rock units along the right side margin seem blackish; why? ANSWER

Primary Author: Nicholas M. Short, Sr. email: nmshort@ptd.net

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