Resume V

Qualitative Research in Health , Carol Grbich, Sage Publisher.

Agus Sudaryanto, SIN: 105050104,
email: u105050104@cmu.edu.tw, agus_sudaryanto@ums.ac.id

Chapter 5.
Tecnique of Data Collections : Observation

This chapter discussing observation techniques in research and how to take “participant
observation” approaches.People tend to use ethnography and participant observation
interchangeably. Its different terminology from antrophology,” ethnography” is a
methodology and “participant observation” is refer a technique.

Ethnography : description and explanation of the regularity and variations in culture,

interpreted within defined framework.

Participant observation : data gathering techniques that most common in the ethnographic
studies.

History and development of participant observation:

Clasical researcher spent time and living a to a year in the community, learning the
languages, become familiar with the culture and behavior of the group before doing the
research. The initial adaptation periode is followed by several year data collection using
participant observation and interview.
Early century researcher shortened this procedure, they used interpreter, collected data soon
after arrival , selected aspect of culture rather than complete culture to study, and only spent
not more than two years in a location. Participant observation is said to have a process of
camping in the study setting and recording observation. This was opposite with the some
earlier anthropologists.
Participant observation also adopted by other discipline such as sociology and psychology.
The modification is made due to time limit and funding constrains. In sociology, many
studies taken by researcher in their own culture. This has been mainly due to Chicago
sociologist( 1920-1950s) emphasis on human behavior as a product of both value and
attitudes. These studies showed a different way from neutralor uninvolved observer to more
active researcher participation. For example: Erving Goffman was employed as a physical
education instructor, Laud Humpreys acted as a lookout in public toilets. These researchers
explore and construction a meaning and action interaction of group rather than external
description of culture.
Current trends
The postmodernism, poststructuralism and impact of feminist critique shift the “ documenter
of culture” and some distant away from neutrality toward high involvement “ dialogical”
and “polyphonic” interpretation.
Dialogical : ongoing negotiating between researcher and researched. This process as a
dialogue has undertaken in gaining understanding the meaning and action of researched and
used the hermeneutical circle. Hermeunetical circle involves: interpreting process, collecting
data, bringing it back, interpreting it, and then repeating the cycle after each interpretation
that resulted in enhancement of specific area of study question.
A polyphonic : is open ended creative dialogue of subculture through display many voices,
which may result from the researched decentred. The example is The Mirror Dance( 1983) by
Susan Kriegers’s study of lesbian community. The”I” of the author is never mentioned.

Defining participant observation :

A technique of data collection , which involves a researcher spending time in an environment
observing behavior , action and interaction so he/she can understand the meaning constructed
in that environment. These understanding are used to generate conceptual/theoretical
explanation of what being observed.
Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages
Allows the researcher close to the action as it is Need very high skill level in gaining and keeping
actually happen the confidence of those being studied
The researcher can be flexible adapt or follow up Only small people can be effectively observed at
any one time

Researcher Role ( total participant, participant-researcher and total researcher)

A total participant: the researcher become emotionally part of phenomenon such as hospital
patient requiring a particular procedure.
Participant-researcher: some emotional involvement may be occur such Goffman as assistant
athletic director for several month in a mental hospital so he can move freely between staff
and patient.
Total researcher: separate emotionally and physically because only visit the setting on regular
occasion for limited period. Taylor ( 1975) study, observed staff-parent communication in
neonatal intensive care for 4 months.

Issues in observational studies:

Location: entering unknown setting allows researcher to observe without preconceived
ideas.
Entering known setting mean that, although understanding the culture is already in place ,
the researcher’s eye may be limited or completely bias.
Group size : William Whyte(1984) suggest a single researcher should not attempt to observe
more than 15 people in a study. Other consider to five to eight for in-depth study.
Sampling: They must defined, because its related to access and easy entry. The researcher
also decide form of sampling to include maximize the view of the setting.
Validity, reliability , subjectivity and objectivity
The position of researcher must be distant or close to situation must be decided early.
Issue of validity, reliability arise in participant observation, rigorous scale , multi methods (
aoservation, intervieweing and document collection) are suggested along with team research
( including mix of ge, sex, race, status) involving comparison, discussion and re observation.

Other issues to be addressed:

1. Researcher position : a distant role, close or participatory

2. Pressure ; how will researcher handle pressure to join and support of different
location.
3. Conflicting views : How will researcher manage challenging situation when antagonic
views threaten his/her values?
4. Intervention :Are there any situation that may potentially arise in a setting that would
make the researcher to intervene such as knowing that the person under a risk.
5. Disturbing setting : to what extend will the researcher disturb the setting she/he is to
document?
Procedure :
Observe three condition

a. The setting of environment ( space , colour, smell and observer response)

b. The people ( age, sex, dress, status, relationship, grouping and observer comment)
c. Activities : behavior and the dialogue of those under observation.