Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Core-Log Integration
EDITED BY
P. K. H A R V E Y & M. A. L O V E L L
University of Leicester, UK
1998
Published by The Geological Society London
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Petrophysical relationships
BASTOS, A. C., DILLON, L. D., VASQUEZ,G. F. & SOARES,J. A. Core-derived acoustic,
porosity & permeability correlations for computation pseudo-logs 14I
DENICOL, P. S. & JING, X. D. Effects of water salinity, saturation and clay content on
the complex resistivity of sandstone samples 147
JACKSON,P. D., HARVEY,P. K., LOVELL,M. A., GUNN, D. A., WILLIAMS,C. G. &
FLINT, R. C. Measurement scale and formation heterogeneity: effects on the integration
of resistivity data 261
MAJOR, C. O., PIRMEZ, C., GOLDBERG, D. & LEG 166 SCIENTIFICPARTY High-resolution
core-log integration techniques: examples from the Ocean Drilling Program 285
Index 413
Preface
Core and log measurements provide crucial information about subsurface formations. Their usage,
either for integration or calibration, is complicated by the different measurement methods employed,
different volumes of formation analysed, and in turn, the heterogeneity of the formations. While the
problems of comparing core and log data are only too well known, the way in which these data can
be most efficiently combined is not at all clear in most cases. In recent years there has been increased
interest in this problem both in industry and academia, due in part to developments in technology
which offer access to new types of information, and in the case of industry, pressure for improved
reservoir models and hydrocarbon recovery. The application of new numerical methods for
analysing and modelling core and log data, the availability of core scanning facilities, and novel core
measurements in both two and three dimensions, currently provide a framework for the development
of new and exciting approaches to core-log integration.
This Special Publication addresses some of the problems of core-log integration encountered by
scientists and engineers from both industry and academia. The diverse nature of the contributions in
this volume are an expression of the value and need to understand core and log measurements, and
the way in which they can be combined to maximum effect. Contributions range geologically from
hydrocarbon-bearing sediments in the North Sea to the volcanic rocks that form the upper part of
the oceanic crust. In order to constrain this diversity for presentation the volume has been divided
into five sections and starts with 'Measurement, scaling and calibration', 6 papers concerned purely
with aspects of core and,or log measurements themselves including cross-correlation, upscaling,
measurement uncertainty and accuracy. Subsequent sections include (2) 'Physical and chemical
p r o p e r t i e s ' - 5 papers, (3) 'Petrophysical relationships'-8 papers, (4) 'Integration of core and
borehole i m a g e s ' - 5 papers and (5) 'Applications and case s t u d i e s ' - 7 papers. All papers were
submitted in response to an open call for contributions so, within the constraints of work loads and
other factors, may be considered to represent a fair snapshot of recent developments in Core-Log
Integration.
The volume arises from a meeting of the Borehole Research Group of the Geological Society and
the London Petrophysical Society (London Chapter of the Society of Professional Well Log
Analysts) held in London in September 1996. The editors are particularly grateful to Gail
Williamson both for the organization of the meeting and for persistence in coaxing authors,
reviewers, and editors; also to Jo Cooke at the Geological Society Publishing House for her
continuous support in the production of this volume. We also wish to thank all those who undertook
the often arduous job of reviewing the manuscripts, and without whose help this volume would have
been that much poorer.
C. S. B R I S T O W 1 & B. J. W I L L I A M S O N 2
1Research School of Geological and Geophysical Sciences, Birbeck College and UCL, Gower
Street, London WC1E 6BT
2 Present address." Department of Mineralogy, The Natural History Museum, Cromwell
Road, London S W7 5BD
Abstract: The aim of this study is to test the usefulness of spectral gamma ray logs in
subsurface correlation, lithofacies description and the interpretation of depositional
environments of Namurian and Dinantian sandstones in the southern North Sea.
Lithofacies and depositional environments were identified from core descriptions and
compared with spectral gamma ray logs from thirteen boreholes. The results show that
lithofacies and sedimentary environments can be discriminated within single wells. However,
there is too much variation between wells to make an unequivocal assessment of
depositional environment on the basis of spectral gamma ray logs alone. Comparison of
stratigraphically correlated sandstones shows that variations between wells are often greater
than variations between lithofacies. The differences between correlated sandstones using
spectral gamma ray logs are largely attributed to changes in the logging environment,
mainly mud characteristics, borehole quality and contractor. In addition, the occurrence of
negative numbers for uranium and potassium in some wells indicates that the algorithm
used to calculate elemental concentrations may be in error. For sandstones with a low total
gamma ray response, small errors associated with tool calibration and data processing make
a comparatively large difference to results, which has made detailed correlation of
sandstones untenable. The most significant problem is the correction factor for potassium in
KC1 drilling mud.
G a m m a ray logs are an essential tool for Dresser Atlas 1992). These measured values are
subsurface correlation and gamma ray log curve then recalculated to estimate the proportions of
shapes or signatures are often used as the basis potassium, thorium and uranium, expressed as
for interpreting ancient sedimentary environ- percentages or API units.
ments (Selley 1978; Cant 1992). The spectral Spectral gamma ray data recorded from
gamma ray tool measures radiation produced by outcrop have been used for correlation and to
the radioactive decay of naturally occurring define sediment facies in Upper Carboniferous
radioactive elements. The most common natu- deltaic sediments (Myers & Bristow 1989;
rally occurring radioactive elements in sedimen- Davies & Elliot 1995). Spectral gamma ray data
tary rocks are potassium, thorium and uranium. have also been used to characterize marine
As each of these elements decay they give off bands in the Upper Carboniferous (Archard &
gamma radiation of a particular energy mea- Trice 1990; Leeder et al. 1990). In this study we
sured in MeV (millions of electron volts). The have attempted to apply the methodology of
principle energies for each element are 1.46 MeV Myers & Bristow (1989) to Carboniferous rocks
for potassium, 0.68MeV for thorium, and 1.12 in the Southern North Sea. We have examined
and 0.98 MeV for uranium (Desbrandes 1985). spectral gamma ray logs from thirteen wells in
The radiation from potassium (K 40) is a single the Southern North Sea (Wells 1-13). Sedimen-
energy while uranium and thorium have a series tary logs of core were available for seven of the
of isotopes producing radiation with a range of boreholes and stratigraphic information showed
energies which overlap (Rider 1986). In addi- that two sandstone units 'A' and 'B' could be
tion, Compton scattering leads to a reduction in correlated between three and six of the wells,
energy and the total gamma radiation is a respectively. Unfortunately due to confidential-
complex spectrum. The spectral gamma ray tool ity agreements we are unable to identify the wells
samples the spectrum around specific energy in question or the names of the correlated units.
levels, 1.46MeV for potassium, 1.76MeV for G a m m a ray logs are affected by hole condi-
uranium and 2.62 MeV for thorium (Rider 1986; tions, in particular an oversized hole can lead to
BRISTOW,C. S. & WILLIAMSON,B. J. 1998. Spectral gamma ray logs: core to log calibration, facies
analysis and correlation problems in the Southern North Sea In. HARVEY,P. K. • LOVELL,M. A. (eds)
Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 1-7
2 C.S. BRISTOW & B. J. WILLIAMSON
a decrease in gamma ray response. To provide good separation of curves on log plots, all
some control on data quality, gamma ray potassium values were converted to deci. %.
measurements were plotted against caliper data. Having reduced the log data to cored depth
Another common borehole effect is the use of intervals, element data and element ratios were
KC1 in drilling mud. The potassium in the plotted for each well on cross plots and logs, and
drilling mud produces an increase in absolute between wells on cross plots and box plots.
values of potassium on the spectral gamma ray
log. This is supposed to be corrected in the Observations
processing and we have assumed that the
contractors have made the right corrections to Potassium-thorium cross plots discriminate
the data. However, there appears to have been
no correction for variations in mud chemistry lithofacies
down hole. Of the thirteen wells that we have Cross plots of potassium against thorium,
examined, ten were logged by one contractor thorium against uranium and potassium against
and the remaining three were logged by a second uranium were produced for each cored well. The
contractor (Table 1). Seven of the wells were cross plots provide an easy to read display of the
drilled using an oil based mud, five were drilled range of measurements from each well by facies
using a water based KCI mud and one was and for comparing each facies between wells.
drilled with a salt saturated polymer. The cross plot of potassium against thorium
from Well 1 (Fig. 1) is a typical example; It
Table 1. Summary of well characteristics shows limestones with very little gamma radia-
tion clustered in the lower left-hand corner of
Well Logging Drilling Correlated the plot with cross-stratified sandstones in a field
number contractor mud sandstone around 0.01 deci % potassium and 10ppm
thorium. Finer grained lithologies, silty sand-
1 1 KC1 A
2 1 Oil stones, sandy siltstones and claystones are less
3 1 KC1 well discriminated but all show relatively high
4 2 Oil A potassium and thorium. One intriguing feature
5 2 Oil of this plot (Fig. 1) is the negative values for
6 1 Oil potassium in the limestones. Negative values for
7 ! KC1 potassium are very small, less that 0.005 deci %,
8 1 Oil A and were only found in Well 1; however,
9 1 Oil B negative values for uranium were found in wells
10 1 KC1 B
2, 6 and 7. The negative values indicate a
11 2 polymer B
12 1 KC1 B problem with the algorithm used by the con-
13 1 Oil B tractor to calculate elemental concentrations.
Other wells such as Well 5 (Fig. 2) show clear
discrimination between lithofacies although the
Methods absolute values are different from those in Well
1. Cross-stratified sandstones generally contain
A simple seven category lithofacies scheme was slightly less potassium and less thorium, most
adopted for the cored wells with classification on claystones have relatively high values of potas-
the basis of lithology and sedimentary struc- sium but a few have almost no potassium.
tures: cross-stratified sandstones, silty sand- Changes within lithofacies for a particular well
stones, s a n d y siltstones, claystones, coal, could be due to differences in the detrital
limestones and rooted beds. After depth match- composition and diagenetic history of the
ing of core and log and corrections for core to claystones. However, low values may also be
log slip, depth intervals for each lithofacies were encountered where the gamma ray response is
defined. Lithological boundaries were picked at averaged across a bed boundary. The resolution
the shoulder of gamma ray curves to take of a gamma ray tool is typically about 3 0 4 0 cm
account of readings which 'smear' across bed depending on the speed that the tool was run
boundaries. The gamma ray log data were then (Rider 1986) and where the sampling interval
assigned a lithofacies classification on the basis coincides with a bed boundary the measurement
of core descriptions. Where core log depths were will not represent either lithology, but a mixture
metric and the wireline log data in feet, the data of two different lithologies. Another possible
were recalculated to metric units. For several of source of error is in the core to log calibration
the wells, potassium values were given in deci. % where reconstruction of a core may lead to small
rather than as percentages. As deci. % units give offsets in the core to log slip.
SPECTRAL GAMMA RAY LOG CORRELATION PROBLEMS 3
Fig. 1. Potassium and thorium cross plot for Well 1 showing good discrimination of lithofacies with limestones in
the lower left corner and fine-grained claystone and siltstones in the top right.
Fig. 2. Potassium and thorium cross plot for Well 5 showing good discrimination of lithofacies. The lithofacies
have similar relative values to those in Welt 1 (Fig. 1) although absolute values for each lithofacies are slightly
different.
Fig. 3. Cross plots of cross-stratified sandstones between wells showing a loose grouping of all the data in the
lower left hand corner of the cross plot. Measurements from individual wells tend to be tightly grouped and the
difference between wells appears to be greater than the differences within a well.
Fig. 4. Cross plot of potassium against thorium for the correlated sandstone Unit A shows the same sandstone in
three different wells plotting in slightly different areas, note the lack of overlap between wells with lower
potassium values in Well 1 which was drilled with a KC1 mud.
Fig. 5. Cross plot of potassium against thorium for Unit B showing a consistent trend in the data for Wells 9, 10,
12 and 13. Well 11 appears to lie off trend with significantly higher potassium and thorium content which can be
attributed to an error in the correction factor for KCI in the drilling mud..
Unit B.
The cross plot of potassium against thorium for
Unit B (Fig. 5) shows a consistent trend in the
data for Wells 9, 10, 12 and 13, although there is
an offset between the wells largely due to
differences in the amount of thorium. Well 11
has a flatter trend with significantly higher
potassium and a wider range in thorium.
Assuming that the original correlation is correct,
is there any simple explanation for the differ-
ence? Wells 9 and 13 were drilled with an oil
based mud, Wells 10 and 12 were drilled with a
water based mud and Well 11 was drilled with a
salt saturated polymer (221 ppmK). It would
Fig. 6. Box plot of total gamma for sandstones and appear most likely that the correction factor for
claystones. Claystones usually have higher total potassium in the mud has left a residual of
gamma than sandstones although there is some over-
enhanced potassium values. One might wonder
lap in Wells 3 and 6. The lower than usual values in
these claystones may be due to deposition in an why the other Wells (10 and 12), with water
interdistributary bay rather than a prodelta environ- based mud and relatively high KC1 contents, lie
ment. on a trend with Wells 9 and 13? The answer may
be that Wells 9, 10, 12 and 13 were all logged by
a different contractor to Well 11. It would
variations in the procedures of different logging appear therefore that the choice of logging
contractors. There is very little difference in contractor can have a significant effect on
caliper data between wells and no evidence for results.
significant caving, which leaves two possible
e x p l a n a t i o n s for the differences observed.
Box plots show differences between wells
Firstly, Well 1 was drilled with water based
mud, while Wells 4 and 8 were drilled with an oil Box plots have been used for a comparison of
based mud. Secondly, Wells 1 and 8 were logged total gamma ray values for cross-stratified
by a different contractor to Well 4. Reduced sandstones and claystones between wells, using
values for potassium in Well 1 are most likely to lithofacies defined from core. Each plot (includ-
be due to an over-correction for potassium in the ing boxes and whiskers) shows the spread of
KC1 drilling mud. observations about the median. The box repre-
6 C.S. BRISTOW & B. J. WILLIAMSON
Fig. 7. Cross plot of K/Th against K/U for three correlated sandstones (Unit A) shows lower potassium values
and an exceptionally good correlation of thorium and uranium in Well I which are attributed to correction
factors which have over-compensated for KC1 in the drilling mud.
sents 50% of measurements about the median, Eliminating inter well differences using ratio
the whiskers extend to the minimum and
maximum data values. Median values for plots
cross-stratified sandstones are generally 50 API Element ratio vs element ratio plots were
units or less, although they do vary between generated to eliminate the systematic variations
wells (Fig. 6). Total gamma ray response for in gamma ray tool response between wells
sandstones is almost always less than the total (usually due to varying well conditions) which
gamma ray response for claystones, where the may have been inadequately compensated for in
median value is close to 100 API units, although logging company calibration procedures. The
there is some overlap in Wells 3 and 6 where the plot of K/Th ratio against K/U ratio for Unit A
claystones have lower total gamma ray response (Fig. 7) shows that measurements from Wells 4
than the other claystones. There is no obvious and 8 overlap while measurements from Well 1
reason for the lower total gamma ray response in are clearly lying on a different trend. Wells 4 and
these two wells. Well 3 was drilled with a water 8 were both drilled with an oil based mud while
based mud, but so were Wells 1 and 7, while Well 1 was drilled with a water based mud
Well 6 was drilled with an oil based mud as were containing KC1. The K/Th cross plot (Fig. 4)
Wells 2, 4 and 5. Wells 3 and 6 are from broadly shows low potassium values for Well 1, and the
similar stratigraphic units but Wells 5 and 7 are ratio plot (Fig. 7) shows an offset due to low
from the same Group. One possible explanation potassium values. In addition, Fig. 7 shows an
is that the claystones in Wells 3 and 6 were exceptionally good correlation between thorium
deposited in slightly different environments. The and uranium. We suspect that the correction
core logs indicate a prodelta environment for factor applied to compensate for KC1 mud in
claystones in Wells 1, 2, 4, and 7 and an Well 1, has over-compensated for potassium and
interdistributary bay environment for claystones also affected the measurements of thorium and
in Wells 3, 6 and 5. Re-examination of the core uranium.
logs indicates that the claystones in Well 5,
originally attributed to an interdistributary bay,
are significantly thicker than other interdistribu- Conclusions
tary bay deposits and could be re-interpreted as
prodelta deposits. If this is the case, then the Lithofacies for Carboniferous deltaic sequences
total gamma ray response is discriminating from the Southern N o r t h Sea have been
between sedimentary environments, not just identified from core descriptions and compared
between lithofacies. with spectral gamma ray logs. The results show
SPECTRAL GAMMA RAY LOG CORRELATION PROBLEMS 7
It has been appreciated for some time that there including time. The latter, on the other hand,
is a problem of scale in reservoir engineering applies on some coarse grid as a replacement of
(e.g. Warren et al. 1961; Haldorsen 1986). The a fine grid domain, but it may change radically if
volume of a reservoir under production greatly the boundary conditions are changed. It will
exceeds the volume of rock recovered from cores emerge from our discussion that we are fre-
or investigated by wireline logs. There are many quently talking about pseudo properties when
efforts underway to improve the modelling of we refer to core-log data integration.
reservoirs, which particularly address the extra- The petrophysical community have appre-
polation from the sparse core-log data to the ciated for some time that there are also scale-
interwell volumes. Computer flow models of up problems in making comparisons between
reservoirs involve grid blocks that are by core and log data (e.g. Knutson et al. 1961).
necessity large, relative to the investigation However, historical practice relied on the
volumes of core or logs. Therefore engineers sampling of cores with plug-size measurements
have to integrate the core and log data for use in at one-foot spacing (Fig. l a). These were then
simulation models in a process loosely referred compared directly with the log measurements,
to as 'up-scaling'. Permeability is a particular recorded at half-foot intervals. Shifts between
property of interest and several techniques have core depths and log depths accounted for the
been developed for its up-scaling, e.g. power offset (if present) between the core and log.
averaging, renormalization, and pseudo-isation. Occasionally, a primitive up-scaling technique
The aim of up-scaling is to estimate the using a running average ( 1 : 2 : 1 weighting) was
'effective' or equivalent properties at the chosen used for the plug data prior to comparing with
volume scale, e.g. grid blocks. the log data. Although the scale discrepancies
The adjectives 'effective' and 'pseudo' are were often appreciated, there was not much else
often used interchangeably in the petroleum that could be done.
literature to denote an up-scaled property, but The development of high resolution petro-
there is a subtle difference. The former attempts physical measurements in the laboratory (probe
to be intrinsic to the rock/fluid system and aims permeameter) and downhole (image logs) has
to be independent of boundary conditions, presented new opportunities to address the scale
CORBETT,P. W. M. JENSEN, J. L. & SORBIE,K. S. 1998. A review of up-scaling and cross-scaling issues
in core and log data interpretation and prediction In: HARVEY,P. K. • LOVELL,M. A. (eds)
Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 9-16
10 P . W . M . CORBETT E T AL.
Case studies
We consider three examples of the cross-scaling
between permeability and resistivity which have Fig. 4. Correlation between resistivity (shown a
been carried out and which have been reported formation resistivy factor= measured resistivity/brine
in the literature. resistivity) against probe permeability for a slab of
Lochabriggs Sandstone.
Laboratory study
Jackson et al. (1994) measured permeability and (Fig. 5a) and provided the basis of a perme-
resistivity with probe devices for an aeolian ability predictor which was a considerable
sample that was saturated with brine in the improvement over methods based on the density
laboratory (Fig. 3). The resistivity probe was log and core plugs (Fig. 5b).
carefully designed to investigate a volume
similar to that of a steady state probe permea- Morecambe Bay study
meter and both volumes were comparable to the
sample's scale of sedimentary variation. A Thomas et al. (1996, 1997) undertook a detailed
strong relationship was observed (Fig. 4) and probe study over a fluvial interval for which
this can be related to the fundamental physical resistivity images had also been acquired. They
control. found a strong correlation between the probe
permeability and microscanner resistivity (Fig. 6).
As-Sarah study In all of these cases, an empirical relationship
existed and was reflected in the measurements at
Ball et al. (1997) carried out a probe permea- similar scales. Such relationships could reflect an
meter study on a fluvial sandstone. They found underlying physical relationship, explained by
that averaged probe data (at 10cm spacing) an existing analytical model (e.g. Biot's and the
correlated reasonably well with microresistivity C a r m a n - K o z e n y models) or might provide
12 P.W.M. CORBETT E T AL.
Fig. 5. Correlation between (a) probe permeability Fig. 6. Comparison between probe permeability,
(averaged over a 30 cm window) and micro-spherically formation image and FMI resistance for an interval
focussed log (MSFL) resistivity and (b) plug perme- of Sherwood Sandstone. Refer to Thomas et al. 0996,
ability and wireline density for an interval of PUC-B 1997) for more details.
Reservoir. Refer to Ball et al. (1997) for more details.
-12050 -
PLT
i I
~LT
-12175'
Bed Scale Bedset Scale properties (effective kv/kh ratio) compared well
t t with a larger-scale dynamic measurement (Fig. 8).
The importance of the geology in the up-
I scaling is well illustrated in two ways in this
'~ ~ I~T ~
~ enrlda~:; % o P ~ : 2 a ttimates
second study. Firstly, the abrupt decline in
vertical permeability (i.e. increase in anisotropy)
occurs at the bed length scale which, for these
stacked fluvial channels, represents several feet.
The image log picks out the geological features
associated with bedding and this can be
exploited to produce improved prediction of
formation anisotropy. Secondly, there is an
,
assumption, supported by geological analysis
~. 0.001t I I
of similar beds in outcrop, that the layers or beds
o 5 10 15
observed at the wellbore extend well beyond the
Measurement interval (ft) volume of investigation of the dynamic measure-
ment. This is in contrast to the anisotropy shown
Fig. 8. Validation of probe/FMI resistance predictor by plug scale measurements which is notably
for kv/kh with pressure data from a Modular Dynamic poor in estimating effective kv/kh at larger scales.
Tool (MDT) for an interval of the Sherwood Averaging plug scale kv/kh ratios is also an
Sandstone. The probe estimator uses the harmonic
average (over a moving window--to represent vertical inappropriate up-scaling method for this para-
permeability over a measurement interval) divided by meter, which is very sensitive to scale changes
the arithmetic average (horizontal permeability) over (Corbett et al. 1996b, Cowan 7 Bradney 1997).
the same expanding window. Refer to Thomas et al. The comparison of up-scaled permeability
(1996, 1997) for more details. (probe, plug, or wireline) with the well test can
provide additional corroboration of permeabil-
ity predictors. For these larger scales, the effects
In the Morecambe Bay study, the up-scaling of the organization of the geology (i.e. sedimen-
of both horizontal (kh) and vertical (kv) perme- tary structure) can also be important. This level
ability were required for comparison with a of up-scaling is beyond the scope of this review
borehole pressure measurement. The horizontal (refer to Corbett et al., 1996a). Nonetheless, it is
permeability was up-scaled by taking the arith- important to note that up-scaling from core to
metic average of the probe data, the vertical log must be tied with a consistent geological
permeability by taking the harmonic average framework to the scales of well tests and full
(Thomas et al. 1996, 1997). The up-scaled field numerical grid blocks.
14 P.W. M. CORBETT E T AL.
4"
Plug permeability - density log cross-scaling
revisited
We can revisit the As-Sarah example to compare
~3-
;~ 2" 9 '.
9 . .ii
J
~-.
9 ] : 9
i,iii.
the probe-microresistivity method with the plug-
9 9
tion measurements. Journal of Geophysical Re- Field: a numerical approach using probe permea-
search, 92, 599-607. metry. In: OAKMAN, C. D., MARTIN, J. H.
KNUTSON, C. F., CONLEY, F. R., BOHOR, B. F. & CORBETT, P. W. M. (eds) Coresfrom the Northwest
TIMKO, D. J. 1961. Characterization of the San European Hydrocarbon Province." An illustration of
Miguel Sandstone by a coordinated logging and geological applications from exploration to devel-
coring program. Journal of Petroleum Technology, opment. Geological Society, London, 197-203.
13, 425-432. - - & JENSEN,J. L. 1996. Permeability and
PICKUP, G. E., RINGROSE, P. S., CORBETT, P. W. M., permeability anisotropy characterization in the
JENSEN, J. L. ~; SORBIE, K. S. 1995. Geology, near well-bore: a numerical model using probe
g e o m e t r y , and effective flow. Petroleum permeability and formation micro-resistivity data,
Geoscience, 1, 37-42. Transactions of The Society of Professional Well
RIN~ROSE, P. S., SORBIE, K. S., CORBETT, P. W. M. & Log Analysts Thirty-Seventh Annual Logging
JENSEN, J. L. 1993. Immiscible flow behaviour in Symposium, New Orleans, 16-19 June, paper JJJ.
laminated and cross-bedded sandstones. Journal WARREN,J. E., SK1BA,F. F. & PRICE, H. S. 1961. An
of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 9, 103-124. evaluation of the significance of permeability
THOMAS, S. D., CORBETT, P. W. M. & JENSEN, J. L. measurements. Journal of Petroleum Technology,
1997. Permeability anisotropy estimation within 13, 739-744.
the Sherwood Sandstone, Morecambe Bay Gas
Quantitative density measurements from X-ray radiometry
A. R. D U N C A N 2, G. D E A N 1 & D. A. L. C O L L I E 2
t Amerada Hess Limited, 33 Grosvenor Place, London, S W 1 X 7HY, UK
2 Robertson Research International Limited, Unit 7, Wellheads Crescent, Wellheads
Industrial Estate, Dyce, Aberdeen, AB21 7GA, UK
Abstract: Qualitative linear X-ray scanning has an established role in the non-destructive
imaging of both slabbed and whole core and has been routinely used in visual assessment
and quality control of material being subjected to other physical measurements. Since core
may be observed in real time, whole core can be oriented to maximum dip prior to slabbing,
especially useful where core has been resin-stabilized within an outer liner. Linear scanning
is also useful in the observation of heterogeneous lithologies; the features observed are
distinguished by their penetrabilities to X-rays. As a result, the linear scanner produces an
image which reflects the density variation in the section analysed. A joint project carried out
by Robertson Research International Limited and Amerada Hess Limited on 108ft of
heterogeneous sediments has shown that the digital X-ray penetrability values ('luminance')
can be extracted in order to produce a surface density variation log. X-ray luminance values
show a linear relationship with the downhole Formation Density Log and may, therefore,
provide an accurate tool for the correlation of core density with log density.
Qualitative linear X-ray scanning already has an different penetrabilities to X-rays. As a result
established role in non-destructive imaging of the linear scanner produces an image which
both slabbed and whole core and has been reflects the density variation in the section
routinely used in visual assessment and quality analysed (Tolansky 1961).
control of material being subjected to other A project carried out on 108ft of hetero-
physical measurements (for example Algeo et al. geneous sediments (Duncan et al. 1996) has
1994; Rigsby et al. 1994). Since core may be shown that a digital measure of the X-ray
observed in real time, whole core can be oriented penetrability values ('luminance') can be ex-
to maximum dip prior to plugging or slabbing, tracted in order to produce a surface density
especially useful where the core has been resin- variation log.
stabilized within fibreglass, pvc or aluminium These X-ray luminance values may yield data
liners. This ability to examine interactively, in at close and equally spaced points producing a
detail and non-destructively, the 3-D nature of log with significant advantages over the data
the internal structure of the core material is from conventional core analysis (where sample
particularly important. Linear scanning is there- spacing may be irregular, widely spaced and
fore useful in the observation of both hetero- lithologically chosen, or where Gamma Ray
geneous and apparently homogenous lithologies response may be poor). Such data can be
and the following features are commonly char- compared directly with the wireline logs and it
acterized: is found that the X-ray luminance values show a
linear relationship with the downhole Formation
(a) bedding features and sedimentary struc- Density Log (FDL). The X-ray luminance data
tures; may therefore provide an accurate tool for the
(b) bioturbation (ichnofacies analysis), espe- correlation of core density with log density.
cially in slabbed sections;
(c) identification of remnant structure (not
readily visible to the naked eye) which has Database
been obscured by bioturbation; The Scott partner group provided access to a
(d) natural and coring-induced fractures and range of core and associated materials:
shears (cemented/uncemented/open);
(e) cement distribution; (a) 108ft of lithologically/mineralogically
(f) small scale grain size variation; variable sediments (resinated archive
(g) assessment of resin competence in pre- slabs);
served and/or sleeved core. (b) wireline logs for the analysed interval
including the appropriate FDL traces;
These features are distinguished by their (c) the sedimentological composite log;
DUNCAN, A. R., DEAN, G. & COLLIE,D. A. L. 1998. Quantitative density measurements from X-ray 17
radiometry In. HARVEY,P. K. & LOVELL,M. A. (eds) Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London,
Special Publications, 136, 17-24
18 A. R. DUNCAN ET AL.
(d) petrographic data for the seven thin again assigned to Piper Formation Depositional
section samples which fall within the Unit 4b. They also consist of interbedded fine or
analysed interval; very fine grained sandstones and silty, argillac-
(e) core analysis data (porosity, permeability eous deposits. The modal grain size of the
and grain density) for the analysed interval. sandstones is seen to decrease towards the lower
part of the analysed section. Pervasive calcar-
Brief description of cores eous and dolomitic, nodular cements are locally
common. Thin section analysis indicates that the
Section A predominant cement is dolomite (42.5-48%)
with subordinate calcite (3.5-5%) and minor
The analysed interval commences within rela- quartz (0.5-2%). Authigenic kaolinite accounts
tively 'clean', blocky, medium grained sand- for only 0.5%.
stones. These sandstones are assigned to the
Piper Formation Depositional Unit 4c and are Methodology
interpreted to be shoreface sandstones, possibly
representing gully fill within an upper delta front Production of the X-ray scan images
system. At a depth of 6 ft below top of section
these deposits are underlain by variably argillac- A schematic representation of the scanning
eous sandstones with sandy, argillaceous silt- system is shown in Fig. 1.
stone interbeds. The sandstones are generally Although the imaging system has been devel-
fine grained and are frequently apparently oped to operate with core material of various
structureless or faintly laminated. Current rip- forms and dimensions, the present investigations
ples and burrows are locally observed. Bioturba- employed 3 ft resinated archive slabs for the
tion is more commonly observed in the finer imaging and quantitative density measurements.
grained units, some units are micaceous and This presents a thickness of rock material for
locally contain carbonaceous material. Nodular analysis which is relatively constant, both across
calcareous cement is observed at approximately the core diameter and along its length, and for
36 ft below top of section. These lower deposits which the 3-D inhomogeneities are reduced. In
are assigned to Piper Formation Depositional this way, differences in the core thickness and
Unit 4b and are interpreted to belong to an variability due to the curvature of the core are
offshore transition zone. They are believed to be reduced and interpretation can be simplified to
the deposits from turbidite flows in the lower essentially 2-D.
delta front to pro-delta. Thin section analysis The X-rays passing through the rock create an
indicates that the predominant cement is quartz inverted image of the material on an electronic
(8-11.5%) with relatively minor calcite (1- image intensifier. This visible image of the X-ray
3.5%). Authigenic clays are dominated by field is picked up by a CCD camera and
kaolinite (0-3 %). subsequently digitized. This image may be
viewed in real time (i.e. the 'live' image on
Section B screen moves as the rock is transported along the
gantry) and approximately 6-7in of core are
The sediments within Section B are also assigned observed at any one time within the camera
to Piper Formation Depositional Unit 4b and image frame. These frames may be enhanced by
similarly consist of relatively clean, fine grained a dedicated image processing computer and can
sandstones interbedded with siltier, argillaceous be combined to produce a composite image of
sediments which are moderately to highly the 3 ft section.
bioturbated. The finer material is frequently After positioning the core, each 'live' frame is
micaceous and carbonaceous debris is locally frozen and a digital filter, which enhances the
recorded. Some of the coarser units show edge and structure information, is used to
development of calcareous cement which is sharpen the image. Once the optimum image
locally nodular. Thin section analysis indicates has been captured it is electronically transferred
that the predominant cement is calcite (4-40%) to a PC computer terminal and stored as a TIFF
with subordinate quartz (1-12%). No authigenic format file. Overlaps of approximately lin
clays are recorded from the two samples between neighbouring frames are used in order
analysed. to ensure the optimum matching in the compo-
site. The individual images are manipulated on
Section C the PC, using conventional image processing
software, to produce the composite image,
The sediments analysed from Section C are which is similarly stored in TIFF format. 'Hard
QUANTITATIVE X-RAY DENSIMETRY 19
copy' images are produced using a grey scale real time, at any given point across the image.
printer matching the resolution of the digitized Thus, by taking regularly spaced readings, a
images. profile of the variation in the grey scale can be
To further ensure accurate and straightfor- produced.
ward matching of each frame to form the 3 ft These data (referred to as luminance values)
composite image, a steel mesh with a grid of indicates the penetrability of the rock material to
V2in is placed alongside each resin slab as it is X-rays and are, therefore, related to the density
inserted into the scanner. This is especially useful of the rock (Tolansky 1961). Higher luminance
in sections of the core which appear structureless values represent greater penetration of the rock
and homogenous. The steel mesh is positioned by the X-rays and, therefore, lower density.
to avoid obscuration of the core and its image Conversely, lower luminance represents areas of
may optionally remain on the composite image rock with higher density and therefore greater
for scaling and quality control purposes. X-ray 'stopping ability'. The luminance values
Where no rock is present the image appears to (which vary between approximately 60 and 200
be very bright (white). This is due to saturation for typical core material) are, therefore, inversely
or 'burn out' within the image intensifier, caused related to the rock density.
by the higher intensity of X-rays where there is Despite the high quality of the imaging system
little core material present to block them. This used in the capture of the information, each of
'burn-out' of the image artificially increases the the images contains an astigmatic error. This
intensifier output in closely neighbouring areas, means that there is an apparent density variation
resulting in the surrounding rock appearing between the centre of the image compared with
'bleached'. In order to avoid the possible the edges. While this does not significantly effect
misinterpretation of the X-ray intensity in these the visual interpretation of the images; it is
areas, disks and/or strips of lead shielding undesirable in the point luminance data. To
approximating the density of the resinated slab eliminate this error, therefore, the luminance
material are placed into plug holes, and other measurements are recorded from a fixed point
significant gaps. within the X-ray field. The luminance profile is
obtained by moving the rock (using the scanner
transport mechanism) and recording the values
Production of the quantitative X-ray density at the known fixed point within the field of view.
data Measurements may be recorded at any required
spacing; with 1 92 in spacing being used in the
The digital images which are obtained from the current project.
scanner are composed of pixels of varying grey The luminance measurements are made using
scale (0 to 255). The grey scale can be read, in a 'live' image, from which the background
20 A. R. DUNCAN E T AL.
Fig. 2. Example X-ray image frame. The included grid is of '/2 in mesh.
Fig. 3. (a) Correlation plot of luminance values from slabbed material and bulk density data from wireline logs.
Core depth to log depth correction is shown schematically by tie lines. (b) Luminance data after depth correction
to log depth; with wireline bulk density data overlaid. Arbitrary luminance and density scales. Luminance: solid
line, Density: dashed line.
QUANTITATIVE X-RAY DENSIMETRY 21
190 Ox x i x Luminance
x o ox• i
o Corrected
170 Luminance
--Luminance
~'~ 150
_~ . ~ o ~, j . . . . . . i R2=0.6445
o e j x ~ ~ x|
" ~ ' x x o x t~ x '- ..... Corrected
~ ~ o :! o i F~ o~ ~ ~ ~- ~$ ' ~ ' ~ ~x I ~, ; Luminance
t30
e=
C 110
E
,-1
,-I
9O
50
2.35 2.4 2.45 2.5 2.55 2.6 2.65 2.7 2.75 2.8
Bulk Density (wireline) (g/cc)
Fig. 4. Cross plot of luminance values from slabbed material and bulk density values derived from wireline logs.
Luminance values shown both uncorrected and corrected for variations in thickness of core material.
190 . . . . . . . o
io 6 . i
~o o oo o~ ~ _~ oo ~o_
130 . . . . ~ ....... ~ . . . . . . . . . ,, ~ -. - : - ~ = - - L o ......
0 0 ~ O 0 '
I o o o ~ o
, o ^ o~..~f o o o ! '
"~
o
o
I..IU~
!~ / o
. o
- o 2v ~ !
~
. . . . .
~ _ o~ ~9 i , o Corrected
_1 9o i - ~ '~ ~. . . . . . . . . . i .... ~ Luminance
oel o o i '
oo .~o o ! i
70 ._0 0 O0 o; ~ -- : t ~C~
: , i Luminance
i 1 R2=0.6135
i
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Fig. 5, Cross plot of luminance values from slabbed material and porosity values from conventional core analysis
of core plugs taken prior to slabbing. Luminance values corrected for slab thickness variations.
190
i i ! i D BD1 ,, B D 2
i
i i__ 1 o BD3 x BD4
170 ---4 .......
] ! x BD5 , BD6
'
:
ii - - A l l data R2=0.88
~.~ 150 ~ ~Nxx -
m
.Q
=" 130
i "-%
0 x ;
C x ' __
(~ 110
e"
E
--I 90
1.80 1.90 2.00 2.10 2.20 2.30 2.40 2.50 2,60 2.70 2.80
Fig. 6. Cross plot of luminance values and bulk density values, both from analysis of selected core plugs, Data
differentiated by lithological unit. (Independent plug set).
describe the interaction of the X-rays with the Detailed conventional core analysis and sedi-
bulk material over the relatively small observed mentological analysis has been carried out on
variation in both luminance and thickness. This the core sections analysed for this project; this
thickness c o r r e c t i o n is seen to h a v e little data has been c o m p a r e d with the luminance data
significance in the final correlation of the logs. measured from the slabbed section close to the
QUANTITATIVE X-RAY DENSIMETRY 23
plug locations. Figure 5 shows, for example, a the loading of the core material and, in
cross plot of porosity of the CCA plug samples particular, in the automated capture of the
against the luminance values. Again the linear image and luminance data could allow higher
relationship between luminance and this key throughput; enabling greater data sampling
physical property is well defined. densities and potentially more detailed data
As further confirmation of these relationships, processing and analysis.
X-ray luminance values were measured for an Perhaps of greatest interest is the elimination
independent and varied collection of conven- of the optical distortion error in the individual
tional core analysis plug samples whose physical image frames. While the necessary geometry of
and geological properties are well established the scanner is a major contributory factor to this
(Duncan 1993). Figure 6 shows the bulk density error, it is believed that image processing may
for these samples plotted against luminance; the yield a significant and reliable reduction. By
strong linear relationship is again confirmed. viewing the image of a homogenous standard
These data are further differentiated by lithology (such as an aluminium block of similar size to
and while it is interesting to speculate on the the core section), it is possible to store the
relationship between lithology and luminance, variations in the image due to this error in digital
this dataset is considered too sparse to prompt form. By 'deconvolving' the standard image
any reliable conclusion. obtained in this way from the images of the
Interestingly, and as a positive demonstration scanned rock it may be possible to provide a
of the utility of these X-ray densimetry measure- much flatter response from the imaging system.
ments, the original core to wireline shifts for the This intermediate processing would allow an
slabbed core sections were taken to be: Wireline accurate digital representation of the density of
Log Depth equals Core Depth + six feet. Com- the core across the full image to be produced.
parison of the quantitative FDL (log) and Instead of collecting data at specific points, it
luminance measurements, however, indicates would then be possible to map the density
that a core to wireline correction of eight feet variation of the rock slab in two dimensions.
(downhole) for section A is more appropriate. A This would provide, not only a more accurate
shift of six feet for Sections B and C is confirmed log for comparison with downhole logs, but also
by comparison of the density and luminance allow the density variation to be plotted as a
traces. These revised depth shifts have been three-dimensional map, potentially highlighting
applied to the luminance data presented in Fig. more subtle variations in the core structure.
3(b). Initial work carried out is encouraging.
While the sections analysed for this project
were chosen in part for their known variation in
sedimentological structure, the success of this Conclusion
correlation technique in its most basic form
without any significant data processing clearly Linear X-ray scanning has an established role in
demonstrates the potential of these measure- non-destructive imaging of core, with the varia-
ments. It is believed that refinement of the tion in image reflecting the density variation in
processing could yield considerable additional the core section. The techniques described here
data which, coupled to the non-destructive allow not only the qualitative X-ray image to be
nature of the methods, the ability to analyse produced, but also quantitative luminance va-
material within opaque liners and the speed of lues to be extracted. These correlate very well
data capture, makes the technique of very with physical core properties, for example bulk
considerable importance. density and porosity, derived from wireline or
conventional core analysis techniques. These
luminance values thus provide a valuable core
Development to log correlation tool which may be of
particular value where traditional Gamma Ray
Technically, the performance of the scanner is or Core Analysis techniques are unavailable or
excellent. Quantitative investigations of the relatively unreliable due to poor response or
physical performance of the scanner, for exam- sparse data. The possibility of improving the
ple of the effects of variations in X-ray power operating procedures, in particular the sampling
output or the influence of 'burn-out' around interval and processing methods, as well as
unshielded plug holes etc., could potentially lead ultimately providing full density maps of the
to direct calibration of the luminance values in core section promise to yield even greater
terms of physical properties of the core material. benefits, and confirm the importance of X-ray
Improvements in the operating procedures, in imaging as a core analysis tool.
24 A . R . DUNCAN ET AL.
We gratefully acknowledge the permission to publish DUNCAN, A. R., 1993. A sedimentological, petrographic
this material granted by the Scott partner group: and reservoir geological study of the Devonian age,
Amerada Hess Limited, Amoco (UK) Exploration, old red sandstone of Gamrie Bay, Grampian
Deminex (UK) Oil and Gas, Enterprise Oil, Kerr Region. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Aberdeen.
McGee Oil (UK), Superior Oil (UK) and Premier Pict DUNCAN, A. R., MATHESON,F. E., & COLLIE, D. A. L.
Petroleum. Our thanks goes to F. Matheson at 1996. Quantitative X-ray density imaging of
Robertson Research Int. Ltd who diligently and selected cores. Robertson Research International
expeditiously undertook the preparation and measure- Ltd Project Report No D213 for Amerada Hess
ments of the core material analysed during this project. Ltd.
RIGSBY, C. A., ZIERENBERG,R. A. & BAKER, P. A.
1994. Sedimentary and diagenetic structures and
References textures in turbiditic and hemiturbiditic strata as
ALGEO, T. J., PHILLIPS,M., JAM1NSKI,J. & FENWlCK,M. revealed by whole-core X-radiography; Middle
1994. High resolution X-radiography of lami- Valley, northern Juan de Fuca Ridge. Proceed-
nated sediment cores. Journal of Sedimentary ings, Scientific Results, ODP leg 139, 105-111.
Research A: Sedimentary Petrology and Processes, TOLANSKY, S. 1961. Introduction to Atomic Physics.
A64, 665-668. Longmans.
The estimation of modal mineralogy: a problem of accuracy in core-log
calibration
P. K. H A R V E Y , 1 T. S. B R E W E R , 1 M. A. L O V E L L 1 & S. A. K E R R 2
1Borehole Research, Department o f Geology, University of Leicester, Leicester, LE1 7RH,
UK
2 British Petroleum, Chertsey Road, Sunbury-on-Thames. Middlesex, TW16 7LN, UK
Abstract: In the case study described here the quantitative modal mineralogy of a number of
core samples was determined with the objective of using these modes to calibrate
geochemical logs. Modal estimates were obtained for the core samples by quantitative X-ray
diffraction, infrared spectroscopy, point counting of thin sections, and indirectly by
calculation from a complete chemical analysis of the samples. In the case of calculated
modes, three different algorithms were applied. A by-product of this particularly complete
dataset is the possibility of evaluating the most accurate method of modal analysis, and
although no certain conclusion is reached on this point the analysis of these data does
demonstrate the difficulty of obtaining accurate modal estimates. The core samples, taken at
regular intervals through a sand, sandy-shale sequence, capped by a carbonate unit, have a
mineralogy which, although dominated by quartz, includes feldspars, carbonates, and clays
(illite, kaolinite) together with minor phases. There was generally good agreement between
methods in the estimation of quartz, total carbonate, albite, kaolinite, total clay and pyrite.
The results for illite and K-feldspar were poor, a reflection of their relatively low
concentrations (< 10%), and problems of compositional co-linearity in the calculated
modes.
A useful way of presenting data from geochem- measurements were made on aliquots of the
ical logging tools is to transform the raw oxide same crushed and thoroughly homogenized rock
curves into mineralogy logs. In a recent exercise powder for each sample. There is, therefore,
aimed at calibrating geochemical logs in a UK essentially no scaling problem involved to
borehole a number of core samples (103) were explain variations in the modal estimates, and
taken and analysed extensively in the laboratory a minimal problem of sub-sampling from the
for both chemistry and mineralogy, to provide a rock powder.
database to support the log calibration. For all
103 core plugs quantitative mineralogy was Background
determined by X-ray diffraction at the British
Petroleum laboratories in Sunbury and by Through the use of pulsed neutron devices,
infrared spectroscopy (MINERALOG) at Core direct activtion of the formation by appropriate
Laboratories. In addition a petrographic exam- isotopes, and the natural gamma spectra it is
ination was carried out, and a minimal point possible to obtain an almost complete, and
count made (200 points per thin section) on continuous log of the major element chemistry
approximately half the samples to provide of a formation. These techniques were pioneered
approximate modal data. All core plugs were by Schlumberger (Hertzog & Plasek 1979;
also chemiclly analysed by X-Ray Assay La- Hertzog et al. 1987a, 1987b, 1989; Galford et
boratories (XRAL) in Ottawa for all major and al. 1988; Rupp et al. 1989) with their Geochem-
all potentially significant trace elements (a total ical Logging Tool (GLT) offering measurements
of 69 elements per sample). From the chemical of Si, A1, Ti, Fe, Ca, K, S, the minor elements
data, estimates of the modal mineralogy were Gd, Th, and U, together with H and C1. Other
calculated using a selection of different algo- tools are now available (Wyatt & Jacobson et al.
rithms. Together these analyses result in a range 1993; Odom et al. 1994; Jacobson & Wyatt 1996,
of modal estimates and the purpose of this Herron & Herron 1998). Transformation of the
contribution is to compare these estimates in an major elements into the more conventional oxide
attempt to evaluate the accuracy of the different form gives virtually complete major element
methods. Apart from the petrographic work, all oxide analysis at each measured depth interval,
HARVEY,P. K., BREWER,T. S., LOVELL,M. A. & KERR, S. A. 1998. The estimation of modal 25
mineralogy: a problem of accuracy in core-log calibration In. HARVEY,P. K. & LOVELL,M. A. (eds)
Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 25-38
26 P. K. HARVEY E T AL.
typically every 15cm, down the borehole. One on a routine basis (Herron 1986; Harvey et al.
approach to the interpretation of the resulting 1990; Harvey & Lovell 1992; Harvey et al. 1992;
geochemical logs is their conversion into com- Lofts et al. 1994, 1995b).
puted mineral assemblages, the so called 'che- For the case study described here a particu-
mical modes' of Wright and Doherty (1970). The larly complete dataset is available consisting of
resulting mineralogy logs are valuable in their conventional (physical) modal mineral measure-
own right but may be used in addition with a ments, together with comprehensive chemical
suitable rock classification filter to produce analyses from which calculated modes could be
lithological logs (Herron 1988), or estimation obtained. It is the particularly complete nature
of other formation properties such as matrix of these data which justifies a comparison
(grain) density, porosity, Cation Exchange between physical and calculated methods of
Capacity (Chapman et al. 1987; Herron 1987b; modal analysis, and the opportunity to make
Herron & Grau 1987), thermal conductivity some comment on the accuracy of modes. Using
(Dove & Williams 1988), heat flow (Anderson & natural samples (borehole core plugs) in this
Dove 1988), photoelectric factor, Pe (Kerr et al. case, however, precludes any definite means by
1992), magnetic susceptibility (Harvey et al. which one method can be chosen as 'more
1997), fluid saturation (Hastings 1988), neutron accurate' than another, unless a particular mode
capture cross-section (Herron 1987b), and, is 'obviously' wrong. As a first order assump-
indirectly and probably only in formation- tion, however, it is likely that if two or more
specific situations, permeability (Herron 1987a). unrelated methods of estimation give essentially
The transformation of a rock's elemental the same result then they are probably close to
composition to mineral assemblages has been the true value. This level of uncertainty arises
the subject of many contributions. Igneous because all methods of modal estimation can
petrologists have long employed the C.I.P.W. give seriously erroneous results sometimes, and
norm (Cross et al. 1903), and similar ideas have for some minerals; it is not simply a question of
been extended to metamorphic rocks with calibration and precision (repeat measurement
Niggli's normative procedures (Burri 1964). In error). With the spectral techniques particular
calculating norms there is no requirement that problems arise from spectral overlap and poor
the mineral assemblage used is that which resolution at the lower concentrations. With
actually occurs in a rock, and as such the computed modes it is the choice of the correct
C.I.P.W. norm, for example, was developed mineral assemblage, the correct 'composition'
originally for purposes of classification and and possible problems of compositional co-
employed a strict and standard list of 'possible'. linearity which are important.
minerals. However, for the purposes to which Modes are usually obtained by micrometric
geochemically derived mineralogy logs might be analysis (point counting of a thin section) and as
put (lithological analysis, basin modelling, pet- such are usually expressed in volume percent of
rophysical estimation) it is necessary to estimate the optically identified minerals. In contrast, a
the percentage of the minerals that are actually set of modal proportions may be calculated, to
present in the rock. The latter is the 'mode' of give 'norms', by assuming an ideal or theoretical
the rock which is conventionally determined suite of minerals, and the compositions for those
directly by micrometric analysis (point counting minerals. From these data some sort of fit may
of a thin section) or spectral methods such as X- be found that partitions the mineral composi-
ray diffraction or infrared spectroscopy (Harville tions within the initial rock analysis. Norms are
& Freeman 1988; Adam et al. 1989; Matteson & usually expressed in weight percentages, and
Herron 1993). have found very wide application, particularly in
The alternative approach is to compute the igneous petrology, for characterization and
mode from a complete chemical analysis. Nu- classification. In these applications comparison
merous authors have offered specific solutions to between rocks is made with a common set of
this inversion problem including modified nor- (chosen) minerals, unlike the mode, which
mative schemes (Imbrie & Poldervaart 1959; reflects the actual minerals present. Normative
Nicholls 1962; Pearson 1978), graphical models mineralogy logs may be useful in the early stages
(Miesch 1962; Fuh 1973) and a variety of of an investigation but are no substitute for the
numerical models including least squares mini- estimation of the actual mineral percentages
mization, linear programming and genetic algo- present if attempts are to be made later to
rithms (Wright & Doherty 1970; Albarede & generate, for instance, a grain density log. In this
Provost 1976; Fang et al. 1996), while others report the attempt is made to calculate chemical
have considered the strategy and associated modes, or the mineral proportions of the actual
practical problems of performing the inversion minerals present in the sample.
THE ESTIMATION OF MODAL MINERALOGY 27
Silica Quartz * * *
Feldspars Albite * * *
K-feldspar * * *
Carbonates Calcite * * *
Ankerite *
Dolomite * *
Siderite * * *
Clays/Micas Muscovite *
Illite * * *
Smectite *
Kaolinite * * *
Chlorite *
Minor phases Zircon *
Barite * *
Pyrite * * *
Apatite *
* mineral detected in at least one of the core samples. Anhydrite and chlorite were not detected in
any of the samples by the infrared (MINERALOG) technique. See report for further comments.
Mineralogy of the core samples dolomite and siderite are clearly distinguishable
petrographically in stained thin sections and are
The mineralogy of the core samples derived quantified as those species in the infrared
from a combination of XRD, infrared (MINER- ( M I N E R A L O G ) results. In the X R D analyses,
ALOG) and petrographic information is sum- ankerite (a Ca, Mg, Fe carbonate) is quantified
marized in Table 1, and also shown as a in place of dolomite, so that the two spectral
downhole mineralogy log in Fig. 1. The 100 techniques are not estimating the same carbo-
metre sequence consists of clastics covered by nate species. The carbonates occurring in Units
some 8 m of limestone. For purposes of descrip- 2 and 3 are dominantly dolomite or ankerite,
tion the section can be divided into five units: with minor amounts of siderite, while the
limestone unit at the top of the logged section
(Unit 1) (360-368 re)virtually pure calcite lime- (Unit 1) is a virtually pure calcite limestone.
stone; For the clay and other phyllosilicate minerals,
(Unit 2) (368-382m) quartz rich (60-65%) sec- kaolinite and chlorite are measured together in
tion with sub-equal quantities of the X R D analyses. Chlorite was only seen in
feldspar (both albite and K-feldspar) thin section in occasional grains and was not
and clays. Both kaolinite and illite (the detected in the infrared figures. For this study
latter generally in excess) are present; chlorite is considered to be absent. Muscovite
(Unit 3) (382-397m) quartz-carbonate domi- and illite are also determined together by XRD.
nant lithology with quartz in excess, Occasional distinct flakes of white mica are
and sub-equal proportions of kaolinite present in a number of sections but in no case
and illite; would these make up more than a fraction of
(Unit 4) (397-430 m) Very inhomogeneous sec- one percent of the rock. While white mica
tion with 40 to 70% quartz, no (assumed to be muscovite) is known to be
significant carbonate, and clay con- present in a very small amount in some samples
centrations up to c.30%; kaolinite it was not detected by infrared spectroscopy, and
generally in excess of illite. Locally is virtually impossible to calculate with any
high concentrations of pyrite (included reliability due to a strong compositional co-
with 'minor' minerals in Figure 1). linearity with K-feldspar, illite and kaolinite
( U n i t 5) ( 4 3 0 - 4 6 0 m ) R e l a t i v e l y u n i f o r m which are present in significant proportions.
quartz-rich (70-80%) section with Included amongst the minor phases which
minor feldspar, about 15% clay, some occur in at least some of the samples are zircon,
two-thirds of which is kaolinite, with a barite, apatite and pyrite, all of which have been
few percent of minor minerals. identified petrographically. Of these, only pyrite
occurs locally in sufficient quantity to be
Of the possible carbonate phases calcite, identified and measured by both X R D and
28 P.K. HARVEY E T AL.
Fig. 1. Computed mineralogy log (Model A) for the section under study and showing the stratigraphic units
discussed in the text. For clarity only, the major mineral groups are shown. The depth scale in arbitary.
infrared. Of the other three minerals barite was From the mineral data above, all the observed
detected by infrared, but both apatite and zircon mineral assemblages can be established, and
were too low for the spectral methods. these, minor phases excluded, are summarized in
Table 2; in all a total of thirteen different
Numerical modelling of the core sample assemblages.
From the chemical viewpoint the following
mineralogy components are available for modelling: SiO2,
The estimation of a modal mineral assemblage A1203, TiO2, Fe203, MgO, CaO, Na20, K20,
from the chemical analysis of a sample requires MnO, P205, S, CO 2 and H 2 0 + , expressed in
the minerals in the assemblage to be chosen, and weight percent, together with Ba and Zr which
the compositions of those minerals to be defined. were reported in parts per million. No other
Given this information there are a variety of 'minor' elements are in sufficient concentration
solution methods and strategies that can be to be expected to form discrete mineral phases,
employed to solve for the mode (Harvey et al. or significantly alter the modal estimates of
1990, 1992; Lofts et al. 1994; Fang et al. 1996). other mineral phases in which they might occur
For the modelling of the samples described as trace lattice components.
here, the main minerals are quartz, feldspars Zr and Ba are considered to occur only in
(albite, K-feldspar), carbonates (calcite, dolo- zircon and barite, respectively. In addition,
mite, siderite), clays (kaolinite, illite) and the amongst the oxide components P205 almost
minor phases (zircon, barite, apatite, pyrite). certainly occurs at significant levels only in
THE ESTIMATION OF MODAL MINERALOGY 29
Table 2. Observed mineral assemblages in the core samples (excluding minor phases).
Assemblage l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Silica Quartz * * * * * * * * * * * *
Feldspars Albite * * *
K-feldspar * * * * * * *
Carbonates Calcite * * * * * *
Dolomite + * * *
Siderite * * * * *
Clays/Micas Illite * * * * * * * * *
Kaolinite * * * * * * * * * * * *
* mineral detected in at least one of the core samples. Anhydrite and chlorite were not detected in any of the
samples by the infrared (MINERALOG) technique. See report for further comments.
+ dolomite or ankerite. See text for explanation.
apatite which has been identified petrographi- BaO, ZrO2, S and P205 were removed from the
cally. TiO2 poses a problem, and in the first data matrix leaving SiO2, A1203, FeO, MgO,
instance is best calculated as rutile, though there CaO, Na20, K20, CO2 and H 2 0 + to be
is no evidence that this mineral actually occurs distributed, as appropriate, between the impor-
in any of the samples. TiO2 may also be present tant remaining mineral phases: quartz, albite, K-
in one of the clay phases, and this problem is feldspar, calcite, dolomite, siderite, kaolinite,
discussed later where there is good evidence that illite and possibly smectite. The simultaneous
it actually occurs in different minerals in estimation of all these minerals together would
different parts of the section. constitute a fully determined system for methods
Sulphur is assumed to be present only as a of inversion involving the solution of systems of
component of pyrite. Other minerals, such as equations.
gypsum or anhydrite are possibilities, though
there is no evidence for any sulphates being
present, and pyrite is the only identified sul- Strategies for extraction of the main mineral
phide.
phases: Models A, B, C
Manganese, which is only present at a very
low level (maximum 0.75% MnO, 90% of To remove complications related to methods of
measurements less than 0.18% MnO), was solution a simple unconstrained and unweighted
a d d e d to iron (as FeO) for purposes of least squares method has been used throughout
computation. Manganese often substitutes for (Harvey, et al. 1990) for inverting the different
iron, and the significant correlation (at a = 0.05; models. One consequence of the lack of con-
r = 0.58) between the two elements in these data straint is that mineral proportions may be
is consistent with this occurring here. Removing negative, implying an insufficiency of a combi-
MnO leaves a total of 14 possible mineral phases nation of elements with respect to a 'perfect'
and 15 chemical components to consider. solution. Such negative estimates, while impos-
Of the several strategies employed in the sible, offer a guide to the fact that either the
modelling of the mineral assemblages in this modelled assemblage is wrong, or one or more
case history three simple methods are presented of the mineral compositions are in error. Clearly,
here. In each case the data were pre-processed to such a solution is unacceptable. One approach,
remove the minor phases rutile, apatite, barite, then, is to model a given composition with all
zircon and pyrite which were calculated out of likely minerals, and to reject those minerals
each core analysis assuming ideal stoichiometric which turn out negative. This is the basis of
compositions. Provided the chemical analyses of Model A, described below. Another approach is
the core samples are accurate this procedure to model each given composition to all the
gives excellent estimates for these minerals which mineral assemblages which are known to occur
cannot be matched by any direct measurement. in the section (Table 2), and chose the best fit as
Although treated here as a minor phase, pyrite the appropriate solution. This is the basis of
does reach significant concentrations in a few Model B. For Model C the mineral assemblage
samples; the variation in pyrite downhole is obtained from the X R D analysis was taken as
shown in Fig. 2, and is discussed later. correct, and the given composition fitted to that
With extraction of these minor minerals TiO2, assemblage. This latter approach, in principle,
30 P. K. HARVEY ET AL.
360 ..... 9 9 t ' ' ' l ' ' ' ~ ' ' " l ' ' ' 360
9 ' i 9 " ' i ' 9 ' i 9 , , I ' ' '
Unit 1
370 370
390 390
_: _~:~ ,.
4O0 Quartz ....... ].... :-- "'~-~ .... 4O0
~ ~i~--~_~.: .:_ ~_
450 450
360 . .. 360
370 370
380 380
390 390
400 400
410 410
430 430
440 440
460 460
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 tOO
Fig. 2. Pseudo-log showing the mineralogical variation of the core samples downhole for quartz, K-feldspar,
albite and pyrite. Qtz-(a): quartz computed from Model A, Qtz-(b): ditto, for Model B, Qtz-(m): MINERALOG
measurement of quartz, Qtz-(x): XRD measurement of quartz. Coding as for quartz for: pyrite (Py), K-feldspar
(Kf) and albite (Ab).
removes the 'guesswork' out of the choice of however, cannot be justified because of the
mineral assemblage. complex interaction of phases in a least squares
model. With little or no formal justification one
M o d e l A. iterative removal o f n e g a t i v e procedure we have found very effective is to
remove the most negative phase and re-solve the
minerals
system. If negative phases still occur the
Solutions with negative compositions imply that procedure is repeated until all phases are
there is an inconsistency in the postulated positive. The procedure is illustrated in Table 3
mineral compositions (as stated above) and a for sample K78. The least squares fit using all
simple means of overcoming this is by removing nine minerals is good but dolomite is slightly
the mineral from the analysis. Wholesale re- negative (a) at --0.21. Removing dolomite as
moval of all negative minerals in one pass, one of the phases sends calcite slightly negative
THE ESTIMATION OF MODAL MINERALOGY 31
a b c XRD MINERALOG
(b). In a final stage calcite in removed (c) to give Model C: fit to the individual mineral
the final estimate. The mineralogical pseudo-log assemblage for each core sample
shown in Fig. 1 was produced using this model.
For completion in Fig. 1, the trace minerals were For each core sample a list of the minerals
added and the Model A derived mineralogy present had already been identified by X R D ,
normalized to make the assemblages sum to petrography or infrared analysis. For this model
100%. The standard error given in Table 3 is a the X R D mineral assemblage was chosen for
measure of the fit of the core and mineral each sample and then fitted accordingly. Poor
chemistry and is computed between the original fits, often with negative mineral estimates,
(input) chemistry, and the composition back- identify a real incompatibility between the rock
calculated from the derived (output) mineralogy and mineral chemistry assuming that the phases
(Harvey et al. 1990). are correctly identified by the XRD.
370
Unit2
380 380
390
Umt 3 390
400 400
4.10
Siderite Ankerite / Dolomite 41o
420 42O
I 9 Sid- ( b) i 9 Dol-(b)
44O 440
iI Sid-(m) [ - - Dol-(m) :
360 36O
380
~ "
39O
4OO
411)
Calcite Total carbonates 4~o
420 420
;.m
9 Cal.(b) 9 Carb-(b)
440
- - Cal.(m) - - Carb-(m)
..... Cal-(x)
450 i ..... Carb-~x) 450
9 i , , , i , , , i , . . i . , . 460
20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80 10CI
Fig. 3. As Fig. 2 for the carbonates: siderite (Sid), Dolomite (Dol, but reported as Ankerite (Ank) for the XRD
analysis); calcite (Cal) and total carbonate (Carb) which is taken as the sum of (siderite+ankerite/
dolomite + calcite).
1.03 and standard error of 2.36% quartz after estimates averaging between 7% and 9% for
removal of four outlying points. In view of this Models A and B, respectively. The infrared
excellent relationship is of note that the correla- figures agree at 7.4%; the X R D average is lower
tion for quartz between the X R D and the at 2.6%. The highest linear correlation is again
infrared is slightly lower with the X R D mea- shown between Model A and the MINERA-
surements being generally higher than the LOG, and it is likely that these methods are
infrared, often by several percent. Overall for giving close to the true result. For the calculated
quartz, all models perform reasonably well and modes the albite concentration is constrained by
show similar patterns of variation. It is not at all the sodium concentration, and in the absence of
clear which set of data is correct! any other sodium bearing mineral, an accurate
Of the feldspars, both albite and potash- estimate should be expected. With albite occur-
feldspar are present in small quantities. Albite ring in concentrations below 10% there are
is virtually restricted to Units 2 and 3, with problems of sensitivity and detection limit with
THE ESTIMATION OF MODAL MINERALOGY 33
360 .,.,..,,...,..., . . .
On, I
9 . L .
370 :~':.; Kaolinite :y~.j Total clays
UnitZ
~80 :,(,...~:
u.*,3 !;-'<; " Umt3
4304204,040039~
i'~~;
_
umt4 thai,4
o 20 40 6o 8o Ioo o 20 40 60 80 10o
Fig. 4. As Figure 2 for the clay phases: kaolinite (Kaol); Illite (Ill); and total clay (Clay) which is taken as the sum
of (kaolinite + illite + smectite).
Table 4. Correlations between computed modes and infrared (MINERALOG) estimates (top table) and between
computed modes and XRD (lower table).
both X R D and infrared methods; in view of this computed models (Harvey et al. 1992).
the agreement between all methods is remark- For the carbonates there is overall excellent
able. agreement between all the methods (Figs 3 & 6)
Potash feldspar occurs throughout the section in that the total amount of carbonate (calcite + -
below the limestone cap at concentration levels dolomite/ankerite+ siderite) determined by the
similar to albite (Fig. 2). There is poor agree- different methods is essentially the same. In
ment in detail between the models; Model B detail, however, there are some distinct differ-
shows the highest correlation of the computed ences between the measured and calculated
models, but is little lower than the weak mineral percentages. These effects are seen
correlation of 0.515 between the X R D and clearly in Fig. 3 where calcite is correctly and
infrared figures (Table 4). The estimation of K- accurately estimated by all methods in the
feldspar suffers both from problems of low virtually pure calcite limestone cap, but in Units
concentration in the physically derived estimates 2 and 3 below, where more than one carbonate
and potential compositional co-linearity in the mineral is present, dolomite is severely under-
34 P.K. HARVEY E T AL.
Fig. 5. Crossplot of measured and estimated quartz Fig. 7. Regression expressing kaolinite calculated using
contents for the three computed models and XRD (y- modal Model A as a function of the infrared
axis), shown relative to the infrared (MINERALOG) (MINERALOG) measurements. The relationship is
(x-axis) measurements. Qtz-(a): quartz computed from seen to be linear with a slope close to unity, but an
Model A; Qtz-(b): ditto, for Model B; Qtz-(c): ditto, intercept of some 5%.
for Model C; Qtz-(x): XRD measurement.
SiO2 100.00 68.74 64.76 0.00 0.00 0.00 45.48 57.28 51.14
A1203 0.00 19.44 18.32 0.00 0.00 0.00 39.29 18.55 19.76
FeO 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 62.02 0.65 5.11 0.83
MgO 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 30.41 0.00 0.14 2.07 3.22
CaO 0.00 0.00 0.00 56.03 21.86 0.00 0.41 1.59 1.62
Na20 0.00 11.82 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.43 0.11
K20 0.00 0.00 16.92 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.11 0.04
H20 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 14.04 8.86 22.80
CO2 0.00 0.00 0.00 43.97 47.73 37.98 0.00 0.00 0.00
Qtz: quartz, Ab: albite, K-f: K-feldspar, Cal: calcite, Dol: dolomite, Sid: siderite, Kaol: kaolinite, Ill: illite, Smec:
smectite.
Oxide concentrations are in weight percent oxide.
is a poor predictive relationship; Model B has comparison between a range of methods for the
the highest correlation of the computed models estimation of the proportions of different
(r=0.512), with the infrared estimates, though minerals in a set of samples.
its correlation with the X R D data is non- The question is, which is the 'best' (most
significant (at a level of 0.05). Depending upon accurate?) method for calibrating mineralogy
which set of data is believed illite is present logs, or whether the calculations on their own
throughout most of the section (Fig. 4) with the are actually superior. All methods obviously
highest values (10-20%) in Units 2 and 3. It is have their strengths and weaknesses. The major
difficult quantify using the physical methods problems with the spectral methods concern
because of poor sensitivity and spectral varia- sample preparation (and presentation), sensitiv-
tion, and to compute because of uncertainty ity and spectral resolution at low levels (lowest
about the mineral chemistry and chemical few percent) and spectral interferences. The
variation in these rocks. Despite these problems main problems with calculating the mode con-
the total clay curve shown in Fig. 4 shows cern the accuracy of the sample's chemical
surprisingly good agreement over the range of analysis, the need to solve for the correct phase
methods. assemblage and to have a good estimate of the
phase compositions, and compositional co-
Discussion linearity. Modern methods of quantitative geo-
chemical analysis are much more precise than
The results described here came from a study of the direct methods of modal analysis compared
mineral inversion methods to determine the way here, and with appropriate calibration may be
in which the most accurate mineralogy log could expected to produce estimates of the chemical
be obtained from a suite of geochemical logging components which are close to the actual values.
data. The chosen method would have to involve Some effects of concentration errors on element-
calculation from the geochemistry, and valida- to-mineral inversion are discussed by Herron &
tion of these results would need to be by Chiaramonte (1993).
comparison with some independent method. We have shown elsewhere that if the chemical
For the samples used in this validation a analysis is correct, the phase assemblage known,
particularly comprehensive dataset was available and the minerals in that assemblage analysed,
from X R D and infrared ( M I N E R A L O G ) ana- then the calculated mode is in excellent agree-
lyses made on the same samples. The latter, and ment with the 'true' mineral proportions (Lofts
the geochemical analyses upon which the modal et al. 1995b). While this may seem self evident
calculations were based, were all measured on the 'quality' of a calculated solution very rapidly
aliquots of the same homogenized powder for deteriorates as analytical errors increase. Where
each sample. All measurements were, hence, an element is virtually restricted to one mineral
made on essentially the same material, and on phase, and particularly if that mineral is only at
very similar volumes of the same material in levels of a few percent or less, such as sulphur in
each case. In the comparisons made here there pyrite, sodium in albite or barium in barite, then
is, therefore, no real problem of heterogeneity or the calculated mode for these minerals is likely
scaling (up or down) involved; just a simple to give the best estimate. In the more general
36 P.K. HARVEY E T AL.
case where elements are partitioned between For minor minerals, such as zircon, apatite
different minerals, a good fit between the input and barite, which are definitely known to be
sample chemistry and the chemistry recon- present (confirmation generally by petrographic
structed from the mineral proportions (Harvey examination) the only reliable method of esti-
et al. 1990) may provide very good evidence that mation is calculation. In most samples these
the solution is close to the 'true' mineral minerals were not detected by the spectral
proportions. methods, but as they contain elements which
Similar arguments may be produced for the do not normally occur at significant levels in the
quality of XRD and M I N E R A L O G solutions other minerals present (Zr in zircon, P in apatite,
under specified conditions. For several of the and Ba in barite), and the chemical analyses can
minerals examined here, close agreement can be regarded as both more accurate and precise
occur between different methods and it may be than the spectral mineral techniques, then
postulated that if a number of unrelated accurate estimates may be expected. The same
methods give essentially the same result for a is true for pyrite (constrained by the S content)
sample it is likely that that result is close to the in the absence of other sulphur bearing minerals
'true' value, though this cannot be proven. such as gypsum or anhydrite.
This would suggest that for the results If the chemical compositions of all the mineral
described here, quartz, pyrite and (total) carbo- phases were known, then their use, together with
nate are reasonably accurate, despite a minor 'good' chemical analyses should always produce
bias in the quartz crossplot, and variations the most accurate modal estimates by calcula-
between the individual carbonates could be tion using the actual mineral assemblage for a
easily reconciled by the use of the correct given sample. The mineral compositions, how-
carbonate mineral compositions. It is significant ever, are rarely known in sufficient detail and
that these minerals which do give reasonable quite erroneous estimates can be made if the
agreement between widely differing methods are wrong compositions are used.
characterized by a small number of cations and In the case history described here, Model A
restricted compositions which result in well was finally chosen for modelling the geochemical
defined XRD and infrared spectra. log data following further experiments using a
The variation between the different estimates reduced number of components to correspond
for the feldspars (K-feldspar and albite) and the to those measured by the geochemical logging
clays (illite and kaolinite) is more complex. Both tool.
spectral methods (XRD and infrared) suffer
from problems of overlapping lines for these Conclusions
minerals and poorer sensitivities (i.e. detection
limits) at low concentrations. Likewise, calcula- (1) There was generally good agreement be-
tions of the modes from the chemical analysis tween methods in the estimation of quartz,
suffer from two other problems. The first is the total carbonate and pyrite. It is reasonable
use of the 'true' chemical composition of each to assume, but cannot be proven, that these
mineral phase used in a model. It has been estimates are close to the 'true' values. It is
demonstrated previously (Lofts et al. 1995b) significant that those minerals which do
how sensitive a solution can be to changes in show good agreement between widely differ-
compositions of the minerals used in calcula- ing methods have fairly simple and limited
tions; ideal compositions are rarely appropriate. compositions (i.e. are stoichiometric).
The actual compositions of the kaolinites, illites (2) Agreement for the clay minerals and the
and the different carbonate minerals were not feldspars is much more variable due to
known in this study. The second problem is that problems of sensitivity and spectral inter-
of compositional co-linearity; that is, where four ference for the two physical methods of
or more of the minerals to be modelled lie on (or analysis, and problems of uncertain mineral
very close to) the same compositional plane composition and compositional co-linearity
(Harvey & Lovell 1992). This leads to essentially for the computed models. Good agreement
an infinity of solutions, or, if forced, a very is seen between methods for albite, even at a
unstable solution. The variable range of esti- low level, and kaolinite. The results for illite
mates for K-feldspar amongst the computed and K-feldspar were comparatively poor
values almost certainly results from this pro- and it is considerably more difficult here to
blem, given that the actual compositions of the judge which figures, if any, are close to the
clays (which have a number of chemical correct values.
components in common with the feldspars) are (3) Despite the problems with illite, excellent
not known. agreement is seen between the methods for
THE ESTIMATION OF MODAL MINERALOGY 37
total clay content, which is particularly rithm for least-square fitting and general error
useful for the calulation of shale components analysis. IPGP NS 252, 309-326.
in lithofacies modelling from the geochem- ANDERSON,R. & DOVE, R. 1988. The determination of
ical logs. heat flow in a wellbore in the South Eugene Island
area of offshore Louisiana: implications for fluid
(4) Poor agreement between methods results
migration and hydrocarbon location in the sub-
from low sensitivity (especially at low con- surface. Transactions Spectroscopy and Geo-
centrations) and spectral interferences in the chemistry Symposium, Schlumberger-Doll
X-ray and infrared techniques, problems of Research, Ridgefield, CT. Paper K.
compositional co-linearity and uncertainty BURRI, C. 1964. Petrochemical calculations based on
about the actual compositions of some of the equivalents (Methods of Paul Niggli). Israel
minerals in the calculated modes. Program for Scientific Translations, Sivan Press,
(5) If the chemical compositions of all the Jerusalem.
mineral phases were known, then their use, CHAPMAN, S., COLSON,J. L., FLAUM,C., HERTZOG, R.
C., PIRIE, G., SCOTT,H., EVERETT,B., HERRON,M.
together with 'good' chemical analyses,
M., SCHWE1TZER,J. S., LA VIGNE,J., QUIREIN,J. &
should always produce the most accurate WENDLANDT, R. 1987. The emergence of Geo-
modal estimates by calculation using the chemical Well Logging. The Technical Review, 35,
actual mineral assemblage for a given 27-35.
sample. The mineral compositions, however, CROSS, W., IDDINGS,J. P., PIRSSON, L. V. & WASHING-
are rarely known in sufficient detail and TON, H. S. 1903. Quantitative classification of
quite erroneous estimates can be made if the igneous rocks. University of Chicago Press,
wrong compositions are used. Chicago.
(6) Whether 'absolute' accuracy is actually DovE, R. E. & WILLIAMS, C. F. 1988. Thermal
conductivity estimated from elemental concentra-
important obviously depends on why he
tion logs. Transactions Spectroscopy and Geo-
mineralogy log is required; probably not if chemistry Symposium, Schlumberger-Doll
simply to illustrate diagrammatically the Research, Ridgefield, CT. Paper J.
relative variation in a sequence but impor- FANG, J. H., KARR C. L. & STANLEY, D. A. 1966.
tant if the data are to be used, for instance, Transformation of geochemical log data into
for quantitative basin modelling or physical Mineralogy using genetic algorithms. The Log
property log estimation. Analyst, 37, 26-31.
(7) Underlying these comparisons is the fact FUH, T. M. 1973. The principal of constituent analysis,
that the accuracy of any measured para- with special reference to the calculation of weight
percentages of minerals in metamorphic rocks.
meter is virtually impossible to specify,
Canadian Journal of Earth Science, 10, 657-669.
except in (usually quite unrealistic) limiting GALFORD, J. E., HERTZOG, R. C., FLAUM, C. &
cases. Even with this particularly compre- GALINDO. G. 1988. Improving pulsed neutron
hensive dataset no definitive conclusions can gamma ray spectroscopy elemental weight percent
be demonstrated concerning the accuracy of estimates through automatic dimensioning of the
different estimates; the analysis of these data spectral fitting process. Society of Petroleum
does, however, demonstrate the difficulty of Engineers, SPE 18151, 423-430.
obtaining accurate modal estimates. And in HARVEY, P. K. & LOVELL, M. A. 1992 Downhole
this case history there are no real problems mineralogy logs: mineral inversion methods and
the problem of compositional colinearity. In:
of homogeneity or scaling in the estimation
Hurst, A., Griffiths, C. M. & Worthington, P. F.
process! (eds) Geological Applications of Wireline Logs IL
Geological Society, Special Publications No. 65,
The authors would like to thank BP Exploration 361-368.
Operating Company for agreeing to the publication of --, BRISTOW,J. F. & LOVELL,M. A. 1990. Mineral
this work. We would also like to thank Core transforms and downhole geochemical measure-
Laboratories for the provision of the MINERALOG ments. Scientific Drilling, 1, 163-176.
measurements which were made in December 1988. --, LOFTS,J. C. & LOVELL,M. A. 1992 Mineralogy
logs: element to mineral transforms and composi-
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MCKEON, D. WRAIGHT, P. GRAU, J. A. ELLIS, D. log-derived elemental concentrations in strati-
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29,
Interpretation of core and log datauintegration or calibration?
M. A. L O V E L L , 1 P. K. H A R V E Y , P. D. J A C K S O N , 2 T. S. B R E W E R , 1 G.
WILLIAMSON 1 & C. G. W I L L I A M S 1
1 Geology Department, Leicester University, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK
2 British Geological Survey, Key~'orth, Nottingham, NG12 5GG
The integration of core and log data represents tion of two datasets, which may comprise
one of the many attempts to utilize geological observations ranging from qualitative through
data obtained by measurements at different to quantitative, with the aim of providing the
scales. This use of data from different sources best data on which to base our interpretation
involves the reconciliation of different observa- and hence 'explain the meaning of' our observa-
tions which may be inter-related through their tions. Integration in turn may be defined as 'to
inherent property or physical basis (e.g. labora- find the total value of', and without necessarily
tory and in situ velocities or porosities), or implying total amalgamation of all available
through their similar volumes of interrogation data in a non-selective manner. Yet there
(e.g. porosity and permeability measurements on appears to be much concern and considerable
core plugs). Alternatively the data to be inte- effort directed towards deciding which of the
grated may not be related in either of these ways two different datasets represents the truth--log
(e.g. core descriptions and FMS images). or core?
Integration involves the reconciliation of such In this paper we review the basic principles
data in a way which is defined by the overall involved in data acquisition and interpretation
aims and objectives of the study. It may involve through consideration of the measurement
the calibration of one dataset through some process, measurement calibration, and measure-
equalization procedure, whereby one dataset is ment integration. Figure 1 summarizes the
assumed to be correct. Another scenario is problems involved. The measurement itself
where the two or more datasets are integrated may be characterized in terms of its scale,
through the selective addition of components to resolution and quality. These are functions of
enhance the overall picture of the formation the parameter being measured and the measure-
represented both downhole and in the recovered ment environment as well as the selected target.
core. These datasets may be multiple measure- These measurements can then be calibrated,
ments of the same physical parameter by either relatively (locally) or absolutely (globally);
different techniques or measurements of com- if the calibration is simply between the indivi-
pletely different parameters, In this latter ap- dual core and log measurements then the result
proach each dataset is respected for both its may be equalization of values with correspond-
inherent fundamental nature and scale, both ing loss of total information. I n t e g r a t i o n
datasets are assumed to be correct, neither through reconciliation of the different measure-
dataset is defined as superior in preference to ments towards an optimized solution should
the other, and the interpreter attempts to extract yield the best interpretation; but this depends
the maximum information from the total data strongly on the assumptions involved and these
available. should be directly related to the overall aim of
Today we are faced with core and log data in the study. Indeed the best approach to the
increasing quantity and sophistication. Integra- problem of core-log integration is through
tion of core and log data concerns the combina- judicious choice of interpretation target, careful
LOVELL,M. A., HARVEY,P. K., JACKSON,P. D. BREWER,T. S., WILLIAMSON,G. & WILLIAMS,C. G. 39
1998. Interpretation of core and log data--integration or calibration? In."HARVEY,P. K. & LOVELL,
M. A. (eds) Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 39-51
40 M.A. LOVELL E T AL.
' ' ' i , , , i , , , i ' ' ' i , , , i , , ,
If MEASUREMENT 1
scale - resolution ~ size / shape / orientation
quality ~ precision / a c c u r a c y / bias
Fig. 3. Averaged estimates of matrix density at the boundary of a calcite dogger in the North Sea (after Lofts
1993). The shaded area represents the difference between averaged log (line) and actual core estimates (dots).
Fig. 4. Comparison of three different imaging measurements on a single core and their inherent sampling volumes.
Given the different nature of the measurements the similarity of images is unusual, and this is probably due
primarily to the orientation of the fabric perpendicular to the length of the sample and the simplicity of the pore
structure.
the North Sea Thistle Field (Fig. 3) shows a (e.g. frequency) and the actual physical dimen-
'calcite dogger' which is sharply bound on either sions over which the measurement is made (e.g.
side by sandstone. The line is derived from the size and shape). Typically, scale may be defined
continuous log measurement, whereas the points quantitatively with precise descriptions of the
relate to specific individual point determinations size and shape of the measurement (see for
on core samples. This is the classic 'shoulder- example Clark 1979 or H o h n 1988). It is linked
bed' effect and the discrepancies are due to the to the measurement technique and hence the
averaging caused by interrogation of a larger design of the tool. Except in isotropic, homo-
volume by the log measurement. In effect, genous media the different aspects of scale will
neither estimate of matrix density is wrong: they be important and will contribute to the measure-
simply relate to different volumes of rock ment data value. Scale may also be linked to the
constrained by the measurement design and thus resolution of the measurement. A simple exam-
require slightly different interpretations. Bed ple of the effect of scale concerns the measure-
resolution is nearly always a problem even with ment of porosity on core plugs. Doveton (1994)
the most finely resolved tools and bed boundary shows how for two porosity datasets extracted
effects are always present. by Baker (1957), respectively from whole core
and plugs, the mean values may be the same but
Scale the variability of the whole core is less than that
of the plugs. There is an apparent rotation of the
Differences of scale are evident in terms of the relationship between the two porosity determi-
relative dimensions of the measurement itself nations in which the extremes in the smaller
INTEGRATION OR CALIBRATION? 43
J
parameter value parameter value
A inaccurate but
inaccurate and
imprecise
precise
) L
parameter value parameter value
Fig. 5. Schematic illustration of the concepts of accuracy and precision (after Kimminau 1994).
i ' I i
9 J
i
i
i
17
9 !
Leg 154
Hole 926B
19 Ceara Rise
i
!
20
9 iI
i
J
i
i
t
22
5 6 7 8 9
% CaCO 3
Fig. 6. CaCO3 estimates by two different methods, b o t h with c o m p a r a b l e precision, for O D P Hole 926B, Ceara
Rise. There is no reason to d o u b t either o f the datasets (mbsf: metres below sea floor).
Fig. 7. Reconciliation of different measurements of electrical resistivity formation factor (FF) at different scales
(the formation factor is the rock resistivity normalized with respect to the resistivity of the saturating fluid). The
horizontal bar is from a standard industry minicore measurement, the continuous plots are derived from
resistivity imaging. Averaging the high resolution log provides a lower resolution log (dots) which approaches the
value of the minicore.
are the standards by which in situ log measure- techniques, strategies, or acquisition procedures.
ments are compared (e.g. nuclear spectroscopy R a t h e r it involves the process of relative
logs), each method must be examined carefully calibration between small and large volume
to determine experimental limitations, accuracy measurements, typically between core and log.
and precision in testing, as well as potential Where datasets do not agree it is important to
mineral alteration processes that can occur when ask whether the issue is one of data quality or
a rock is sampled. the quality of interpretation (Owens 1994;
Given a satisfactory understanding of our Harvey et al. 1998).
measurement base we can proceed to analyse the As an example of this process, consider Fig. 7.
data. Often we are concerned with combining Here two datasets are shown at different scales,
two datasets of the same parameter with the aim but both relate to measurements on core. The
of producing one, more complete dataset. In this continuous electrical Formation Factor log is
way core data may supplement sections of log derived from the electrical resistivity image as
data, or indeed duplicate it. The normal presented in Fig. 4. These data are then
procedure here is to assume that one of the compared with the solid bar which is the
datasets is correct and to adjust the other to electrical Formation Factor determined in a
create a best fit. This equalization can create traditional manner on a minicore or plug. This
better coverage of the total borehole section but was originally done during attempts to calibrate
will inevitably involve manipulation of at least the novel imaging system against industry
one dataset and the loss of inherent absolute standards (Jackson et al. 1994). The match
values. This is a standard approach to so-called between the two datasets is improved visually
core-log integration. Unfortunately it does not by smoothing the image data further (dots). The
consider discrepancies between the two measure- smoothing was carried out with a simple moving
ment sets created by different measurement average with a window width corresponding to
INTEGRATION OR CALIBRATION? 47
Core-log interpretation
Figure 9 shows the stratigraphy of ODP Hole
896A, which was drilled in the Equatorial East
Pacific as part of ODP Leg 148 (Alt et al. 1993).
With the drilling of Ocean Drilling Program
Hole 896A, two deep basement holes (i.e. Holes
504B and 896A) now penetrate oceanic crust
formed at the Costa Rica Rift. Hole 504B, the
deepest basement hole in oceanic crust so far
drilled (2100m), is located approximately
200 km to the south of the Costa Rica Rift, in
5.9 Ma old crust. Hole 896A is located
approximately 1 km to the south of Hole 504B
in crust ,-~2.8x 104 yr older than at Hole 504B.
No attempt was made to recover the sedimen-
tary cover in Hole 896A and the position of Fig. 9. Stratigraphy derived from core recovery based
sediment/basement interface was based upon on core barrel descriptions, compared with stratigra-
rubble being felt by the drill bit at 179 mbsf phy and based on downhole electrical FMS images and
(metres below sea floor) and the hole was cored core observations.
from 195.1 mbsf to 469 mbsf (Alt et al. 1993).
Within this drilled section, core recovery aver-
aged 26.9%. Pillow lavas (57%) and massive based on an overall poor core recovery (26.9%,
flows (38%) dominate the cored material, with Alt et al. 1993), which is also very variable
breccias (5%) and two small dikes accounting within individual sections of the borehole (Fig.
for the remainder of the material. With the 9). Shipboard scientists produced the lithology
exception of pillow rims, the majority of the shown in Fig. 9 based solely on visual observa-
rocks are slightly altered (< 10%) and variably tions of recovered core.
veined (Alt et al. 1993). Pervasive background In contrast, shore-based scientists (Brewer et
reducing alteration coupled with saponite and al. 1995) have produced a comparable stratigra-
minor pyrite replacement of olivine has led to phy based on the variations in texture of the
the grey colour of the core. Oxidative alteration downhole Formation Micro Scanner (FMS)
is manifested by dark grey to yellow and red Images together with sonic, resistivity, and
alteration halos which commonly occur around gamma ray logs. The FMS tool produces images
smectite veins (Alt et al. 1993). In the pillow of the borehole wall dependent on variations in
lavas and massive flows, veins are usually the measured electrical resistance and these
< 1 mm in thickness and commonly infilled by images can be analysed texturally to develop a
dark and light green saponite and aragonite. log-based stratigraphy with reference to the
Other vein minerals include analcite, fibrous core. As Brewer et al. (1995) demonstrate, there
zeolite and pyrite. All of the previous data were are substantial differences between the stratigra-
INTEGRATION OR CALIBRATION? 49
resistivity smoothed pixel mean pixel permeability
(ohm-m) value value (roD) porosity (%)
i j
e
\
0
-4
i o , .t-_.
.... 0"2 4 ........ 9
O. . . . . . . - JO
Ik
e.. e r e ....
i~ 9i:e
:,
e
o o
ie
.!
k i 2 k ~ i
Fig. 10. Electrical resistivity data and optical data for an aeolian sandstone. There is a remarkable correspondence
between the two datasets for this clean sandstone, yet the raw optical data provide a higher resolution dataset
than the resistivity data, enabling inference of the fine-scale resistivity structure of the sample.
phy derived solely from core and that derived by ment of electrical textures on recovered core for
integrating core and log information. comparison with downhole images, thus con-
Here the problem may initially be seen as one straining in a quantitative manner the inter-
of constraining the downhole data through pretation of the downhole data.
selected core observations, knowing that the A different example of the integration of data
recovered core is present in the drilled section, from different sources is shown using the
and utilizing the downhole data to extend the electrical conductivity image from Fig. 4 con-
interpretation to the full depth of the hole. verted to a resistivity image (by taking the
However, the core data are inherently biased, inverse of each plotted value). In Fig. 10 this
due possibly to preferential sampling of some resistivity image is converted into a microresis-
lithologies, incomplete recovery, and the defined tivity log by averaging across each row of values.
criteria and procedures used to identify and Similarly, the porosity and permeability images
extrapolate recovered material over the total are displayed as averaged micrologs. These logs
depth drilled. Thus whilst the core does indeed again show the variable nature of the formation
represent the truth, its allocation to a particular but could easily be incorporated into a petro-
lithology, distribution with depth and continuity physical analysis routine for producing im-
may be questioned. In contrast the FMS images proved estimates of both fluid volume and flow
are relatively new and lack precise calibration in parameters. Here the photographic image has
terms of textural detail and lithological re- been converted to a pixel log, again by row
sponses. They are usually continuous and are averaging; this micro-log is then smoothed to a
based on electrical, not visual, properties which similar resolution to the electrical micro-log.
may or may not be equable, and whose equality There is an inverse correspondence between the
may vary within the hole. These images prob- two which suggests the use of photographic
a~ contain bias in addition to that within the images for comparison with electrical images in
core. Thus, rather than accept one dataset in its clean sandstones. Where clay minerals may
entirety as the truth and reject the other, it contribute to conduction processes, the rock is
would be better to use the ground-truth of the contaminated with mud, there are clay-filled
recovered and described core as calibration fractures, or the pore fluid is resistive (e.g. fresh
points for the interpretation of the downhole water), the correspondence between photo-
images. This would ideally include the measure- graphic and electrical images may not be as
50 M. A. LOVELL ET AL.
reliable, nor as predictable. Thus discrepancies Hole 896A from FMS images. Scientific Drilling,
between optical and resistivity images or logs 5, 87-92.
may also yield information about the nature of CLARK, I. 1979. Practical Geostatistics. Elsevier,
the pore space. London.
CURRY, W. B., SHACKLETON,N. J., RICHTER, C. & the
Shipboard Scientific Party. 1995. Proceedings.
Summary ODP Initial Reports., 154: College Station, TX
(Ocean Drilling Program).
(1) Interpretation of core and log data should DOVETON, J. H. 1994. Geological Log Analysis Using
involve consideration of the measurement pro- Computer Methods. American Association of
cess, calibration, and integration. Calibration Petroleum Geologists, Computer Applications in
and integration may not necessarily be included Geology, No.2.
in the first interpretation. EJSENHART, C. 1963. Realistic evaluation of the
precision and accuracy of instrument calibration
(2) The measurement itself is defined in terms
systems. Journal of Research of the National
of its scale, resolution and quality. These are Bureau of Standards--C, Engineering and Instru-
functions of the parameter being measured and mentation, 67C, 21-47. (Paper 67C2-128).
the measurement environment as well as the HARVEY,P. K., BREWER,T. S., LOVELL,M. A. & KERR,
selected target. It is imperative that these S. A. 1998. The estimation of modal mineralogy: a
attributes are considered in any data integration problem of accuracy in core-log calibration. This
exercise. volume.
(3) Measurements can be calibrated, either - - LOVELL, M. A., JACKSON, P. D., ASHU, P. A.,
relatively (locally) or absolutely (globally). Cau- WILLIAMSON, G., SMITH, A. S., BALL, J. K. &
FLINT, R. F. 1995. Electrical resistivity core
tion is essential since often this falls to inter-
imaging III: characterisation of an aeolian sand-
dataset comparison, and involves equalization stone. Scientific Drilling, 5, 165 176.
which through the modification of one dataset in HOHN, M. E. 1988. Geostatistics and petroleum geology.
preference for the other may negate additional Van Nostrand-Reinholt, New York.
benefits which i n t e g r a t i o n may otherwise HORNBY, B. E., LUTH1, S. M. & PLUMB, R. A. 1992.
achieve. Comparison of fracture apertures computed from
(4) Differences of scale in measurement sets electrical borehole scans and reflected Stoneley
may highlight geological features through varia- waves: an integrated interpretation. The Log
tions in the degree and nature of formation Analyst, 33, 50-66.
JACKSON, P. D. & LOVELL, M. A. 1991. The corre-
heterogeneity.
spondence of electrical current and fluid flow in
(5) Integration of data should maximize, in rocks--the impact of electrical resistivity core
an optimal manner, the information available. imaging. Transactions 14th European Sympo-
(6) The best c o r e - l o g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is sium, Society of Professional Well Log Analysts,
through judicious choice of objectives, appro- London, UK. Paper J.
priate selection of measurement process, includ- 9HARVEY, P. K., BALL, J., WILLIAMS,
ing necessary calibration, and optimization C.I FLINT, R. F., ASHU, P. A. & MELDRUM,P. I.
using carefully-defined integration. This should 1994. Advances in resistivity core imaging.
realize an interpretation which maximizes the Transactions 35th Symposium, Society of Profes-
sional Well Log Analysts. Paper GG.
use of available data whilst remaining compa-
KIMMINAU, S. 1994. Traceability--making decisions
tible with all observations. with uncertain data. The Log Analyst, 35, 67-70.
LOFTS, J. C. 1993. Integrated geochemical and geophy-
sical studies of sedimentary reservoir rocks. PhD
We thank the Natural Environment Research Council thesis, University of Leicester.
for support through research grant GST/02/684, LOVELL, M. A. & JACKSON, P. D. 1991. Electrical flow
together with Z & S Group for provision of software in rocks: the application of high resolution
for the processing and interpretation of FMS data. electrical resistivity core measurements, paper
WW in 32nd Annual logging Symposium Trans-
References actions: Society of Professional Well Log Ana-
lysts, Midland, Texas.
ALT, J. C., KINOSHITA, H., STOKKING, L. B. & the , PEZARD, P. A. & HARVEY, P. K. 1992.
Shipboard Scientific Party. 1993. Proceedings. Chemical stratigraphy of boreholes in the Izu-
ODP Initial Reports, 148. College Station TX Bonin Arc from insitu nuclear measurements.
(Ocean Drilling Program). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program,
BAKER, P. E. 1957. Density logging with gamma rays. Scientific Results, 126, 593-601.
Petroleum Transactions of the American Institute Moss, B. 1997. the partitioning of petrophysical data:
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BREWER, T. S., LOVELL,M., HARVEY,P. & WILLIAMSON, Developments in Petrophysics, Geological Society
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INTEGRATION OR CALIBRATION? 51
MURPHY, R. B. 1969. On the meaning of precision and Scientific Correspondence, Nature, 332, p.495.
accuracy. In. Ku, H. H. (ed.) Precision Measure- SKOPEC, R. A. 1992. Recent advances in rock
ment and Calibration. Statistical Concepts and characterisation. The Log Analyst, 33, 270-285.
Procedures. United States Department of Com- STRALEY, C., MORRISS, C. E., KENYON, W. E.
merce National Bureau of Standards Special HOWARD, J. J. 1995. N M R in partially saturated
Publication 300, 1, 357-360. rocks: laboratory insights on free fluid index and
OWENS~J. 1994. Fit-for-purpose data during field life. comparison with borehole logs. The Log Analyst,
The Log Analyst, 35, 58-60. 36, 40-56.
RUTH, D. & POnJOISRINNE, T. 1993. The precision of THEYS, P. P. 1991. Log data acquisition and quality
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SHERIFE, R. E. & GELDARX, L. P. 1982. Exploration sional well log analysts topical conference on
Seismology volume 1. history, theory and data quality, appendix: metrological definitions. The
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SIES, H. 1988. A new parameter for sex education. quality. The Log Analyst, 35, 13-14.
Estimation of measurement uncertainty for in situ borehole
determinations using a geochemical logging tool
M. H. R A M S E Y , P. J. W A T K I N S & M. S. S A M S 1
T. H. Huxley School of Environment, Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College o f
Science Technology and Medicine, London S W7 2BP, UK
1 Present address." Petronas Research and Scientific Services S D N BDH, Hulu Kelang,
54200 Selangor, Malaysia.
Abstract: Methods for the estimation of measurement uncertainty are discussed with
particular reference to concentration measurements made by a geochenmical logging tool
(GLT; Mark of Schlumberger) in a borehole penetrating a cyclothem sequence at
Northumberland, UK. Two components of uncertainty have been quantified for 6 elements
determined by the GLT over a wide range of concentrations. The random component was
estimated from duplicated determinations within this borehole over a 120 m depth interval.
These uncertainty values ranged from 2.7% for Si to 71% for S, expressed at the 95%
confidence limit. The systematic component of the uncertainty was estimated by
determinations made on corresponding core samples by inductively coupled plasma atomic
emission spectrometry (ICP-AES) over a 40 m depth interval. The ultimate basis for this
estimation of bias was the certified reference materials which were analysed during the ICP-
AES determinations. The bias measured by this method was typically in the range + 5% to
- 1 4 % for 5 out of the 6 elements determined.
This method assumes that the samples analysed by both techniques are physically
comparable. By depth averaging the ICP-AES determinations it was possible to reduce
errors due to differences in sample size. However, a possible source of bias that was
recognised is that samples were dried before ICP-AES determinations, whereas this was not
the case for in situ GLT measurements. Such variability in the size of the systematic
component of the uncertainty prevents the effective correction of this term as is
recommended by the International Standards Organisation. The large values of measure-
ment uncertainty found for some elements (e.g. S) will exert limitations on the geochemical
interpretations made from the GLT measurements, in terms of 'fitness-for-purpose' criteria.
Uncertainty of measurements made in boreholes Methods have been developed for the quantifi-
by an 'in situ' geochemical logging tool (GLT) cation of the errors arising from the sampling of
can have p r o f o u n d effects on the realistic one site, by either a single or multiple samplers.
interpretation of the geochemical variation For a single sampler, the methods have been
across a stratigraphic sequence. Although the applied both to the use of a single sampling
importance of the uncertainty is becoming protocol (Ramsey 1993) or comparisons be-
apparent, methods for the estimation of such tween several protocols (Ramsey et al. 1995b).
uncertainty are lacking. Broadly similar studies For the case of multiple samplers, different
on the estimation of bias and precision of GLT m e t h o d s have been devised d e p e n d e n t on
measurements have been reported (Wendlandt & whether all samplers were applying the same
Bhuyan 1990; Grau et al. 1990), but these did protocol (Ramsey et al. 1995a) or different
not attempt any rigorous mathematical estima- protocols (Argyraki et al. 1995). Applications
tion of the total uncertainty of measurement. of these methods were made for the estimation
For analytical measurements in isolation, the of heavy metals on contaminated land, but the
realistic estimation of uncertainty has already methodologies are equally applicable, in princi-
become an important issue (ISO 1993a; Euro- ple, to the measurement of elemental variation
cheni 1995; A M C 1995). In contaminated land within a borehole using a GLT.
investigations it has recently been shown that it This paper considers how estimates of mea-
is field sampling, rather than the chemical surement uncertainty can be derived, particu-
analysis, that can contribute the largest source larly for the case of a single sampler using a
of measurement error and will therefore limit the single protocol, utilizing a previously published
measurement uncertainty (Ramsey et al. 1995a). case study (Sams et al. 1995). The objectives of
RAMSEY,M. H., WATKINS,P. J. & SAMS,M. S. 1998. Estimation of measurement uncertainty for in situ 53
borehole determinations using a geochemical logging tool In: HARVEY,P. K. 8~; LOVELL,M. A. (eds)
Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 53-63
54 M. H. RAMSEY ET AL.
the work are therefore: (Eurochem 1995). The alternative 'top down'
approach uses inter-laboratory trials to estimate
(l) to make the best estimate of uncertainty the total uncertainty of a measurement. In this
on the measurements from the case study, method, many selected laboratories ( n > 8 )
as an example of the general approach; would all analyse the same sample by the same
(2) to identify additional methodologies that analytical method (AMC 1995). The scatter of
could be applied to give improved esti- all reported measurements is then used as an
mates of uncertainty; overall estimate of uncertainty.
(3) to consider briefly how to identify accep- The 'bottom up' approach has the limitation
table levels of uncertainty for particular that it requires all of the sources of uncertainty
objectives of interpretation. to be identified. It is relatively easy to consider
the obvious sources of error which are explicit
parts of a laboratory method (e.g. weighing,
Definition and terminology of measurement volumetric additions). However, the most im-
uncertainty portant source of uncertainty may not be explicit
in the method (e.g. lab. temperature), and is
The formal definition of uncertainty has been therefore easily overlooked, especially by in-
given as: 'A parameter associated with the result experienced practitioners. Furthermore, it can
of a measurement, that characterizes the disper- be a long and expensive procedure to quantify
sion of the values that could reasonably be all the component errors, if the method is to be
attributed to the measurand (ISO 1993a). A less applied rigorously.
formal but more understandable description of The benefits of the 'top down' approach can
measurement uncertainty is that it is 'an interval be appreciated from the differences that are
a r o u n d the result of a measurement that often evident between laboratories in inter-
contains the true value with high probability' organizational trials. These differences are often
(Thompson 1995). The standard uncertainty 'u' larger than can be accounted for by the
can be considered equivalent to one standard individual estimates of uncertainty within each
deviation which is often used to describe a laboratory (AMC 1995). This is because the
normally distributed random error. The ex- ' b o t t o m up' a p p r o a c h used by individual
panded uncertainty 'U" is equal to the product laboratories tends to give over-optimistic esti-
of the standard uncertainty and a coverage mates of the uncertainty. The limitation of the
factor 'k', which typically has a value of 2 or 3. 'top down' approach is that it depends on the
This is analogous to the use of multiples of selection of the laboratories that contribute. If
standard deviation for the quantification of the laboratories all use a similar source of
precision. In the formal definition, systematic calibration, they may all be equally biased and
errors are not included in estimates of uncer- therefore give an under-estimate of the uncer-
tainty, but only any residual random errors left tainty. Alternatively, one laboratory may have
after correction of the systematic errors. How- gross errors, atypical of the application of the
ever, in this application, the distinction between method as a whole, and this will cause an over-
systematic and random errors becomes blurred. estimate of the uncertainty.
The systematic error of one sampler becomes a
random error when assessed as part of a multi-
sampler comparison and systematic errors there- Estimating uncertainty for in situ borehole
by become incorporated into estimates of
uncertainty. measurements
There are two primary limitations in estimating
Estimating uncertainty in chemical analysis uncertainty of measurements made in situ in
boreholes, using the method described for purely
The methods recently developed for estimating laboratory based analytical systems. One pro-
uncertainty in chemical analysis in the labora- blem is that these methods ignore the uncer-
tory are of two types. They both need to be tainty arising from field sampling. It is often
evaluated as options for the application to in situ quoted that an analysis can never be of better
borehole sampling and analysis. In the 'bottom quality than the sample upon which it is made.
up' approach the random error from each What has been lacking, however, is the means of
individual component of a method is quantified estimating the size of the uncertainty which is
separately as a standard deviation (s). The introduced by field sampling. A second limita-
overall uncertainty is then estimated by sum- tion is in the quantification of systematic errors,
ming the individual errors by their variances (s 2) either from sampling or from chemical analysis.
ESTIMATION OF MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTY 55
It is proposed to adapt the methods devised farm in Northumberland have been given else-
originally for estimating analytical uncertainty where (Sams et al. 1995). In brief, GLT
to the estimation of uncertainty from in situ measurements were made on a 40m length of
measurements by addressing these two limita- borehole drilled through a single Namurian
tions. cyclothem, with varied lithologies (Fig. 1).
With in situ measurements it is useful to The GLT has been described in detail by
consider field sampling and chemical analysis as Hertzog et al. (1987) and uses three different
just two parts of the same 'measurement' measurement techniques:
process, and to quantify their combined con-
tribution to the uncertainty. Such 'total mea- (i) The natural radioactivity of K, Th and U
surement' uncertainty has therefore four is used for their determination with a
potential components. These are the sampling N a t u r a l G a m m a Ray Spectrometer
and analytical contributions to random error (NGS; Mark of Schlumberger). The count
(i.e. sampling and analytical precision) and any rates obtained are directly proportional to
uncorrected systematic errors (i.e. sampling and the mass per cent of the element, provid-
analytical bias). ing a borehole correction factor is applied.
Taking the 'bottom up' approach to estimat- (ii) A neutron source of 252Cf, emitting
ing the total measurement uncertainty we can neutrons at about 2.3MeV is used to
review the methods available for the estimation activate A1, which is determined using an
of these four components. Analytical precision AACT; Mark of Schlumberger. Results
can be measured by the use of analytical obtained are proportional to the weight
duplicates (Thompson & Howarth 1976) or in per cent of A1 after an environmental
combination with sampling precision using a correction is applied.
balanced design of sampling and analytical (iii) After neutron capture from a burst of 14
duplicates (Garrett 1969; Ramsey et al. 1992). MeV neutrons, Si, Fe, Ca, Ti, S and Gd
This is possible for the GLT although, ideally, are determined using a tau-gated thermal
duplicate sampling would require the use of a neutron capture spectrometer with a
second borehole close to the first and assuming Gamma Spectrometer (GST; Mark of
lateral homogeneity. Analytical bias is usually Schlumberger). This procedure only pro-
estimated by the analysis of certified reference vides relative concentrations of these
materials (Ramsey et al. 1987), but this ap- elements, and they have to be converted
proach would be problematic for the GLT. In to absolute values by imposing a closure
addition, there are no methods in general use for relationship on the results obtained.
the estimation of sampling bias. For absolute
bias this may require the introduction of An oxide closure relationship is imposed on
reference sampling targets, analogous to refer- the results, in order to derive element concentra-
ence materials for the estimation of analytical tions from the raw GLT data It is assumed that
bias (Thompson & Ramsey 1995). Sampling bias each element occurs as a single oxide or
has already been estimated however, between carbonate in the formation and that the sum of
the concentration estimates made by the appli- the oxide and carbonate fractions is unity. This
cation of different sampling protocols at one site assumption is known to be in error, but it is
(Ramsey et al. 1995b). This approach does not, considered that the errors involved will be small
however, give bias against an 'accepted reference (< 5%) for most lithologies. The equation to be
value', as defined by ISO (ISO, 1993b). solved is (Hertzog et al. 1987):
Taking the 'top down' approach, it should be
possible to use measurements from inter-orga- F(~,Xi Yi/Si) + XK WK -[- XA1WA1 = 1.0
nizational sampling trials, such as sampling where:
proficiency tests (Argyraki et al. 1995) and
collaborative trials (Ramsey et al. 1995a) to F is a calibration factor to be determined at each
estimate uncertainty. The potential advantages depth point;
and practical feasibility of such an approach to Yi is the fraction of the measured prompt
in situ borehole determinations will be consid- gamma rays attributed to element i;
ered below. Si is the tool sensitivity for element i;
Xi is the ratio of the mass of the associated oxide
Experimental details of the GLT case study or carbonate to the mass of element i.
The details of the case study using the GLT at The mass fractions of potassium and aluminium
the Imperial College borehole at Whitchester (WK and WA1) must be first corrected for
56 M.H. RAMSEY ET AL.
Fig. 1. Variation with depth of concentrations of Si and Fe determined by the GLT (solid lines) and by ICP-AES
(solid circles). Plot (a) represents original data and plot (b) represents ICP-AES data depth-averaged (smoothed)
using a 1.4m square window. Sulphur was not determined by ICP-AES but demonstrates that the coal bands
(shown at 150 and 154.3m in the stratigraphic log) can be detected with by the GLT even with an estimated
random error of 71%.
porosity to give a dry mass per cent. This is and mineralogy over a single sedimentary cycle
normally determined from the density log by using the same depth interval as the GLT (140-
assuming a quartz matrix. 180 m). Exact correspondence of the volume of
Duplicate field measurements were taken at rock analysed by both GLT and ICP-AES is
the site in Northumberland by lowering the clearly impossible (Fig. 2). The rationale behind
GLT twice through a section 110-230m in the sub-sampling of the core used for analysis is
depth. On one occasion all raw measurements that it should characterize the geochemistry of
were processed through the oxide closure to give the core at small intervals (e.g. 25cm), so that
elemental concentration, but on the second subsequent mathematical smoothing of results
occasion the raw results were initially unpro- can be employed to approximate the sampling
cessed. In order to achieve comparability, the volume analysed by the GLT (110,000 cm3). The
original dataset was divided by the correspond- inevitable sampling bias introduced by litholo-
ing raw counts for each element at a particular gies of widths less than 25cm (e.g. iron rich
depth. This procedure gave a value for the factor sideritic nodules) can then be estimated and
FXi/Si, and both F and Si should be constant at recognized as a systematic difference between the
a constant depth. If the raw counts for an two techniques. Discrete samples of about 30 g
element taken from the duplicate dataset are were selected with an average vertical spacing of
now multiplied by the corresponding value of 25 + 5 cm between samples, the rock chips being
FXi/Si, an estimate of the absolute value for that taken to represent the full lateral heterogeneity
element at a particular depth can be made. This of the core sample. A total of 147 analytical
procedure is not quite the same as comparing specimens were collected over the entire depth
data obtained from two runs processed inde- interval and powdered in an agate Tema Mill to
pendently. less than 75 #m.
The details of the analytical procedure have
Sampling and analysis of core samples been given elsewhere (Sams et al. 1995). In brief,
0.25g of dry rock powder was totally decom-
Core sampling was aimed at investigating the posed by fusing with LiBO2 and dissolving the
vertical variations in bulk rock geochemistry fused bead in dilute HNO3, with six elements
ESTIMATION OF MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTY 57
Sampling design
Estimation of random component
sc = So + Pc (1)
ca. 60cm / /
/ /
where so=standard deviation at a particular
concentration c;
//
/ /
So= standard deviation at zero concen-
/ z
tration;
/ / c = concentration;
/ / 0 = slope factor, related to the high level
/ / precision and so, So and c all have the
same units of concentration.
20cm diameter borehole Corresponding core, with cut sections
for GLT analysis used for ICP-AES analysis The random component of the measurement
Fig. 2. Sampling designs for the measurements by GLT uncertainty, using a coverage factor of two, for
and by ICP-AES. zero concentration is given by:
Uo = 2s0
being determined by inductively coupled plas-
ma-atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES). and for a particular concentration c by:
This instrument was calibrated using 10 inter-
national reference materials, (BR, GA, GH, Ur = 2sc
NIM-N, SY-2, UB-N, NIM-G, DTS-1, AN-G
and MICA-MG). The certified values for the Thus, multiplying equation (1) by the coverage
reference materials are given in Govindaraju factor of two we get:
(1994) and thus, these act as the traceability of
the determinations to 'accepted reference va- Ur = Uo -+-20c (2)
lues', as required by ISO (ISO 1993b) for the
estimation of bias. The bias between measured The upper limit of the uncertainty on an
and certified values of the reference materials for estimation of concentration c, from equation
the 6 elements studied was generally less than 1 (2) is given by:
%. Values for the precision of analyses of these
six elements in silicate rocks by ICP-AES are c+ Ur=c+ 20c+ Uo
reported as < 0.5% in Ramsey et al. (1995c). c+ Ur : C(1 + 2 0 ) + Uo (3)
Table 1. Estimates of uncertainty in concentration measurements made using the GLT, in the specified ranges of
concentration.
Table 2. Estimation of detection limit and precision of general relationship for all elements studied. The
GLT determinations (Sams et al. 1995). same results are transformed into the form of
relative uncertainty (Ur%) in Fig. 3B. For Si,
Element Detection High-level there is a significant increase in uncertainty with
limit (mass-%) Precision,% (Is) concentration, but when converted into relative
uncertainty at the high level, this was the best of
Si 2.70 1.35
any element at 2.7%. The uncertainty at zero
A1 0.92 3.83
Fe 0.26 6.05 concentration for Si was 1.8 mass %, which is
Ca 1.92 2.51 well below most of the samples from this
K 0.71 n.d. borehole. Hertzog et al. (1987) do not give a
S 0.56 35.45 standard deviation at zero mass% but give
precisions of 25.6% and 4.9% at 25 mass% Si
n.d. = not determined and 47 mass% Si, respectively.
For Fe, considering these random errors in
isolation gives a relative uncertainty of 12.1% at
These two components of random uncertainty
high concentration levels, and an uncertainty of
(Table 1) were estimated for 6 elements (Si, A],
0.16 mass% at zero concentration. The bias
Fe, Ca, K and S) by using a dataset consisting of
detected for this element, discussed below, will
600 duplicate borehole measurements taken over
however cause this latter estimate to be multi-
a section between l l 0 m and 230m in depth.
plied by a factor of 2.2, giving 0.35 mass%.
This method also provides standard errors on
Hertzog et al. (1987) quote a precision of 30% at
these uncertainty estimates, which can be used to
1 mass% Fe and one of 16% at 5 mass% Fe,
check whether the estimates are statistically
which appear broadly comparable.
greater than zero. When the So value is not
For S, the high level relative uncertainty was
significantly greater than zero, it is still possible
found to be over 70% at all concentrations, the
to calculate a maximum value for Uo, that is
highest for any element determined. This may be
equivalent to a maximum method detection limit
due to the proximity of sulphur concentrations
( M M D L ) (Ramsey et al. 1995c). The precision
in the samples to the detection limit of the GLT.
and detection limits of the G L T determinations
It is interesting to examine what limitations such
are listed in Table 2. Data used for calculations
a degree of uncertainty places on the geochem-
made in this paper is represented graphically in
ical interpretation of the concentration estimates
Fig. 3, and a summary of the duplicate data used
(see below).
to determine the precision of G L T measure-
ments is given in Fig. 4 in Sams et al. (1995). The
individual data sets obtained from ICP-AES and Estimation of systematic component
G L T measurements are available, but too
numerous to include in full here. They are A qualitative estimate of the analytical bias of
available from the Geological Society if re- the G L T measurements was made using X-ray
quired. fluorescence analysis on a limited selection of
The variations of uncertainty due to analytical core material by Hertzog et al. (1987). The
precision for Si and Fe are plotted against quantitative estimation of bias needed for
concentration (c) in Fig. 3A, to exemplify the uncertainty estimation has been reported by
ESTIMATION OF MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTY 59
(a) (b)
1.4-
1.2"
o.
1.0-
.o
3.0
0.8-
0.6-
2.0
0.4-
.o'o 0.2-
o.
0.0
' I , I ' I , I ' I , I ' I , i l
10 20 30 40 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(a) (b)
100
80
60
60 . "
,m~ zo "
comparing the logging results with values Before comparing results obtained using the
obtained from core samples using ICP-AES two techniques the question of sample size must
(Sams et al. 1995). The method employed used be addressed (Fig. 2). Samples collected for
simple linear regression to determine the rota- laboratory analysis represent a depth of approxi-
tional and translational components of bias. mately 1 cm. Overall, the GLT responds to an
Translational bias occurs when the intercept of approximately spherical volume of rock with a
the regression, line is statistically significantly radius of about 30cm, although each measure-
different from zero. Rotational bias occurs when ment technique used, i.e. NGS, AACT and GST,
the slope of the regression line is statistically will interact with different volumes of rock.
different from unity. The test for significance Assuming there is lateral homogeneity, the GLT
used in this study was the student t-test with a response is some weighted depth average of
probability of 0.05. Potential limitations in this vertical variations. In addition, it is usual to
general technique (Thompson 1982) have been apply a vertical smoothing process to the raw
shown not to be significant in this case (Sams et data before the oxide closure is performed. A
al. 1995). running average of 5 data points, or just over
60 M.H. RAMSEY ET AL.
Silicon Iron
25
4O 20.
8
~r 15'
E~ ~ 10"
I'--
(5
5.
9 .~':.':d'.'-..' ":'
, ' , ' i , , , , ~ , , , , L,,, ,i, ,,, 0
10 20 30 40 50 0 5 10 15 20 25
Fig. 4. Graphical representation of systematic uncertainty (i.e. bias) between measurements made by the GLT and
ICP-AES. The solid line represents the line of equality for zero bias, and Fe measurments in particular show a
distinct deviation from this line.
60cm in depth, was used for the current data. Estimates of the components of the bias in the
Therefore, raw measurements obtained from the element concentrations determined by the GLT
GLT and ICP-AES represent significantly dif- compared with ICP-AES are given in Table 1.
ferent depth intervals of rock. In order to make Significant rotational bias was found for all of
a comparison which is not biased by this the elements except Si, and significant transla-
difference, the ICP-AES data must be depth tional bias for all except Ca and Ti. Silicon
averaged in a comparable manner to the GLT shows a statistically significant translational bias
data, although this assumes that each laboratory of - 1 . 5 3 mass%, but no detectable rotational
measurement is representative of a 25 cm depth bias. This linear model for the bias is perhaps
interval, i.e. the sampling interval. Smoothing oversimplified as the majority of data points
was applied to the ICP-AES data using windows with less than 25 mass% Si fall below the
of varying lengths. The window chosen was one regression line (Fig. 4). In terms of the un-
that gave maximum correlation between the certainty there would seem to be a case for
GLT and ICP-AES data, and a square window adding 1.53 mass% to all the GLT estimates of
1.4m wide (equivalent to 6 analyses) was found Si concentration. This is rather simplistic,
to be the best. Thus the smoothed ICP-AES partially because of the over-simplified model
results, at any particular depth, are based on 6 used for the bias but also because this bias may
separate determinations around that depth. The well be different for different lithologies in
unsmoothed and smoothed ICP-AES measure- different boreholes. It is perhaps more prudent
ments for Si and Fe are plotted for comparison therefore to combine an estimate of the possible
alongside the GLT measurements against depth bias into the overall estimate of uncertainty. For
in Fig. 1. Fe, measurement by the GLT shows significant
In order to compensate for the difference in bias in both the rotational ( - 5 4 . 6 % ) and
sample interval the GLT determinations were translational (0.34 mass%) components, which
interpolated using a cubic spline, and depths again needs combining with the random com-
equivalent to the ICP-AES sampling were taken. ponent of the uncertainty for evaluation.
It was also necessary to apply a static depth shift
of 0.5m to the GLT data to account for a
difference between drilling depth and logging Combined estimates o f measurement
depth. Measurements taken by the GLT in the uncertainty
coal layers (150 and 154.3m in depth) were
removed from the comparison due to excep- The total expanded uncertainty (U) can be
tional errors caused by the effect of the estimated from the combination of the random
anomalous density of the coal propagated component Ur% described in equation (5), and
through the closure calculation (Sams et al. the systematic components resolved into rota-
1995). tional bias (BR) and translational bias (BT). The
ESTIMATION OF MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTY 61
upper limit of the uncertainty for an estimated that the sensitivity factor for iron, Sve, is too
concentration c is then given by: high. Secondly, it is possible that occasionally
the sampling procedure used for ICP-AES
c + U = c (1 + Ur%/100)(1 + BR/100) + Uo + BT (6) determinations dramatically over-estimates the
Fe content of some samples. As mentioned
and the lower limit is given by: earlier, the ICP-AES data is assumed to be
representative of a 25 cm depth interval. How-
c - U = c (1 - Ur~ + BR/100 ) - - Uo + BT (7) ever, in the case of Fe this may not be true. Iron
occurs partially as sideritic nodules in the
For the case of Si, ( U r % = 2 . 7 % , Uo = 1.8 mudstones. If present in a core sample these
mass%, B R = 0 and BT = --1.53 mass%) equa- nodules could produce an analysis of up to 30
tion (6) gives: mass% Fe, which is probably a gross over-
estimate of the average value for that 25cm
c+U =1.027c+1.8+5.53=1.027c+3.33 depth interval. If a nodule is not sampled then
mass% the average value for the Fe concentration of the
25cm interval will be somewhat under-esti-
and equation (7) gives: mated. Overall therefore the heterogeneity of
the iron would not be expected to produce the
c - U = 0.973c- 1.8 + 1.53 = 0.973c-0.27 mass% large bias found in this case.
aspect would be to establish one borehole as a where a crude estimate will be sufficient and
'reference sampling target', against which new others where more reliable but more expensive
analytical probes and new operators could methods will be justified. Further clarification of
measure their systematic error (Thompson & these ideas awaits more case studies of the
Ramsey, 1995). The 'accepted reference value' of application of techniques like the G L T that
the elemental concentrations at specified depths include estimates of uncertainty, and an evalua-
in this borehole would have to be established by tion of its effects on the geochemical interpreta-
inter-organization sampling trials similar to tion of the information.
those described above, with a wide variety of
analytical techniques. Conclusions
One extra complication of the measurement
system used in the G L T is that the bias in any 1. Methods are available to estimate the
one element will be propagated through to the uncertainty of measurements made with
other elements by the oxide closure. Such the GLT.
multivariate effects in measurement uncertainty 2. The random component of the uncertainty
have not been investigated and may cause subtle can be estimated at a basic level, from a
and unforeseen effects on geochemical interpre- replicate set of measurements from the
tation. same borehole.
3. The random component of the uncertainty
Acceptable limits for uncertainty can be estimated from the chemical analy-
sis of core material by a technique such as
Once realistic values become available for ICP-AES, which can be linked directly to
measurement uncertainty then there will be a 'accepted reference values' of concentration
need to derive acceptable limits for the un- as required by ISO. The uncertainties in the
certainty. This is a separate aspect that relates analyses by the method used for compar-
the G L T measurements to the concept of'fitness ison (in this case ICP-AES) need to be
for purpose'. To take an extreme case, for the assessed, but for the ICP-AES method they
vertical correlation of statigrapaphy between were much smaller than differences be-
two boreholes it could be argued that systematic tween the measurement techniques. There
errors in the measurements are irrelevant. The are also problems with this approach in
depth of the coal horizons in the Northumbrian allowing for the effects of different volumes
boreholes, for example, could be correlated of rock sampled.
between boreholes even if the iron concentration 4. Progressively more realistic estimates of
is biased by --54.6%. It is only the random uncertainty would require the use of
component of the uncertainty that could mask different operators, on different occasions,
the position of such a feature, and as such even with different probes in inter-organi-
therefore could be specified in the fitness-for- zation trials.
purpose specification. The coal bands (shown at 5. There is a financial need to derive accep-
150 and 154.3m in Fig. 1) can be detected from table levels of uncertainty for particular
the sulphur concentrations measured by the applications, but further case studies re-
GLT, even though the random component of porting uncertainties must be examined
the uncertainty was estimated as 71%. This before this will be feasible.
shows that the limits for uncertainty need to be
related to the geochemical variance (Ramsey et We would like to thank D. Filmer who performed the
al., 1992). The requirements for uncertainty are ICP-AES analyses. We would also like to thank Agip,
very different if the elemental concentration Amoco, BP, Elf, Mobil, NERC, Schlumberger and
Statoil who funded the Imperial College borehole test
estimates were to be used to infer the mineralogy
site. The third author also acknowledges assistance
of a sample. In this case a bias o f - - 5 0 % on one given by Petronas Research and Scientific Services to
element could clearly have a major impact on enable this work to be completed.
the minerals inferred to be present and their
calculated proportion in the rock.
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Methods for simulating natural gamma ray and density wireline logs
from measurements on outcrop exposures and samples: examples from
the Upper Jurassic, England
Z. M. A H M A D I 1 & A. L. C O E 2
t Department of Geological Sciences, University of Durham, South Road, Durham, DH1
3LE, UK (Present address: Enterprise Oil plc, Grand Buildings, Trafalgar Square, London
WC2 4ES, UK)
2Department of Earth Sciences, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes,
Buckinghamshire, MK7 6AA, UK
Abstract: Methods for simulating natural gamma ray and density wireline logs from
measurements on outcrop exposures and rock samples have been implemented. The signals
have comparable amplitudes and resolution to wireline log signals, although the absolute
values do not match precisely. The field gamma ray logs were measured on the outcrops at
intervals of 30-45 cm using hand-held gamma ray spectrometers. The field density logs were
produced by measuring the volume and grain density of selected rock samples, followed by
interpolation and filtering of the data. Both techniques are illustrated for the Upper Jurassic
of the Wessex Basin, Southern England, with field data from the exposures on the Dorset
coast and wireline log data from 11 boreholes between 0.5 km and 170 km away. The Upper
Jurassic comprises a range of rock types, giving a wide range of values on which to test the
techniques: wireline gamma ray and density values of these strata cover the ranges 15-140
API and 1.8-2.9 g cm 3, respectively. Thus these techniques should be widely applicable for
the purpose of correlating outcrops with borehole data.
Wireline logs provide an intermediate link of the methodology has therefore been tested on
between the small-scale, high-resolution sedi- most sedimentary rock types, giving a full
mentological and stratigraphical features visible spectrum of typical data.
at outcrop and the large-scale data available The overall aim of this paper is to reproduce
from seismic sections. Simple techniques have at decimetre resolution gamma ray and density
been developed for producing natural gamma wireline log trends from measurements on out-
ray and density logs from measurements on crops and rock samples, thus improving strati-
outcrop exposures and rock samples to correlate graphic correlation between outcrops and
with wireline logs from boreholes. Emphasis has boreholes. The data and interpretation pre-
been placed on producing field logs which are at sented in this paper are part of a wider study
the same resolution and of similar character to on the sequence stratigraphical interpretation of
typical downhole wireline logs, rather than wireline log signatures from over 100 boreholes
reproducing the absolute values which might from the Upper Jurassic of the Wessex Basin.
be expected downhole. This approach thus Where available, biostratigraphical data have
concentrates on reproducing patterns of cycli- been used to provide a framework for wireline
city, together with general decreasing and correlations between boreholes.
increasing trends, which in turn can be inter-
preted in terms of cyclostratigraphy; for exam- Geological setting of exposures and
ple, transgression and regression, sequence
boreholes
stratigraphical and Milankovitch cycles.
The techniques are illustrated for the Upper The Wessex Basin is a Mesozoic extensional
Jurassic (Oxfordian, Kimmeridgian and Por- basin which is divided into a series of half-
tlandian stages) of the Wessex Basin, Southern graben, or graben-like sub-basins (Fig. 1). The
England. This interval is represented by a wide Upper Jurassic exposures and boreholes used in
range of sedimentary rock types ranging from this paper are from four of these sub-basins. The
deep-marine siliciclastics to shallow and non- exposures where field measurements and rock
marine siliciclastics and carbonates. The validity samples were taken are on the Dorset Coast
AHMADI,Z. M. & CoE, A. L. 1998. Methods for simulating natural gamma ray and density wireline 65
logs from measurements on outcrop exposures and samples: examples from the Upper Jurassic, England
In: HARVEY,P. K. & LOVELL,M. A. (eds) Core-LogIntegration,Geological Society, London,
Soecial Publications, 136, 65-80
66 Z, M. AHMADI & A, L. COL
Fig. 1. Maps showing the main structural features of the Wessex Basin (after Whittaker 1985) and the location of
boreholes and Upper Jurassic exposures. (a) Boreholes in the Weald Sub-basin and position of Fig. l(b). (b)
Details of the location of boreholes and outcrops in the Dorset area.
Fig. 3. Composite field gamma ray log for the Upper Jurassic succession exposed between Furzy Cliff and St.
Alban's Head, Dorset, measured using the geoMetrics GR310 portable gamma ray spectrometer, plotted against
the wireline gamma ray log from borehole 98/11-4 (SZ 1187 8084). Gaps in the composite field log are due to lack
of exposure or non-accessibility of the section with a portable gamma ray tool. See Fig. 1 for location of borehole
and outcrop sections.
CORRELATION OF WIREEINE LOGS WITH OUTCROP 69
70 Z . M . A H M A D I & A. L. COE
CORRELATION OF WIRELINE LOGS WITH OUTCROP 71
Operating Manual; Lovborg 1984). A longer representative of the majority of the beds in the
count time had to be used for the Exploranium Upper Oxford Clay F o r m a t i o n , Corallian
GR320 because it takes longer to record Group and Upper Kimmeridge Clay Formation
sufficient gamma ray counts in the K, Th and were collected for density analysis. These
U windows than it does for the total gamma ray amounted to 116 samples over 90m of the
measurement. The spectral data recorded with Upper Oxford Clay Formation and Corallian
the Exploranium GR320 are not discussed Group (Fig. 5) and 260 samples over 280m of
further in this paper. the Kimmeridge Clay Formation (Fig. 6). All
The measurement procedure used for both the samples were dried in an oven at a
spectrometers was to take a reading once in temperature of less than 35~ prior to the
every bed of less than 50 cm thick and every 30- measurements being taken. A Ruska Universal
50cm in beds greater than 50cm thick. The Porometer (model 1051-801) was then used to
geoMetrics GR310 was used to record total measure the volume and grain density of the
gamma ray readings throughout the best Upper samples. The density of each sample was then
Jurassic exposures in Dorset, resulting in 1124 calculated using a single typical fluid density
total gamma ray readings with an average value of 1.06gcm -3 for pore fluids present
sample interval of 45cm over 503m (Fig. 3). within Upper Jurassic rocks of the Wessex
Part of the Kimmeridge Clay Formation was Basin; this actual value was recorded at Palmers
selected to compare the results from the two Wood 3 borehole (TQ 3655 5255) in the Weald
spectrometers. Full spectral gamma ray data Basin (pers. comm. P. Rowe).
were thus recorded with the Exploranium The raw density curves on Figs 5 and 6 show
GR320 at 824 sample points over 251 m of the the density values calculated from the actual
Kimmeridge Clay Formation (average sample samples measured. To obtain the box curve, two
interval 30cm; Fig. 4). The average sampling further procedures were applied. Firstly, beds
distance of 30-45 cm is within the limits of the from which no samples had been obtained were
effective sampled volume for each spectrometer assigned an average density typical for that
(84cm; Fig. 2; Lovborg et al. 1971) and each particular lithology, calculated from the mea-
consecutive reading overlaps the previous read- sured samples collected nearby. Secondly, the
ing resulting in a moving average, thus making it same density value was assigned to the whole
comparable with the wireline gamma ray tool as thickness of the bed. It was noted that the
it is pulled slowly up the borehole. sandstones of the Nothe Grit Formation and the
Bencliff Grit Member (top of the Redcliff
Density logging Formation) had lower density values than those
seen on the wireline density logs. This was
Wireline density logs record the bulk density of interpreted to be due to higher porosities of
rocks, by emitting gamma rays into the forma- these rocks at outcrop than in the subsurface,
tion and recording the number of back-scattered resulting from dissolution of calcite cement. The
gamma rays at a fixed distance from the source. density values of these beds were therefore
The bulk density is a function of the density of corrected as follows: their average porosity in
the matrix and the density of the fluids in the the subsurface was estimated by plotting typical
pore space. Therefore any attempt to construct a density and sonic values on porosity evaluation
field density log with the same character and log interpretation charts (Atlas Wireline Services
resolution as the wireline density log has to take 1985; Schlumberger 1994). The additional,
into account the density of the matrix and the secondary dissolution porosity that was calcu-
density of the pore fluid. The vertical resolution lated to be present in the rock samples was
for older single-detector tools is 40 cm and for multiplied by the difference between the density
more modern two-detector tools is 25 cm (Serra of calcite and the pore fluid and added to the
1984). calculated total density for the samples. The box
curve was then filtered using the Atlas Wireline
Density logging laboratory procedure. Fresh rock Services field acquisition filter (Atlas Wireline
samples of smaller than 3.1 cmx3.1 cmx3.7cm Services 1992). This is an eleven point, Gaus-
Fig. 4. Comparison of the field gamma ray logs measured using the Exploranium GR320 and the geoMetrics
GR310 portable gamma ray spectrometers, for that part of the Kimmeridge Clay Formation exposed between
Hobarrow Bay and Chapman's Pool, Dorset (SY 896 790-SY 955 771). For detailed sedimentological and
stratigraphical log of the section, for the definition of the bed group numbers which have partly been derived from
the literature and for formalization of the following beds; Clavell's Hard Stone Band, Little Stone Band and
Pectinatus Nodules, see Coe (1992). See Fig. 1 for location of outcrop sections.
72 Z.M. AHMADI & A. L. C O E
,~- o " o ~ ~
~,..o ~-~o
~.~ ~
~'~u~ ~ ~
~.~=~
~'~_ > ~
0.j o*-~
o .-~-~ .~ . ~
::s ~ " 0 ,,z=
~ 0,.0 ~ ~
~9 ~,. ~ ~.~
.,..~ ~ r~
~- . N u
~ ~ ~ 0 0
~ o ~ "~
~..~ ~ " 0 ~ ~ 0
~ ~-'~ ~ ~
o p?,~,.0 N [-" ~
~. .~ =~ ~,~
.~~=~
~ ~ o
~ ~ ~~
CORRELATION OF WIRELINE LOGS WITH OUTCROP 73
..~
o "~ o
"~ ~,~
U~g~~
-~ ~-~-
~ .~~
~'~ ~ ~ o
~ ~ ~
..~ ~t" 9
~ ~ ' ~
o= '~
m :-:,r-,I ~ N~..~
= ~ , - ~ - ~ ~, o
o== r ~ "~ ~ ~
74 Z. M. AHMADI & A. L. COE
sian-weighted, moving-average filter. The total Kimmeridge Clay Formation is 0.7 (Fig. 4) .
filter length used was 1.1 m. This results in a This was calculated using Corpac, a signal
filtered field density curve with similar character correlation computer program (Globex Consult-
and resolution to a wireline density log (Figs 5 ing Services, Ltd 1992) which is based on a
and 6). simple mathematical inverse method to correlate
two time series (in this case depth series)
described by Martinson et al. (1982). The reason
Surface to subsurface correlation the correlation coefficient is not higher is because
the Exploranium GR320 log has higher resolu-
Upper Jurassic composite field gamma ray tion, and because of the gaps in the data. Higher
log correlation coefficients are obtained if the two
logs are correlated over shorter intervals which
The field gamma ray data from nine different contain no gaps in the data.
locations along the Dorset coast were combined
to produce a composite field gamma ray log for Correlation of field and wireline gamma ray
the Upper Jurassic strata of Dorset (Fig. 3).
Comparison with the wireline gamma ray data logs
from borehole 98/11-4, which are plotted at the Upper Oxford Clay and Corallian Beds. The field
same scale, show that the same general trends gamma ray log shows, from the base, an overall
and wireline log patterns are present in both sets upwards decreasing and then increasing trend in
of data throughout the Upper Jurassic interval. the gamma ray values, as do the logs in
Clearly distinguishable in both log signatures are boreholes 98/11-4 and 98/11-3, reflecting the
the overall trends of decreasing and increasing change in lithology from mudstones to sand-
response which are interpreted as representing stones and limestones, and then back to
long-term facies changes controlled by relative mudstones and iron-rich sandstones (Fig. 7).
changes in sea-level (Coe 1992). For instance, The Nothe Grit Formation is a better defined
the overall upwards decrease in gamma ray gamma ray low in boreholes 98/11-4 and 98/11-3
values for the pallasioides Zone of the Kimmer- than in the field gamma ray log, probably
idgian to the anguiformis Zone in the Portlan- because the sands are cleaner in the boreholes
dian reflects the change from marine mudstones and the clays of the overlying Redcliff Forma-
to carbonates interpreted as a long-term low- tion contain a high percentage of carbonate in
ering of relative sea-level (Coe 1992, 1996). The the outcrop section. Three prominent gamma
one notable difference is that the Lower Kim- ray peaks in the Osmington Oolite Formation
meridge Clay (baylei to autissiodorensis zones) is can be seen on both the field gamma ray log and
thicker in borehole 98/11-4 than in the outcrop in 98/11-4 (Fig. 7). Over a wider geographical
section. This is due to the fact that the area the Corallian Beds are lithologically very
measurements for the Lower Kimmeridge Clay variable, being comprised of shallow-marine
were made on exposures situated on the footwall sandstones and limestones. Sequence stratigra-
of the Central Channel Sub-basin, where the phical interpretation of the wireline logs using
succession is apparently complete but thinner. the number and character of the cycles does
permit a correlation to be made across the
Comparison of the geoMetrics GR310 and Wessex Basin; however, the lateral lithological
the Exploranium GR320 variability makes correlation based purely on
the wireline log character difficult.
Figure 4 shows a comparison of the total gamma
ray measurements taken with the two spectro- Kimmeridge Clay Formation. The similarity
meters over part of the Kimmeridge Clay between the field gamma ray logs produced by
Formation. The decreasing and increasing the two different spectrometers and the wireline
trends, amplitude of variation, and the shape gamma ray log from Encombe 1 borehole
of the peaks and troughs correlate very well. The (approximately 1 km inland from the outcrops)
main difference between the two signatures is the is shown in Fig. 8. The data acquired using the
higher resolution of the Exploranium GR320 smaller sample interval with the Exploranium
log, which results from the 30 cm average sample GR320 spectrometer produces a higher resolu-
interval compared to a 45 cm average sample tion curve, despite the fact that the sampling
interval for the geoMetrics GR310. interval is about one third of the effective
The correlation coefficient between the two sampling diameter of the tool (Fig. 2). Using
field gamma ray logs over 245 m of the the methodology for calculating correlation
C O R R E L A T I O N OF W I R E L I N E LOGS W I T H O U T C R O P 75
.0. 2
~
t"r I
Oo,0
gr
~t'q
qgoo
oo
,9, , . ~ o o
~r/2
O,.~
~~
. ,.,,~
76 Z.M. AHMADI & A. L. COE
9 O
..=~
"-' 0
.._,
0
"0 0
0,--
. ,,...~
0 ~
~ .
g~
,~ o
~ 0
o " N
C O R R E L A T I O N OF W I R E L I N E LOGS WITH O U T C R O P 77
~ 4 ~ . ~84
,~e--
~N
~o
~.=_ 2
O ~ .,..-,
O ~
78 Z.M. AHMADI & A. L. COE
coefficients described above, the correlation and to a certain extent with borehole 98/11-1.
coefficient for the Exploranium GR320 field The Winterbourne Kingston 1 borehole density
gamma ray log and the wireline log from the log is more difficult to correlate in the lower part
Encombe 1 borehole is 0.92, but it is only 0.82 due to the lack of variation on the large scale.
for the geoMetrics GR310 field gamma ray log Fig. 5 also shows the marked lateral and vertical
and the wireline log. variation of the Oxfordian strata between the
Figure 9 shows the similarity between the wireline logs of 98/11-1, Marchwood 1 and
geoMetrics GR310 field gamma ray log and Winterbourne Kingston 1. One notable example
wireline gamma ray logs from boreholes up to of this is the differences seen between the three
170 km away (Fig. 1). There are several wells for the density of the Nothe Grit Forma-
particularly prominent features, including the tion (or its equivalent) and the Osmington Oolite
two gamma ray lows with a low amplitude of Formation.
variation seen in the Collendean Farm (TQ 2480
4429) and Ashdown 1 (TQ 5005 3035) boreholes Kimmeridge Clay Formation. Figure 6 shows the
in the hudlestoni and wheatleyensis zones, which comparison between the processed field density
are often referred to as the 'Kimmeridge lime- log for the Dorset coast (filtered density log of
stones' (Hancock & Mithen 1987). At outcrop, Fig. 6) against the nearby Encombe 1 borehole,
these two gamma ray lows with a low amplitude and the Bletchingley 1 (TQ 3622 4772) and
of variation are prominent thick homogeneous Detention 1 (TQ 7478 4020) boreholes in the
calcareous mudstone units (middle and upper Weald Basin. The general trends and the
part of bed 40 and the lower part of bed 44; Fig. character of all of these logs is remarkably
4). The two gamma ray lows in Collendean similar. The four high peaks which straddle the
Farm 1 and Ashdown 1 (Figs 1 and 9) are pectinatus to hudlestoni zonal boundary in both
probably more enhanced than those in 98/11-4 the outcrop density log and Encombe 1 log
and the field gamma ray log because the represent more carbonate-rich cementstone
sediments have an even higher calcium carbo- beds. The distinctive increase in density seen in
nate content. A higher quartz sand content is all the logs at the top of the lower third of the
discounted because the lithology over the same hudlestoni Zone represents at outcrop a change
intervals in the nearby Warlingham borehole from interbedded organic-rich and organic-poor
(TQ 3476 5719) comprises argillaceous lime- mudstones to a thick calcareous mudstone (Coe
stones and calcareous mudstones (Worssam et 1992). Similar lithological changes are inter-
al. 1971). Prominent gamma ray lows on the preted to occur in the borehole sections.
field gamma ray log like those in the middle of
autissiodorensis Zone, at the base of elegans Conclusions
Zone and near the top of scitilus Zone, are
carbonate-rich cemented horizons. Similar sharp (1) The geoMetrics GR310 and Exploranium
gamma ray lows in 98/11-4 and Collendean GR320 gamma ray spectrometers can both
Farm 1 probably also relate to calcareous be used to produce field gamma ray logs
cemented horizons. which are comparable with borehole gamma
ray wireline logs. Whilst the newer Explor-
anium GR320 is more accurate and can be
Correlation of field and wireline density logs used to gather spectral data more quickly,
the older geoMetrics GR310 does produce
Upper Oxford Clay and Corallian Beds. Produc- excellent data with repeatable and compar-
tion of an outcrop density log over this interval able gamma ray trends. The most compar-
of mixed siliciclastics and carbonates is more able signal between hand-held spectrometers
problematic than that for the Kimmeridge Clay and wireline log tools is produced by using
Formation. Processing of the data in a similar the hand-held spectrometer perpendicular to
manner to that of the Kimmeridge Clay the bedding with a sample interval of 30 cm
Formation resulted in a filtered density curve or less.
with very little variation. However, further Field gamma ray logs produced for the
processing of the data to take into account Kimmeridge Clay Formation can be used to
dissolved carbonate cement at outcrop, as positively correlate, often down to the bed
described above, resulted in a curve which is (typically < l m ) but at least down to the
more similar to the borehole density logs. bed group scale (typically 10 in), with wire-
The general trends seen on the filtered density line gamma ray data from nearby boreholes.
log (Fig. 5) show a positive correlation with the Larger gamma ray features can also be
wireline density from Marchwood 1 borehole correlated with boreholes as far as 170km
CORRELATION OF WIRELINE LOGS WITH OUTCROP 79
M. M. H E R R O N & S. L. H E R R O N
Schlumberger-Doll Research, Old Quarry Road, Ridgefield, C T 06877-4108, USA
The accurate determination of formation lithol- tion. The clay, carbonate, and quartz-feldspar-
ogy from common geophysical logs is hindered mica portions of this interpretation have been
by a lack of sensitivity coupled with nonunique presented previously (Herron & Herron 1996).
responses to the minerals that reside in sedimen- This paper provides a brief introduction to the
tary rocks. The interpretation of lithology for the new geochemical logging capabilities in both
purpose of wireline petrophysical evaluation or open and cased holes and a detailed examination
geological characterization primarily consists of of the new core-based interpretation.
estimating fractions of shale, sand, and carbo-
nate. Nuclear logs, either gamma ray, photo- Elemental concentration logs
electric factor, and/or a combination of neutron
and density are the most commonly used logs for The recently developed technique to estimate
lithology interpretation, A desire for improved elemental concentrations from a single, induced-
accuracy in Ethological description led to the neutron gamma ray spectrometer (Herron 1995)
introduction of several generations of nuclear is an adaptation of a geochemical oxides closure
spectroscopy logs. Recent developments in open model already employed in the computation of
and cased hole logging have made it possible to elemental concentrations from multiple nuclear
obtain accurate concentration logs for the sondes (Hertzog et al. 1987; Schweitzer et al.
elements silicon, calcium, iron, sulfur, titanium, 1988; Grau & Schweitzer 1989; Grau et al. 1989).
and gadolinium at relatively low cost and high The most significant modifications are:
logging speeds (Herron 1995).
A new lithological interpretation has been (1) the elimination of aluminium and potas-
developed to capitalize on these new logging sium as necessary inputs to the geochemical
capabilities. It is founded on an extensive closure model, thus considerably reducing
database of core chemistry and mineralogy. the number of wireline sondes necessary to
The new interpretation provides quantitative produce elemental concentrations of potas-
estimates of: total clay, which is the sum of all sium;
clay minerals; carbonate, which is the sum of (2) a change in the elemental associations of
calcite and dolomite; anhydrite, which is the sum iron.
of anhydrite plus gypsum; and quartz-feldspar-
mica (Q F-M), which is the remainder of the Figure 1 presents examples of elemental concen-
formation essentially constituting the sand frac- tration logs from the new processing using data
HERRON, M. M. & HERRON,S. L. 1998. Quantitative lithology: open and cased hole application 81
derived from integrated core chemistry and mineralogy database. In. HARVEY,P. K. & LOVELL,M. A.
(eds) Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 81-95
82 M. M. H E R R O N & S. L. H E R R O N
200
3OO
4O0
500
e-
600
7OO
800
900
0
Silicon wt%
50 0 20
Calcium wt%
40 0 10
Iron + .t4AI ~%
20 0 10
Sulfur wt%
20 0 2
Titanium wt%
4 0
[} 20 40
Gadolinium ppm
Fig. 1. Openhole elemental concentrations from the Elemental Capture Spectroscopy (ECS; Mark of
Schlumberger) sonde.
x 104
1.01
r-.
.,....
7-
1.03
.v
O..
g~
p,.
1.05
][ ,
~,
w
|
1.0"/
0 50 0 20 40 0 10 20 0 10 20 0 2 4 0 20 40
Silicon wt% Calcium wt% Iron + 14AI wt% Sulfur wt% Titanium wt% Gadolinium ppm
Fig. 2. Cased hole elemental concentrations from the (RST; Mark of Schlumberger) Reservoir Saturation Tool.
from an open hole Elemental Capture Spectro- core samples are shown for comparison. Two
scopy (ECS; Mark of Schlumberger) sonde. This points should be made when examining the data.
is a nuclear spectroscopy device which uses a The first is that since the uncorrected prompt
standard AmBe source and a BGO detector. It is capture yield for iron contains gamma rays from
combinable and can log at up to 540 m hr -l (1800 both Fe and A1, the log Fe should be approxi-
fthr-~). Chemical concentrations measured on mately equal to Fe+0.14A1. Accordingly, the
QUANTITATIVE LITHOLOGY
'~176wo,:-. /1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
- / I
~ .......... r
'O01we"/ Well6 ~ o ' o ~ I Well 7 "o / Well i
~ I/:"
oL~ ." .
~176
w~176/ Well 10
core points plotted for c o m p a r i s o n are tion coupled plasma mass spectrometry, for
Fe+0.14A1. The second point is that the log whole rock elemental concentrations of silicon
concentrations agree well with core data. (Si), aluminium (A1), iron (Fe), calcium (Ca),
A second example is provided from a cased magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na), potassium (K),
hole Reservoir Saturation Tool (RST; Mark of phosphorus (P), titanium (Ti), manganese (Mn)
Schlumberger) log acquired from a well in and chromium (Cr), expressed as oxides, plus
Venezuela (Fig. 2). This example is processed Loss on Ignition (LOI) representing total vola-
using new elemental standards to derive the far tiles, H20 +, H 2 0 , sulfur (S), organic carbon,
detector capture yields (Roscoe et al. 1995), and thorium (Th), uranium (U), gadolinium (Gd)
corrections are made for casing and a 3.8cm and boron (B). A synthetic core gamma ray
cement annulus. The results show good agree- (GR) computed from core chemistry using the
ment between log concentrations and the sparse gamma ray response is given by equation (1)
core data.
G R = 4 T h + 8 U + 16 K (1)
Core database
where Th and U concentrations are in ppm and
The development of the new quantitative lithol- K concentrations are in wt% (Ellis 1987).
ogy interpretation begins with a core database The mineralogy fraction was analysed using a
that contains chemistry and mineralogy mea- new Fourier Transform-Infrared (FT-IR) proce-
surements on over 400 core plug samples from dure which simultaneously analyses the mid-IR
numerous wells on four continents. The wells are and far-IR frequencies. The mid-IR procedure
diverse in age and geographic location, but all was described in Matteson & Herron (1993).
are predominantly sands and shaly sands. Since that time the number of mineral standards
To analyse the samples, rocks were crushed has been increased to 26 with approximately the
and split with a microsplitter into chemistry and same level of accuracy (better than +2 wt %).
mineralogy fractions. The chemistry fraction was The mineral standard set includes quartz, albite,
analysed at X-Ray Assay Laboratories using X- anorthite, K-feldspar, muscovite, biotite, kaoli-
Ray fluorescence, neutron activation and induc- nite, illite, smectite, chlorite, glauconite, calcite,
84 M. M. HERRON & S. L. HERRON
o 1~176
9 dP
%
e 9 1 4 90 ~ ~ 9 9 9 9 e"
10 20 0 5 0 2.5 5
Thorium ppm Uranium ppm Potassium wt%
loo
+t
_~ so
o
00
loo[
+/
10
t 9
Aluminum wt%
20 o 1
Titanium wt%
0
.,'.;
5
Gadolinium
.t
.
10
o 25 50 0 15 30 0 20 40
Silicon wt% Iron wt% Calcium wt%
Fig. 4. Comparison of individual chemical elements that can be measured by logging against total clay for Well 3.
A1 shows a strong positive correlation that is mirrored by the negative correlation with Si.
~5o
~r1~176" i I.=. .
O0 e~ II
9
~ Jp
_r --
o;=~'.;'10"< " " 20 0
w
5 10 0 2.5
Thorium ppm Uranium ppm Potassium wt%
100,
} 50 .=" -o-'
I.,../)--:-.
06
100,
lb
Aluminum wt%
20 o i
T'aanium wt%
0
_.
5
Gadolinium
10
f
I
-
-% ~149 ~ O~ 9
0 25 50 0 15 30 0 20 40
Silicon wt% Iron wt% Calcium wt%
Fig. 5. Comparison of individual chemical elements that can be measured by logging against total clay for Well 5.
A1 again shows a strong positive correlation with clay. The negative correlation with Si is slightly perturbed by
high Fe siderite samples.
,100] .
~ .fi"
:- ~ 9 ~0
I.%',,
10 20 0 5 10 0 2.5 5
Thorium ppm Uranium ppm Potassium wt%
k,..'
100, ,
o
o
~5oI '~:~"""
ee 9 9
9 e~po
d.'t' t
~~' lb
Aluminumwt*/,
20 0 1
Titanium wt*/,
2 0 5
Gadolinium
10
100 ....
i .
9 00
u." "4. ~
0 25 50 0 15 30 0 20 40
Silicon wt% Iron wt% Calcium wt%
Fig. 6. Comparison of individual chemical elements that can be measured by logging against total clay for Well 6.
A1 shows a strong positive correlation. The anticorrelation with Si is significantly perturbed by carbonates.
86 M.M. HERRON & S. L. HERRON
zero clay. With only log data, one must choose a comparison of clay with aluminium. In Well 3,
minimum and maximum gamma ray value aluminium displays a strong relationship with
without knowing the correspondence to real clay total clay. The remaining elements in this figure
concentrations, and the picture is further com- are some that can be obtained by prompt
plicated by porosity variations. For Well 11, the thermal neutron capture spectroscopy logging
minimum gamma ray value observed on the log devices. The two elements remaining in the
is about the same as the 50 API minimum second row of the figure are titanium and
computed for the core data. This value would gadolinium. These elements are commonly en-
normally be assigned to zero clay instead of the riched in shales, but they show only a loose
actual 25 wt% clay. Clearly, such a log correlation with total clay.
interpretation would severely under-estimate The third row holds the key to a new
the clay content in the well. technique for estimating clay. It begins with
The second dominant feature in Fig. 3 is the silicon, which is a major constituent of rock
scatter in the data, particularly in Wells 1-10. In forming minerals. Although silicon is commonly
these wells, even if the observed correlation associated with quartz, it is actually the second
between gamma ray and clay were known, the most abundant element after oxygen in both
scatter in the data would produce an uncertainty sandstones and shales. Because it is a major
of as much as +20 wt% clay or more. For Wells element, its abundance is not affected by trace
3, 5, 7 and 9, at levels of about 20% clay, minerals, and concentrations form a smooth
observed gamma ray values span almost the full continuum between high silicon sandstones and
range from clean sand to shale. The relative error medium silicon shales. For reference, quartz has
is particularly large in sands. 46.8 wt% silicon. The next element is iron, which
A third and less common feature is that some has numerous associations, including heavy
wells exhibit a small dynamic range in gamma minerals such as siderite, pyrite, hematite, and
ray while clay content varies considerably. This magnetite and the clay minerals illite, chlorite,
is notable in Well 12 which is a typical offshore glauconite and some smectites. High concentra-
Gulf of Mexico example. It is also true in Wells 4 tions of the heavy iron minerals can interrupt the
and 11. smooth relationship between silicon and clay
In spite of the problems outlined above, it content. The final element is calcium which is
would be possible to make good clay predictions mainly associated with the carbonate minerals
in Wells 2, 11 and 12 if detailed and accurate calcite and dolomite. The low calcium concen-
core data were available. Without such a trations indicate the absence of carbonate
calibration, it is doubtful that the picks for minerals in Well 3.
GRmax and GRmi n from the log data would The same type of comparison between total
match the core calibration parameters. clay and elemental concentrations is presented in
Fig. 5 for Well 5. For this well, none of the
Seeking an elemental alternative individual elements (Th, U and K) contributing
to natural gamma ray is any better correlated
One goal of this study is to identify an with clay than is total gamma ray. In contrast,
alternative, less subjective approach to determin- aluminium again shows a tight correlation with
ing clay content using elemental data available clay content. Silicon again shows a strong
from nuclear spectroscopy logging devices. The negative correlation with clay, but there are
technology exists to measure elemental concen- two data points which clearly deviate from the
trations from natural radioactivity (Th, U and major trend. These two samples contain 13 and
K), neutron activation (AI), and capture gamma 38 wt% siderite (FeCO3) as reflected by the two
ray spectroscopy (Si, Ca, Fe, Ti, Gd and S). high iron points. As in Well 3, the near absence
Figure 4 shows a comparison of clay content of calcium reflects the absence of calcite and
with all available logging elements (except sulfur) dolomite.
for Well 3. The three components of natural A final example of the element-clay compar-
gamma ray; Th, U, and K, are presented in the isons is presented in Fig. 6 for Well 6. In this
first row. Thorium and uranium show wide well, thorium and potassium exhibit positive
scatter and little correlation with clay. In this correlations with clay, but the degree of scatter
well, potassium shows a strong correlation with precludes the use of these elements for accurate
clay, but examination of data from four other clay prediction, especially at low clay contents.
wells in the field reveals that this correlation Aluminium again shows a strong positive corre-
breaks down entirely in sands containing less lation with clay. Silicon again shows a negative
than 25% clay. correlation with clay, but the impact of carbo-
The second row of Fig. 4 begins with a nate minerals on the silicon--clay curve is much
QUANTITATIVE LITHOLOGY 87
100 w a r
Well I .="/
_~ s o
100
Well5o Well6 o/ Well8 /
/
.'.s/
-./ . ; Y
/
100
I Well9 / Well1 2 ~
.
00
Aluminum
wt% Alumi10num
wt%
20 0 10
'
Aluminumwt%
20 0
Alumi1()num
wt%
20
Fig. 7. Aluminium versus total clay for all 12 wells. The correlation with total clay is much tighter for aluminium
than for GR. In addition, the slopes are about the same and most wells show a near-zero offset.
more obvious 9There are many samples with high The improvement of aluminium over gamma
calcium reflecting calcite concentrations that ray is marginal in Well 8, but it is significant for
range from 0 to 85 wt%. This mineral assem- the cleanest sands. In Wells 11 and 12, the
blage produces a ternary composition diagram in aluminium and gamma ray are comparable clay
the silicon-clay plot with the vertices represent- indicators if the core calibration is known.
ing pure carbonate, clean sand, and shale. However, a log interpreter who equates the
Summarizing the observations in Figs 4 minimum gamma ray response with zero clay
through 6, it appears that aluminium is the best introduces a 20 to 25 wt% error in the clay
single elemental indicator of clay. Silicon shows estimation.
a complementary anti-correlation to clay con- Aluminium has an even more striking relation-
tent, but the simple linear relationship between ship with the sum of clay plus mica. This is
silicon and clay is distorted by carbonate demonstrated in Fig. 8. Improvements in the
minerals. The carbonate content is chemically correlation with aluminium are most notable in
represented by calcium and/or iron. These trends Wells 7 and 8, and the effects are most obvious in
are typical of those observed in the other data the shales. The lines drawn in Fig. 8 represent a
sets. slope of 6.4 and the relationship for the first 10
Having observed the strong relationship be- wells has a correlation coefficient of 0.98. It is
tween aluminium and clay, it is useful to examine possible that some of the differences between
the data for all 12 wells, as shown in Fig. 7. In 10 Figs 7 and 8 are due to analytical interference
of the 12 wells, the slope of the aluminium-clay between illite and mica phases in shales 9 The
plot is nearly constant. In 9 of the 12 wells, the decision to include or exclude mica from the clay
intercept of the aluminium-clay linear relation- fraction depends on the application. Since micas
ship is essentially zero. Comparison between Fig. do not contribute significantly to clay counter-
7 and Fig. 3 shows that aluminium is a much ion conductivity, they are not generally included
better clay estimator than gamma ray in most in saturation interpretation. On the other hand,
wells. This is true even when a porosity-free core like clays, micas can be detrimental to formation
calibration is available for gamma ray, and it is productivity.
especially true in the sands 9 There are several reasons for the strong
88 M.M. HERRON & S. L. HERRON
100
I~
+
5c
100 ....
~;
+ 50 / ,/,
tO
|
lOO
Well1 0 / Well1 / Well 12
~ 50
0 lO
|
/ / , .......
Aluminum wt%
20 0 1'0
Aluminum wt% 20 0 1'0
Aluminum wt% 20 0 Aluminum
10
wt% 20
Fig. 8. Aluminium versus total clay +mica for all 12 wells shows an even tighter and more universal relationship
than aluminium versus clay.
correlation between aluminium and total clay into three plots. For samples containing more
mineral content. Clays are aluminosilicates; than 2 wt% organic carbon, the elemental data
aluminium is a major element in and an integral must be normalized to an organic-free matrix or
part of the chemical composition of virtually all else they will perturb the linear relationship.
clays. This is very different from the case of Earlier, Figs 4 to 6 showed that as clay
thorium and uranium which occur at trace (ppm) increases, silicon decreases. Therefore, as alumi-
levels and are not structural components of the nium increases, silicon decreases. In Fig. 9a,
clays. Of course, the clay-A1 relationship is a silicon is converted to SiO2 (by multiplying by
simplified picture and is not expected to be 2.139) and subtracted from 100. Now, we see
perfect. Different clay minerals have different A1 that as AI increases, 100-SiO2 also increases. In
concentrations and there are important nonclay this presentation, carbonate minerals drive the
minerals that contain aluminium. data toward A1 of zero and ( 1 0 0 - SiO2) values of
100 wt%. We can use concentrations of Ca and
Mg to compensate for the presence of calcite
Relationship between AI and Si, Ca, Mg and Fe (CaCO3) and dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2). Fig. 9b
shows that concentrations of A1 vary linearly
Although aluminium is the best element for clay when plotted against 1 0 0 - S i O 2 - CaCO3 - Mg-
estimation, its measurement in a borehole is CO3 concentrations and that the additional
accomplished by induced neutron activation and terms remove almost all of the disturbance of
currently requires a chemical source, two gamma that major trend. The few remaining outliers are
ray spectrometers, and an independent measure- predominantly siderite or pyrite, and they can be
ment of formation capture cross-section, making removed as 1.99Fe where the coefficient of 1.99 is
it an expensive measurement. Fortunately, an optimized on these data.
alternative exists due to the complementary The trend in Fig. 9c can be used to estimate
relationship between aluminium and the ele- the aluminium concentration from
ments silicon, calcium, magnesium and iron.
This relationship is illustrated in Fig. 9, which A1 = 0.34(100 - SiO2 - CaCO3 -
combines elemental data from all 12 data sets MgCO3-1.99Fe), (2)
QUANTITATIVE LITHOLOGY 89
.r
20[a I' b C
/
O Q
o 'ot ;
~ o 00
"10I f o
~< 0 U ; ,
2~IWe,./,5 "
IlU'
2O
<
e
| |
00 10 20 0 10 20 0 10 20 0 10 20
Aluminum Emulator Aluminum Emulator Aluminum Emulator AluminumE m u l a t o r
Fig. 10. Aluminium estimated from Si, Ca, Mg and Fe closely matches measured aluminium in all 12 wells.
which produces estimates of A1 with a correla- interpretation. This relationship can be quanti-
tion coefficient of 0.99 and a standard error of fied to estimate clay, and the elements calcium,
0.6 wt% A1. Figure 10 presents a comparison of magnesium, and sulfur can be used to estimate
measured A1 concentrations with those estimated the other major mineralogical components. The
from equation (2) for each of the 12 wells. mineralogical fractions defined here are different
Clearly, this is a robust means of estimating A1 from the lithologies commonly used in log
from Si, Ca, Mg and Fe. interpretation. The main difference is that a clay
fraction rather than a shale fraction is computed.
Quantitative lithology According to Bhuyan & Passey (1994), shales
commonly have about 60 wt% clay minerals and
The strong correlation between aluminium and 40 wt% Q - F - M . Using this ratio, a rock with 60
clay provides the cornerstone of the lithology wt% clay is 100 wt% shale. The other difference
90 M. M. HERRON & S. L. HERRON
100 ......... .,
]Well 1 ,~ / Well 4
01r
ol00[Well5 " / Well 6 " o / IWe"7/ jwey.
./
./
Iwe"
0[/r
'O01we"9/
0 50 1O0 0 50 100
l/. 50 1O0 0 50 1O0
Estimated Clay Estimated Clay Estimated Clay Estimated Clay
Fig. 11. Clay estimated from Si, Ca, Mg and Fe plotted against total clay for all 12 wells is a near duplicate of
Fig. 7.
is that the values determined here are all on minimum of 1.3 for Well 10.
porosity-free (or matrix) basis, and they are If we solve for clay plus mica (Fig. 8) instead
weight rather than volume fractions. of clay, we obtain the following equation:
estimating clay from elemental data. It has broad feldspathic sands, so the application of equation
applicability and does not require picks of
minimum and maximum values. Unlike neu-
t r o n - d e n s i t y separation, equation 3 is not
affected by the presence of light hydrocarbons
or gas. Although the slope would vary if
loo ;g/
(5) requires some external knowledge.
Clay2 = -20.8 + 3.1 (100 - SiO2 - Here, the non-zero offset of - 7 . 5 wt% accounts
for the small calcium contribution from plagio-
C a C O 3 - M g C O 3 - 1.99Fe) (5)
clase feldspar in sandstones, and the offset and
oo[ o
so
0
0 50 100 0 50 100 0 50 100
E~imated Clay wt% Estimated Carbonate wt% Estimated Q-F-M wt%
Fig. 14. Comparison of estimated and measured quantities of clay, carbonate, and quartz-feldspar-mica on
samples from all 12 wells.
10 20 30 40
This three component lithological description is Estimated Anhydrite wt%
easily modified to accommodate formations Fig. 15. Comparison of estimated and measured
containing significant amounts of anhydrite or quantity of anhydrite on a single dataset.
gypsum. The anhydrite estimate precedes the
carbonate estimate to separate carbonate cal- Application to log data
cium from anhydrite calcium. Two estimates of
anhydrite are made, one from sulfur and one The ultimate goal of this study is to identify an
from calcium, according to stoichiometric rela- objective, robust, and efficient means of estimat-
tionships where the sulfur concentration in ing lithology from spectroscopy logs. The two
anhydrite is 23.55 wt. % and the calcium simultaneous developments that have made this
concentration is 29.44 wt.%. possible are the determination of elemental
QUANTITATIVE LITHOLOGY 93
concentrations from induced gamma ray spec- Well 8 is probably the worst example of the A1-
troscopy logs and the derivation of the lithology clay relationship.
algorithms presented above. The interpretation of the cased hole spectro-
To apply these relationships using the data scopy logs from Well 3 (Fig. 2) is presented in
from Figs 1 and 2 requires that the clay Fig. 17. The agreement between core and log
algorithms be modified to account for the known data is quite spectacular considering that these
aluminium interference in the iron measurement. measurements are made with a ll~in, diameter
Equations (3), (4) and (5) for computing clay or tool through casing and cement.
clay plus mica become:
Conclusions
ClayL = 1.91(100 -- SiO2 - CaCO3 - 1.99FeA1) (9)
The quantitative lithology presented here has
Clay + MicaL = 2.43(100 -- SiO2 - been optimized on core data from numerous
wells from around the world. The lithological
CaCO3-1.99FeA1) (10) fractions of clay, carbonate, anhydrite, and
quartz-feldspar-mica are ideally suited for the
Clay2L = -- 18.5 + 3.34(100-- elemental concentration logs of silicon, calcium,
SiO2-- CaCO3 - 1.99FeA1) (11) iron, and sulfur, which can be acquired by single,
induced gamma ray spectroscopy logs. These
where the L subscript designates the application elemental concentration logs could be available
to log data. FeA1 designates the quantity that in both open and cased hole. The strength of this
would be detected as iron by a spectroscopy elemental approach to estimating lithology lies in
device and is equal to Fe + 0.14A1. the use of major element chemistry as opposed to
The clay, carbonate and Q - F - M fractions trace element chemistry which can be so easily
calculated using the Fig. 1 open hole spectro- impacted by sediment diagenesis, depositional
scopy data from Well 8 are presented in Fig. 16. environment, or the spurious introduction of
Also shown are the core clay, carbonate and Q - small amounts of heavy minerals. The elements
F - M fractions determined from the F T A R used are major element contributors to the rock-
mineralogy. The agreement between core and forming minerals. Their concentrations in a
log data is quite good, in spite of the fact that given mineral are relatively stable, and the
20("
40( =......
w 9
60( E
80(
l_
t-t
A
100( =
120(
1400
F"-"
160C
0 50 1 O0 0 50 1 O0 0 50 1 O0
Clay, wt% Carbonate, wt% Quartz-Feld-Mica, wt%
Fig. 16. Quantitative lithology logs for Well 8 using the openhole elemental concentration logs shown in Fig. 1.
FT-IR core measurements are provided for comparison.
94 M.M. HERRON & S. L. HERRON
x 10 4
1.01 !
1.03
L
[-
1.05 B
L
1.07 ~:" i
0 50 1 O0 0 50 O0 0 50 1 O0
Clay, wt% Carbonate, wt% Quartz-Feld-Mica, wt%
Fig. 17. Quantitative lithology logs for Well 3 using the cased hole elemental concentration logs shown in Fig. 1.
FT-IR core measurements are provided for comparison.
minerals in which they occur are generally paper DDD. In: 35th Annual Logging Symposium
abundant. Transactions: Society of Professional Well Log
The S i - C a - F e aluminium emulator gives a Analysts, pp. D1 15.
demonstrably superior clay interpretation com- ELLIs, D. V. 1987. Well Logging for Earth Scientists.
Elsevier, New York.
pared to that available from gamma ray. Its GRAU, J. A. & SCHWEITZER, J. S. 1989. Elemental
strength lies in the near constant slope, small concentrations from thermal neutron capture
degree of scatter, and near zero intercept. It is gamma-ray spectra in geological formations.
also independent of fluid volume, type and Nuclear Geophysics, 3, 1 9.
density, rendering it free from gas or light --, ELLIS, D. V. & HERTZOa, R. C. 1989.
hydrocarbon effects, unlike the neutron-density A geological model for gamma-ray spectroscopy
separation. logging measurements. Nuclear Geophysics, 3,
The calcium log provides an unparalleled 351-359.
carbonate estimation. It provides carbonate HERRON, S. L. 1995. Method and apparatus for
determining elemental concentrations for "/ ray
quantification in complex lithologies. In heavy spectroscopy tools, U.S. Patent 5,471,057.
barite muds, it easily and accurately locates - - & HERRON,M. M. 1996. Quantitative lithology:
carbonate cementation at levels of 10 to 20 wt% An application for open and eased hole spectro-
which were previously undetected by conven- scopy. In. 37th Annual Logging Symposium
tional log interpretation. The sulfur log provides Transactions: Society of Professional Well Log
a very accurate estimate of anhydrite which is of Analysts, pp. E1 14.
greatest value in carbonate/evaporate lithologies. HERTZOG,R. C., COLSON,L., SEEMAN,B., O'BRIEN,M.,
While the relationships presented here have SCOTT, H., McKEoN, D., WRA~GHT,P., GRAU, L,
demonstrated a large degree of universality, each ELLlS, D., SCHWEITZER, J. & HERRON, M. 1987.
Geochemical logging with spectrometry tools,
algorithm can be further optimized on a field or SPE-16792. In. 62nd Annual Technical Confer-
regional basis to give improved lithological ence and Exhibition Proceedings: Society of
estimates. Petroleum Engineers.
HURST,A. & MILODOWSK1,T. 1994. Characterization of
References clays in sandstones: Thorium content and spectral
log data, paper S. In: Sixteenth European Forma-
BHVVAN, K. & PASSEY, Q. R. 1994. Clay estimation tion Evaluation Symposium: Society of Profes-
from GR and neutron~tensity porosity logs, sional Well Log Analysts.
QUANTITATIVE LITHOLOGY 95
KATAHARA, K. W. 1995. Gamma ray log response in tubing carbon-oxygen logging tools, paper QQ.
shaley sands. The Log Analyst, 36, 50--55. In: in 34th Annual Logging Symposium Transac-
MATTESON, A. & HERRON, M. M. 1993. Quantitative tions: Society of Professional Well Log Analysts.
mineral analysis by Fourier transform infrared SCHWEITZER, J. S., ELLIS, D. V., GRAU, J. A. &
spectroscopy, Society of Core Analysts Technical HERTZOG, R. C. 1988. Elemental concentrations
Conference, August 9 11, 1993, SCA 9308. from gamma-ray spectroscopy logs. Nuclear Geo-
RoscoE, B., GRAU, L, CAO MINH, C. (~; FREEMAN, D. physics, 2, 175 181.
1995 Non-conventional applications of through-
The comparison of core and geophysical log measurements obtained in
the Nirex investigation of the Sellafield region
A. K I N G D O N , S. F. ROGERS, C. J. E V A N S & N. R. B R E R E T O N
British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottingham, NG12 5GG, UK
Abstract: The Sellafield region, west Cumbria, is the focus of one of the most thorough
geological investigations in the United Kingdom. The Sellafield Site is defined as an area
immediately around the potential repository, extending 6.5 km north-south by 8 km east-
west. Twenty six deep boreholes were drilled within the area up to the end of 1995, with a
total depth of approximately 28 km. Most of these boreholes have been continuously cored,
a total of over 17 kilometres of core, with average core recovery well in excess of 90%. All
boreholes were logged with a comprehensive suite of geophysical logs, including many state
of the art tools. Laboratory physical property analysis of hundreds of sample cores has been
carried out.
Pilot studies were carried out to compare and contrast datasets and to investigate the
relationships between the different data scales. Various techniques, including fractal analysis
and Artificial Neural Networks, were tried in order to explore the relationships of these data
at a variety of measurement scales.
The pilot study was conducted in two stages:
(1) evaluation of the primary controlling factors of the physical properties;
(2) testing the validity of 'Up-scaling'.
The rocks of the Borrowdale Volcanic Group provided the most challenging problems
due to the physical properties being dominated by fracturing and associated alteration
zones.
Relationships between data types at different scales were established suggesting that the
extrapolation of properties derived from core and wireline logs across three-dimensional
seismic grids would allow an understanding of the properties throughout a three-
dimensional volume.
Nirex is responsible for the development of a excavations and to allow in situ experiments
deep geological repository for solid, intermedi- on rock and groundwater behaviour. These
ate level and some low-level radioactive wastes. measurements were required to provide infor-
Following preliminary geological investigations mation on ground conditions that could only be
of two sites, an area near Sellafield, west obtained from an underground facility and to
Cumbria, was chosen in 1991 for further study. test models of the geology, hydrogeology and
The Nirex science programme aimed to assess geotechnical characteristics and behaviour of the
the suitability of the Sellafield site as the host for rocks.
the repository. Such an assessment required, In the course of the Sellafield site investiga-
among other things, an understanding of the tions, data at a range of scales from microscopic
geology and hydrogeological characteristics of to regional have been collected. The large
the area. volume of data available from the Nirex
The Sellafield region in west Cumbria, Eng- investigations presents problems with respect to
land was the focus of one of the most detailed the estimation of properties at the very large
site investigations projects ever undertaken. This scales required by performance models. In most
investigation aimed to characterize the geology practical applications, the scale of the sample
and hydrogeology of the site to determine measurements is not directly comparable with
whether the site at Sellafield showed sufficient the scale required for the model estimates needed
promise of meeting regulatory targets to permit for the calculations. It is important to evaluate
Nirex to submit a planning application for a the scale of the sample data and the scale
deep repository. An underground Rock Char- required for the final estimates and to apply
acterization Facility (RCF) had been proposed some correction to the sample scale, if they are
in order to allow more detailed characterization different. This corrective process is generally
of the geology and hydrogeology of the area termed 'up-scaling'. In the context of Sellafield,
using direct observations from underground physical property parameters important to the
KINGDON, A., ROGERS, S. F., EVANS, C. J. & BRERETON,N. R. 1998. The comparison of core and 97
geophysical log measurements obtained in the Nirex investigation of the Sellafield region.
In: HARVEY,P. K. & LOVELL,M. A. (eds) Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London,
Special Publications, 136, 97-113
98 A. KINGDON E T AL.
Fig. 1. Location of the Sellafield boreholes and the potential repository zone.
construction of underground vaults required, on Gosforth. The key task of this study was to
the scale of tens of metres may only be measured define an index of rock properties derived from
on core samples at the scale of centimetres or geophysical log measurements down each of the
from geophysical logging of the boreholes at a boreholes in the PRZ. This index was then used
scale of a few metres. to extrapolate those properties across a volume,
The difficulty of extrapolating properties as sampled by the three-dimensional seismic
using data from varying scales makes it difficult survey, aiming to allow prediction of rock
to use data derived at one scale, for example properties at any location within that volume.
borehole core, to another, such as a three-
dimensional seismic survey. In the context of the Location and geological setting
Sellafield investigations, parameters that are
important to tunnelling, such as indices of rock The Sellafield site is in west Cumbria, England
strength need to be derived at one scale and then and situated between the coast of the East Irish
extrapolated to another scale. Techniques to Sea and the Lake District National Park. A map
allow this to be undertaken must have therefore of the area is shown as Fig. 1. Up to the end of
to be both derived and tested. 1995 twenty-six boreholes were drilled within the
This paper examines the possible techniques area as part of the site investigation. The
for comparing data derived at three separate geology from each borehole has been fully
scales: borehole core (centimetre scale), geophy- described ( Nirex 1993; 1995a,b).
sical borehole logs (metre scale) and three- The regional basement in the Sellafield area is
dimensional seismic survey data (10 metre scale). the Borrowdale Volcanic Group (BVG) which
In particular, mathematical techniques were consists of a complex group of Ordovician tufts,
studied that examine relationships between data lapilli tufts and acidic lavas with local inter-
scales; thus demonstrating the validity of the mediate and basic intrusions, and volcaniclastic
methodology of 'up-scaling'. sediments. (Millward et al. 1994). The BVG was
This study largely concentrated on the Poten- deposited as a largely sub-aerial volcanic system
tial Repository Zone (PRZ) an approximately formed by an island arc on the southern margin
four square kilometre area near the village of of the Iapetus Ocean. The BVG is unconform-
THE NIREX INVESTIGATION OF THE SELLAFIELD REGION 99
ably overlain by a south-westerly thickening penetrated to 1600m below ground level. All
Carboniferous Limestone and Permo-Triassic boreholes have been cored from within the St
succession. The Permo-Triassic forms the sub- Bees Sandstone succession to terminal depth
crop across most of the Sellafield area. within the BVG, with total core recovery in
The BVG and (where present) the Carboni- excess of 95% (close to 100% in some of the
ferous Limestone are unconformably overlain later boreholes). In addition, a high quality trial
by the Brockram, a Permian fluvial breccia three-dimensional seismic survey has been ac-
conglomerate with up to cobble sized clasts. The quired across part of the PRZ area. Data
upper part of the Brockram near the coast acquired within the PRZ area therefore allows
passes laterally into the St Bees Shale and particular scope for both deriving detailed rock
Evaporite (Nirex 1993). The St Bees Evaporite properties and up-scaling between different
comprises dolomite and anhydrite, and the St datasets.
Bees Shale is a laminated sandstone, siltstone
and claystone formation. The St Bees Shale is
conformably overlain by the dominantly fluvial Deriving characteristic rock properties
St Bees Sandstone (Barnes et al. 1994) of
Triassic age. This is a sandstone and claystone, The first stage of this project involved the
with the claystone increasing markedly down derivation of the average rock properties in each
succession, particularly in the North Head borehole, for each of the major formations in the
Member at the base. The St Bees Sandstone is Sellafield area. These average properties were
overlain by the Triassic aeolian Calder Sand- then used to determine whether a particular
stone which forms the subcrop in the PRZ area. formation was essentially constant across the
The easternmost of the Sellafield boreholes area or whether there were significant regional
(9A and 9B) were drilled into outcropping BVG and/or local variations in the rock properties.
with the Permo-Triassic succession outcropping Where significant variations in rock properties
to the southwest of these boreholes. This were found the possible causes for the variation
succession thickens towards the southwest were examined. This exercise was first carried
reaching a thickness of 1700m at the Irish Sea out on a regional scale and then concentrated in
coast. In the PRZ area there is 400 to 500 m of more detail upon the PRZ area.
sedimentary cover overlying the basement. Rock properties were studied by comparison
The Permo-Triassic succession occurs on the of geophysical borehole logs from across the
eastern margin of the East Irish Sea Basin, an area. Geophysical logs were chosen because of
extensional basin associated with prolonged the consistent way that the data was acquired,
east-west extension resulting in the dominantly both in terms of techniques and sampling rates.
north-south faulting seen today (Jackson et al., This allows for easy comparison between bore-
1995). holes some distance apart. The main character-
istics of the rock properties studied were
Data sources identified by statistical and graphical techniques
of data comparison.
High quality geological and geophysical data
have been acquired across the Sellafield region Stud), o f velocity
during the site investigation. All twenty-six
boreholes have been geophysically logged using Although many rock properties have been
comprehensive suites of state of the art tools, measured at various scales, compressional velo-
including borehole imaging. In addition, the city is one of the few to have been measured at
boreholes have been extensively cored, allowing all scales, from core to seismic scale. It was
continuous detailed geological and discontinuity therefore chosen as the most representative
description to be undertaken. Detailed gravity property for analysis as an example of the
and magnetic survey data has been acquired average rock property behaviour. The compres-
across the Sellafield region, as well as two- sional velocity of a rock formation is controlled
dimensional seismic data. by the matrix density, the porosity and the fluid
The geology of the PRZ area has been the composition.
subject of a highly detailed investigation. Up to Compressional velocity data for each of the
the end of 1995 eleven boreholes (Boreholes 2, 4 three data scales were derived by different
& 5; RCF1, 2 & 3, RCM1, 2 & 3; PRZ2 & 3) techniques. Core scale data for each of the main
were drilled within an area measuring only rock types were provided by laboratory testing
1200 m by 800 m across the ground surface. All on core samples. Wireline log scale data were
penetrated to the BVG, the deepest borehole derived from sonic velocity logging. Larger scale
100 A. KINGDON ET AL.
Fig. 2. Percentage frequency histogram of bulk compressional velocity for the main stratigraphic units of the
PRZ.
data were derived directly from the two way Regional studies of velocity
transit velocities from seismic survey informa-
tion. The regional pattern of velocity was studied
Figure 2 shows a frequency histogram of bulk using graphs of midpoint depth against mean
compressional velocity. This shows the velocity formation velocity for each borehole. The
distributions for the three rock types present in midpoint depth of a formation is defined as the
this area (the St Bees Sandstone, Brockram and point equidistant between the top and base of
BVG) in the PRZ. The statistics are derived the sampled section of a formation, regardless of
from the total geophysical logging measure- whether the borehole had sampled the entire
ments in each borehole from within the area. thickness of the formation. This allows compar-
The mean velocity of the St Bees Sandstone is ison of the compressional velocities between
shown to be between 3.5 to 4.5 kms -l, the boreholes without any overprinting of the effects
Brockram between 4.5 to 5.5 kms -1 and the of velocity changes within the formation. The
BVG between 6.0 to 7.0 km s 1. mean velocities have been derived from geophy-
Variations in velocity within the range for the sical logs of the formation and are expressed on
individual rock type are caused by differences in the graph as kilometres per second.
the properties of the materials. This study aimed Figure 3 is a graph of midpoint depth against
to identify these differences and to attempt to velocity for the St Bees Sandstone in each of the
understand their origin. boreholes in the Sellafield region where the
More detailed studies of the nature of the formation is present. Figure 4 shows the same
velocity distributions have been made for two data types for the BVG. Boreholes are shown
rock types: the St Bees Sandstone and the BVG. using different symbols depending on whether
This was done initially on a regional scale and they fall inside or outside the boundaries of the
subsequently more locally in the PRZ area. The PRZ area. Also plotted on the graph are typical
Brockram is of a fairly consistent thickness core sample data that have been pressurized
across the Sellafield Region (approximately under laboratory conditions to simulated
100m) and shows remarkably homogeneous depths.
properties. As a consequence, no further attempt
has been made to characterize variation in rock Results of studies of velocity against midpoint
properties for this lithology. depths. Figure 3 shows that mean compressional
THE NIREX INVESTIGATION OF THE SELLAFIELD REGION 101
Fig. 3. A graph of midpoint depth against compressional velocity for the St Bees Sandstone.
Fig. 4. A graph of midpoint depth against velocity for the Borrowdale Volcanics Group.
102 A. KINGDON ET AL.
velocity of the St Bees Sandstone increases with the material being sufficiently small that the
midpoint depth in a smooth curve. This ex- compaction effect is not as significant. Of greater
ponential increase in velocity with depth is well significance to the properties of the core samples
documented as being caused by decreasing is the fact that core tests were by definition
effective porosity due to increased overburden carried out on samples of intact rock. The
pressure (Birch 1960). The results from the core properties of these samples therefore varies from
samples also demonstrate that increasing depth the bulk rock sampled by geophysical logs,
results in an increase in compressional velocity. which includes the effects of non-intact and
The velocity results from the core samples is fractured rock. This suggests that the variations
somewhat lower than the velocities from equiva- of the bulk rock properties from those of intact
lent bulk depths derived from geophysical logs rock may be a consequence of the discontinuities
in the boreholes. This is a consequence of the within the rock mass.
samples being tested whilst dry (i.e. the pore space
was air filled rather than saturated with water). Local studies gf velocity
Figure 4 shows a plot of midpoint depth
against compressional velocity for those bore- More detailed analysis of the bulk rock velocity
holes in the Sellafield region where the BVG is properties for the boreholes in the PRZ region
present. This plot shows a relatively complex was carried out using box and whisker plots.
pattern in comparison with the St Bees Sand- Box and whisker plots (Figs 5, 6 and 7 and 11)
stone. are a graphical technique which permits an
Most boreholes show a mean velocity over the overview of a complete data distribution,
BVG interval of between 5.0 to 5.5 km s l.The excluding only anomalous data at the extremes
boreholes in the PRZ area (with the exception of of the distribution. This permits the statistical
borehole PRZ3) showing a distinct clustering of comparison of almost the entire data distribu-
mean velocities. Three boreholes 9B, 8B and tion between all the boreholes. The variation in
PRZ3 show significantly lower mean velocities. the range of data as well as average properties
The first two of these boreholes penetrate a short can therefore be assessed. Figure 5 shows the
distance into the BVG. Detailed logging of the symbols used to describe different parts of the
Borehole 8B core (Nirex 1995a) suggested that data distribution on box and whisker plots.
the top section of the BVG is highly altered, Figure 6 is a box and whisker plot of the
which was the only part of the BVG sampled in velocity distributions of the St Bees Sandstone
this borehole. In the case of Borehole 9B, which for the boreholes in the PRZ. The column on the
was drilled where the BVG outcrops at surface, right-hand side of this diagram shows the
the rocks will have been affected by recent combined properties for all the boreholes. The
weathering. As these effects will have had a quartile range of the velocity for all the PRZ
significant influence on rock properties of these boreholes is between 3.6 and 4.4 kms 1. The
two boreholes, the data are not comparable with bulk rock properties from all boreholes are
the other boreholes and they have not therefore essentially consistent between all the PRZ bore-
been included in the study of the average rock holes. This indicates that there is little regional
properties of the deep BVG. In the case of variation in the bulk rock properties of the St
borehole PRZ3, where the BVG is covered by a Bees Sandstone in this area.
thick Permo-Triassic succession, the difference Two additional datasets are also displayed on
could not be readily explained in this way and this plot, the core properties and the faulted rock
the BVG velocities from this borehole are properties. Core properties were derived from
therefore seen to be significantly anomalous. laboratory tests on intact core samples. Labora-
An independent quality assurance check of the tory testing of the properties of the fault rock
geophysical logging of Borehole PRZ3 did not was difficult as fault rock is by definition non-
indicate any systematic error in the acquisition intact. The fault properties shown here were
and processing stages. Borehole PRZ3 was therefore derived from geophysical log measure-
targeted to intersect a fault, Fault F1, in the ments. The standard geophysical log measuring
BVG and it is likely that the mean velocity increment of 6 inches (15.24cm) means that
results from this borehole reflect a large propor- statistically valid samples are hard to obtain
tion of 'faulted rock'. from faults with limited borehole intersections.
The velocities of the available core samples in Therefore properties were only derived for faults
the BVG are slightly higher than the wireline with borehole intersections greater than 50
derived mean formation velocities, despite the centimetres.
core samples again having been tested whilst The core sample seismic velocities are seen to
dry. This is inferred to be due to the porosity of be much lower (interquartile range for all
THE NIREX INVESTIGATION OF THE SELLAFIELD REGION 103
95%
5%
5.0
1596 1378 1647 2411 2506 2293 2428 1627 2645 2605 2475 23611
?-7 10 9 22 75 18 9 121 59
4.5-
~'~ 4.0--
r~
I I
3.5-
3.0--
tI
I ,., I ,., I - I ~ i ~ i .~ i .~, i ,~ i ~.~ i ~ i ,0,, i ~. I
BOREHOLE NAMES
Fig. 6. Box and whisker plot of compressional velocity for the St Bees Sandstone Group.
boreholes 3.4 to 3.8 k m s -1) than those of the datasets was hampered by the small number of
bulk rock as they were tested on dry samples (see sample points and the sampling bias, it is clear
above). The fault data are also somewhat lower that the properties of fault rock are significantly
(interquartile range for all boreholes 3.3 to 3.9 different to the bulk rock. This can be seen in the
k m s 1). Whilst the interpretation of these two 'total column' which includes the summed data
104 A. KINGDON E T AL.
7.0
7238 5482 4950 168 389 3878 3@66 2911 14188 1480 3046 34896
85 t l i 378 76 104 75 27 77 118 23 43 28 119 1002 262
6.0
5.0"
B
tt
4.0'
ti
3.0
BOREHOLE NAMES
I
Fig. 7. Box and whisker plot of compressional velocity for the Borrowdale Volcanic Group.
Fig. 8. Cross-plot of density against neutron porosity fo the St Bees Sandstone Group showing depth as the z-axis.
THE NIREX INVESTIGATION OF THE SELLAFIELD REGION 105
Fig. 9. Cross plot of density against neutron porosity for the St Bees Sandstone Group showing gamma ray as the
z-axis.
106 A. KINGDON E T AL.
Fig. 10. Cross plot of shallow resistivity against neutron porosity for the Borrowdale Volcanic Group.
Fig. 11. Box and whisker plot of gamma ray for the Borrowdale Volcanic Group.
THE NIREX INVESTIGATION OF THE SELLAFIELD REGION 107
Fig. 13. Log-log plot showing fractal distribution of borehole discontinuities in borehole 8B.
done firstly to assess whether fracture distribu- (frequent) events. In this case, classes of 0.1 m to
tions were fractal at each scale and then to see 100m were used as applicable to borehole
whether any link between data at the two scales discontinuity spacing, covering three full log
could be established. cycles. In order to analyse the data an approx-
imate geometric progression was used to divide
Discontinuity separation the data up into frequency classes suitable for
log-log output.
Various techniques have been derived to study The cumulative frequency data wwere plotted
the fractal dimension for a distribution of as a log-log plot. To be considered fractal the
naturally occurring phenomena. This study was distribution had to plot as a straight line
carried out using the Spacing Population Tech- (showing that the relationship is scale invariant
nique (after Harris et al. 1991) which is both and conforms to the following function):
straight forward and applicable to the type of y=ax - D
data to be examined.
The basic dataset for this study was the where: y = probability (cumulative frequency);
borehole discontinuity log, produced for Nirex a = a prefactor;
by Gibb Deep Geology Group (GDGG) from x = the discontinuity spacing;
direct measurement of the core. This lists, for D = t h e line gradient (i.e. the fractal
each borehole, all the occurrences of faults, dimension).
veins, joints and other discontinuities, ordered For a distribution to be considered fractal the
by depth. All discontinuities with a non-struc- data should be linear across at least one order of
tural origin were removed, such as bedding magnitude.
features, stylolites in the Carboniferous Lime-
stone and those fractures in the core that were Results of fractal analysis
induced by the drilling process.
Figure 13 shows a cumulative frequency log-log
Methodology plot for Borehole 8B, which gives the results of
the fractal analysis of borehole discontinuities in
The Spacing Population Technique is based on this borehole. Some of the limitations of the
cumulative frequency distributions derived in- fractal technique are demonstrated by this
crementally from large (infrequent) to small dataset. Whilst natural fractals should be proved
THE NIREX INVESTIGATION OF THE SELLAFIELD REGION 109
Fig. 14. Log-log plot showing fractal modelling of seismic scale faults for the base Carboniferous.
to exist in any relationship over several orders of sampled by boreholes, occur only infrequently
magnitude, any single measurement technique and the dataset is statistically insignificant in any
may only characterize a subset of this total one borehole. Therefore another measurement
range. The limits for identification of fractal technique must be used to sample the larger
patterns are often therefore controlled by faults. An obvious alternative method is to
limitations in the sampling method. In this study examine faults identified from a two-dimen-
for instance the core fracture dataset was reliant sional seismic grid. This dataset was used in this
on the human eye to identify individual frac- study for a comparison with the borehole
tures. derived results. It was important to make clear
Very closely spaced fractures lead inevitably at this stage that these were not identical
to highly broken core and poor core recovery, so datasets simply measured at different scales.
that such zones are preferentially under- Seismic reflection profiles (and in particular
sampled. Rock, heavily fractured by localized, widely spaced two-dimensional seismic data)
closely spaced events is essentially indistinguish- tend to resolve only large scale fault zones
able from large fractures and will behave in a rather than distinguishing individual minor fault
similar way. Major fault systems have not been strands such as those which would be delineated
sufficiently sampled by boreholes to permit from borehole core.
fractal analysis at this scale, whereas the three-
dimensional seismic survey only identifies faults Methodology
either by 'significant' offset of marker lithologi-
cal contacts or directly where the thickness of In order to get an acceptable level of coverage of
fault-rock is sufficient to cause a velocity fault features with a common resolution, off-
contrast. Also the Sellafield Site boreholes shore seismic reflection data from near the
cannot be labelled a random unbiased dataset, Sellafield site were used for this study. Unlike
as some of the boreholes were specifically boreholes, which essentially sample a one-
targeted at some of the major faults in the dimensional environment, the interpreted seis-
region. mic fault maps used in this part of the study
The borehole 8B fracture set shows a clear were two-dimensional in character. The dataset
fractal relationship over two orders of magni- in this case were fault maps stored in a database
tude, i.e. at fracture spacings from 20cm to of faults derived from V U L C A N software
10m, with a regression coefficient of modelling of the regional structure.
R 2= 0.9996, very close to a perfect straight line. A different sampling technique was used in
order to develop cumulative frequency data. In
Fractal events at the seismic scale this case a two-dimensional 'box counting'
method was applied. This was done by over-
Large events, such as major faults, although laying the maps to be studied with grids of
110 A. KINGDON ET AL.
Fig. 15. Log-log plot showing fractal modelling of seismic scale faults for the base permo-trials.
Fig. 17. Results of neural network modelling for RCFl: zonation of fracturing from actual and predicted fracture
frequency.
Fig. 18. Results of neural networks modelling for RCF2: zonation of fracturing from actual and predicted
fracture frequency.
complex non-linear behaviour. A N N s can Neural networks may allow another approach in
'learn' to recognize patterns in data and develop identifying fracture frequency.
their own generalizations. A diagrammatic
model of an idealized artificial neural network Multi-layer preceptron
is shown in Fig. 16.
Fracture frequency measured from borehole This study used a type of A N N called a multi-
core was not easy to predict with any degree of layer preceptron (MLP) to model the relation-
accuracy from conventional geophysical log ship between core derived fracture frequency
measurements. Whilst borehole imaging tools and geophysical log measurements.
go some way to addressing this issue, it was not The MLP consists of a series of simple
always possible to distinguish between features processing elements (nodes) connected to one
such as bedding features and discontinuities. another. In operation the node receives several
ll2 A. KINGDON ET AL.
derived from core can be up-scaled to be considerable more research to prove valid. If
modelled by geophysical logs. suitable algorithms can be derived, then extra-
polation of geophysical parameters derived from
Comparison of RMR and conventional wire- geophysical logs or cores, across a three-dimen-
sional seismic grid, should allow detailed pre-
line logs diction of the properties for that volume of the
The rock mass rating (RMR) is an industry rock mass.
standard rock quality and strength index derived
from direct measurement of the physical attri- References
butes of the core and is completely independent
of wireline log measurements. This measurement BARNES, R. P., AMBROSE, K., HOLLIDAY, D. W. &
JONES, N. S. 1994. Lithostratigraphic subdivision
allows an accurate assessment of rock strength,
of the Triassic Sherwood Sandstone Group in
but is labour intensive and therefore expensive West Cumbria. Proceedings of the Yorkshire
to collect. R M R is calculated for whole and Geological Society, 50, 51-61.
partial core runs and is reported for Boreholes BIRCH, F. 1960. The velocity of compressional waves in
RCF1, RCF2 and RCF3 in 3 m intervals. Figure rocks to l0 kilobars, Part 1. Journal of Geophy-
19 shows the results of a comparison of R M R sical Research, 65, 1083-1102.
with two conventional wireline log measure- CHADWICK,R. A., KIRBY, G. A. & BAILY,H. E. 1994.
ments from the same borehole over a given The post-Triassic structural evolution of north-
interval. The degree of correlation between these west England and adjoining parts of the East Irish
Sea. Proceedings of the Yorkshire Geological
two sets of measurements is high despite the
Society, 50, 91-103.
wholly different derivation and supports upscal- CHAeLOW, R. 1996. The geology and hydrogeology of
ing of the wireline log data from a measurement Sellafield : an overview. Proceedings of the
scale of 15cm to at least 3 m by simple NIREX seminar, 11 May 1994. Quarterly Journal
arithmetic averaging. of Engineering Geology, 29, Supplement 1.
HARRIS, C., FRANSSEN, R. & LOOSVELD, R. 1991.
Fractal analysis of fractures in rocks: the Cantors
Conclusion dust method-comment, Tectonophysics, 198, 189-
Whilst neither the fractals nor the artificial 197.
HIRATA,T. 1989. Fractal Dimension of fault systems in
neural network derived models showed exact
Japan: fractal structure in rock fracture geometry
matches with the core derived data from which at various scales. Journal of Geophysical Research.
they were extrapolated, both showed that there 94, 7507-7514
was considerable scope for the belief that using JACKSON,D. I., JACKSON,A. A., EVANS,D., WINGEIELD,
the correct criteria, it is possible to up-scale data R. T. R., BARNES,R. P. & ARTHUR, M. J. 1995.
to match both wireline and seismic scale data. United Kingdom offshore regional report. the
The Rock Characterization Facility (RCF) geology of the Irish Sea. British Geological
proposed at Sellafield requires detailed rock Survey.
properties to be derived from boreholes and MILLWARD, O., BEDDOE-StEPHENS, B., WILLIAMSON, I.
T., YOUNG, S. R. & PETTERSON, M. G. 1994.
extrapolated across a wider area to allow for
Lithostratigraphy of a concealed caldera-related
prediction of the likely tunnelling parameters. ignimbrite sequence within the Borrowdale Vol-
Where three-dimensional seismic survey data are canic Group of west Cumbria, Proceedings of the
available across an area, it should be possible to Yorkshire Geological Society, 50, 25-36.
derive rock properties at a borehole scale and NIREX, 1993. The Geology and hydrogeology of the
extrapolate them across a three-dimensional Sellafield area, Volume 1: The Geology. Nirex
volume to give an accurate prediction of the report 524.
nature of the RCF site. This was dependent NIREX, 1995a. The Geology of the Sellafield Boreholes
upon a detailed knowledge of the rock proper- Nos. 8A and 8B. Nirex report 638.
NIREX, 1995b. Sellafield geological and hydrogeological
ties and accurate correlation of core and seismic
investigations. Factual report-compilation of maps
properties. and drawings, Volume 1 of 2. Nirex report SA/95/
The concept of up-scaling parameters derived 02.
at one scale to another may be feasible but needs
Forward modelling of the physical properties of oceanic sediments:
constraints from core and logs, with palaeoclimatic implications
Abstract: A new methodological approach based on the analysis of core data, logs and high-
resolution electrical images of borehole surfaces (FMS) is developed in order to improve the
study of oceanic sediments from physical properties. This approach is tested on data
obtained in the context of the Ocean Drilling Program (Japan Sea, Leg 128, Hole 798B). The
downhole measurements and FMS images exhibit a cyclic pattern reflecting variations in
oceanic surface productivity combined with continental aeolian supply due to palaeocli-
matic changes. On the basis of m-scale physical measurements, cm-scale FMS images and
measurements on core, the objective is to deconvolve the variations in sedimentary supply of
oceanic and continental components through time and to compute the intrinsic formation
factor versus depth. The latter topic is approached in two ways: first by conventional log
analysis, then with a new iterative forward modelling method. In the second case, the low
frequency electrical resistivity log (SFL) is modelled using a numerical modelling code
(Resmod2D e:) in order to obtain an accurate formation electrical resistivity model (Rt),
where individual beds are derived from FMS images. An analytical routine is also used to
model the natural gamma-ray measurement (CGR). While the conventional log analysis
allows deconvolution of the sedimentary supplies, the forward modelling leads to a greater
resolution and accuracy in more precise sediment characterization, such as that obtained
from the derivation of the formation factor.
Unlike the core material, downhole logs provide context of the Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) at
continuous high resolution records. The logs Oki Ridge in the Japan Sea (Leg 128 Hole
reflect the physical and chemical variability of 798B). Core data are first used to construct a
the drilled sequence. Several logging tools based mineralogical model of the sedimentary forma-
on widely varying physical principles (electric, tion at Site 798. Classical log analysis is then
acoustic, nuclear . . . . ) are used. The logs offer applied to deconvolve the different sedimentary
different perspectives about changes in sediment inputs and to compute a continuous formation
composition. Hence, extracting sediment char- factor (FF), which offers a tool to describe the
acteristics or palaeoclimatic information from sediment pore structure. However, this approach
downhole logs appears as a promising field of is limited by the vertical resolution of each
application. The principal limitation on integrat- sensor, that is half a metre on average for
ing logging data for sedimentary and palaeocli- traditional downhole measurements (e.g. logs).
matic studies is the absence of a generally An original approach combining analytical and
applicable method to transform logging data numerical modelling is proposed here to perform
into reliable sediment physical properties or a small scale analysis of downhole logs through
palaeoclimatic data. the computation of the formation factor.
The major objective of this study is to develop
a new methodological a p p r o a c h using, in Geological setting at Site 798
combination, logging, coring data and high-
resolution electrical images (FMS) to derive the Site 798 (37~ 134~ is located in the
detailed structure of near sea-floor sediments. southeastern Japan Sea, about 160km north of
The method is tested on data obtained in the the western coast of Honshu. The site is
LAUER-LEREDDE,C., PEZARD,P. A., TOURON,F. & DEKEYSER,1. 1998. Forward modelling of the 115
physical properties of oceanic sediments: constraints from core and logs, with palaeoclimatic implications.
In: HARVEY,P. K. & LOVELL,M. A. (eds) Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special
Publications, 136, 115-127
116 C. LAUER-LEREDDE E T AL.
OPAL
(%)
II0 10 . lo ,,0 110
120 120
100
I
130 130
s 140 m 140
8
150 150
200 i
Fig. 4. Correlation between the SFL log and opal
percent measured on core in ODP Hole 798B (after
I DeMenocal et al. 1992).
No data
2so the dominant opaline component throughout
the upper 300m; radiolarians and silicoflagel-
lates contribute in a minor way to the opal flux
(Ingle et al. 1990). The periodicity of the
sedimentary cycles was estimated with stan-
dard-power spectral analysis method (Imbrie et
300 al. 1984): the power spectra of the gamma-ray
Fig. 3. Weight percent biogenic opal versus depth in (SGR) time series showed a peak at about 40 ka,
ODP Hole 798B (after Dunbar et al. 1992). probably a climatic expression of the 41ka
'Milankovitch-type' cyclicity (DeMenocal et al.
1992). This suggested that the earth obliquity
floor). These samples were analysed for major was the driving factor of climate and sedimen-
sediment composition: biogenic opal content tary supply in this region over the last 3 Ma.
varies between 5 and 40%, and terrigenous silts The diatomaceous sediments of the dark
and clays, between 40 and 80%. Core-log facies, and the terrigenous-rich signature of the
correlations were established using ash layers light-coloured lithofacies suggested that these
identified in core photographs and Formation cycles also reflect variations in oceanic surface
MicroScanner T M (FMS) images. High opal productivity combined with continental aeolian
values result in low gamma ray, bulk density, dust from central Asia, as a consequence of
grain densities, and resistivity log values. There palaeoclimatic changes. The terrigenous miner-
is a close correspondance between the SFL and alogy assemblage is similar to that of Chinese
the opal data (Fig. 4). Low opal content is loess, a probable up-wind source of the aeolian
balanced by increases in terrigenous sediment, dust. The Chinese loess deposits may indicate a
and this is recorded by high gamma ray log linkage between glacial climate and Asian
values (DeMenocal et al. 1992). Core-log aridity (Kukla et al. 1988), so the periodic
comparisons therefore demonstrate that log increases in terrigenous concentration may
cycles reflect variations in terrigenous sediment reflect the downwind propagation of this
supply and diatomaceous opal. Diatom tests are signal.
118 C. LAUER-LEREDDE E T AL.
Za (200 220) 85 10 0 5
Zb (220~ 225) 80 10 10 0
Zc (225- 260) 90 10 0 0
Zd (260 280) 85 10 5 0
Ze (280-300) 80 5 10 5
*The studied interval was split into five zones, each with a constant clay mineralogy, on the basis of Dersch &
Stein data (1992}.
Core and log data and carbonate contents average less than 4%
between 200 and 455 mbsf. In this section,
This work is focused on a 100-m-long interval volcanic ash layers are thin and scarce. The
(from 200 to 300 mbsf) because of the well- continental input is therefore assumed to be
expressed cyclicity over this segment (Fig. 2). composed at this site of four clay minerals (illite,
chlorite, kaolinite, and smectite) and quartz. Six
Mineralogical model components are consequently taken into ac-
count in this study, and characterized by three
In the following study, the sediment physical physical properties: density (g cm 3), photo-
properties and the main mineralogical compo- electric-effect (ba e q ) and cation exchange
nents are used to compute the relative propor- capacity (meq g l). The reference values for
tions for oceanic and continental supplies, and each of these components (Table 1) are chosen
to determine the formation factor (FF). A first from the literature (e.g. Grim 1968; Fertl &
order mineralogical model of Hole 798B is Frost 1980; Juhasz 1981; Caill6re et al. 1982;
deduced from smear slide observations of Drever 1982; Schlumberger 1994).
dominant lithologies, and from previous sedi- Our objective is to obtain information on
ment composition studies. oceanic and continental supplies, rather than on
The oceanic input, essentially diatoms, is the relative fractions of the main mineral
associated with opal, on the basis of Ingle et components.The proportions of each element
al. (1990), DeMerlocal et al. (1992), and Dunbar for the continental phase are, however, needed
et al. (1992) works. The continental one is in order to estimate the physical properties of
deduced from Dersch & Stein (1992) core this phase. A short interval from 200 to 300 mbsf
analyses at Site 798. In order to get information (1.7 to 2.5 Ma) was chosen as a first step of this
about the composition of the terrigenous sedi- analysis. This interval was divided in five zones
ment fraction, Dersch & Stein (1992) determined characterized by average clay fractions (Table
the average amounts of quartz and clay miner- 2), on the basis of previous analyses (Dersch &
als. The entire sequence is characterized by Stein 1992). This division in zones allowed to
quartz amount ranging between 5 and 20%. In simplify the mineralogical model still further,
the upper 413m, the clay fraction is dominated and to reduce the number of unknowns: for
by illite with values between 60 and 88% and example, the continental phase is constituted
chlorite, between 0 and 27%. Calcareous com- with only three elements (illite, chlorite, quartz)
ponents are either absent or poorly preserved, for zone C (Table 2). The sediment averages
FORWARD MODELLING OF OCEANIC SEDIMENT PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 119
Natural G a m m a Ray Electrical Resistivity B u l k density Photoelectric effect N e u t r o n Porosity
CGR (API) (fl m) (g ce-l) (%)
(ba/e')
20 40 60 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 1.4 1.6 1.9 2.2 2,6 6O 70 8O
200 I I I 'T'" I I~l
II
220
240
260
280
41
Fig. 5. Downhole measurements from 200 to 300 mbsf in ODP Hole 798B.
10% quartz for the whole interval, 50% clay tool (ACT) and the NGT, was run (Ingle et al.
between 200 and 260 mbsf and 60% clay 1990). The depths of investigation are sensor-
between 260 and 300 mbsf (Ingle et al. 1990, dependant, and data are typically recorded at
Dersch & Stein 1992). The percentages of the intervals of 15cm. The quality of the logs
continental phase are then deduced for each obtained is generally excellent: most of the logs
zone. reflect variations in biogenic opal production
(diatomaceous) resulting from glacial-intergla-
Downhole measurements cial changes in surface productivity (Matoba
1984; Zheng 1984; Morley et al. 1986).
At the completion of coring operations at Hole
798B, four logging runs were completed from 70 Downhole geophysical logs (m-scale). The fol-
to 518 mbsf. During the first phase, the phaser lowing analysis focuses on the resistivity (SFL)
dual induction tool (DIT), the long-spacing and natural gamma ray (CGR) logs from 200 to
digital sonic tool (SDT), and the natural 300 mbsf in Hole 798B. These logs were selected
gamma-ray spectrometry tool (NGT) were run because the resistivity is influenced both by the
(seismic stratigraphic tool string). The second clay fraction and diatoms (oceanic productivity
phase consisted of the lithoporosity combination input), whereas the natural gamma ray is mainly
tool string including the lithodensity (LDT), sensitive to the clay fraction (aeolian continental
compensated neutron (CNT-G) porosity, and input in this case). The CGR is often used to
natural gamma-ray spectrometry (NGT) tools. indicate downhole variations in clay minerals
After the Formation MicroScanner T M (FMS) content, because it reflects gamma-ray radio-
had been lowered downhole, the geochemical activity from the decay of potassium and
tool string, including an induced gamma-ray thorium which are common elements in clay
spectroscopy tool (GST), an aluminium clay mineral structures (Hassan et al. 1976). The
120 C. L A U E R - L E R E D D E E T AL.
CGR may then serve as a proxy of variations in Deconvolution o f cont&ental and oceanic
terrigenous aeolian component.
inputs
Throughout the studied depth interval, the The aim is to analyse the downhole measure-
highest CGR value corresponds to the highest ments in order to deconvolve both oceanic and
bulk density values (Pb), the highest resistivity continental inputs. The model of the formation
values (R0), and the lowest porosity values (~b) consists of only two known inputs in unknown
(Fig. 5), reflecting a high terrigenous content proportions. Bulk and matrix densities (Pb, Pma,
relative to the biogenic supply. Terrigenous clays g CC-1) and photoelectric effect (Pef, ba e-1) were
have high K and Th contents and relatively chosen to define proportions of the two compo-
higher density and lower porosity than sediment nents. Whereas Pb responds primarily to poros-
with higher opal content: the clay particles filling ity, the Per responds primarily to rock matrix
the pores induce a lower porosity, hence a higher (lithology). The combination of Pb and the Pef,
resistivity. Porosity is, to a first order, propor- the photoelectric absorption cross-section
tional to the inverse square-root of resistivity (Schlumberger 1994), is:
(Archie 1942). The sediments rich in diatomac-
eous opal commonly have high porosities U = Pef x Pb (1)
because of the intrinsically high porosity of
diatoms themselves. These cycles are also and obeys a linear mixing law such as:
apparent in the recovered sediment record: the
high gamma-ray, high density, high resistivity, U=~ Uf-~-(1--(~) Uma (2)
and low porosity levels correspond to the
massive clay-rich intervals, whereas the low where U, Uf, and Uma are for example the
density, low gamma-ray, low resistivity, and photoelectric absorption cross-sections of the
high porosity units correspond to the darker, media, pore fluid and matrix, respectively.
diatom-rich intervals. As our matrix consists of a mixture of two
inputs (oceanic and continental) with relative
High-resolution (cm-scale) electrical images. The weight fraction (#o and #c) and photoelectric
Formation MicroScanner TM (FMS) creates a absorption coefficients Uo and Uc:
picture of the borehole wall by mapping its
electrical conductance using an array of 16 small Uma =/to Uo + #c U~= Pef • Pma (3)
and pad-mounted electrodes on each of four
pads (Ekstrom et al. 1986; Luthi & Banavar The relation necessary to solve for these two
1988; Pezard et al. 1990). FMS data are recorded unknowns is the closure relation of partial
each 2.5 mm as the tool moves up the borehole. fractions:
The vertical resolution of individual features is
about a centimetre. The tool can, however, l=#o+#c (4)
detect thinner features, provided they have
sufficient resistivity contrast to the surrounding The solution can most easily be seen in terms of
matrix. The images registered with the FMS the matrix representation of the set of simulta-
show qualitative conductivity changes, particu- neous equations:
larly due to the different physical properties of
the beds (for example porosity, resistivity of A=R Y (5)
pore fluid or the presence of clays).
The electrical images obtained at Hole 798B where A is the vector of measurements, R is the
(Fig. 2) resolve the cyclicity of sedimentary matrix of known coefficients, and Y is the vector
processes at the site extremely well. Light (dark, of unknown volumes.
respectively) colour is related to the continental The porosity and density logs are first used to
(oceanic) input. compute the matrix grain density Pma. The wet
bulk density Pb is related to the porosity through
a simple mixing law:
Log analysis
Pb = Pwqb + Pma (1 -- qb) (6)
The downhole logs and core measurements,
associated with the proposed mineralogical where Pw is the density of seawater.
model, are used here to determine variations in On the basis of our preliminary mineralogical
sedimentary inputs, and to compute the forma- model which consists of six major components
tion factor. (opal, illite, chlorite, kaolinite, smectite, quartz),
FORWARD MODELLING OF OCEANIC SEDIMENT PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 121
Uo and Uc are computed for the five zones Cation exchange capacity. Values of CEC can be
previously determined (Table 2) as follows: measured directly on rock samples, but not
directly in situ. Several attempts have conse-
Uo = Pef(opal) • Pma(opa,) (7) quently been made to derive CEC from existing
logs.
Previously developed CEC or Qv estimates
u~ = L #i • Pefi • Pmai (8) from well-logs based on the spontaneous poten-
i=1,5 tial curve (Smits 1968; Johnson 1978), dielectric
with ~i as weight percentage of the component i constant (Kern et al. 1976), reservoir porosity
in the continental phase. (Lavers et al. 1974; Kern et al. 1976; Neuman
The system resolution leads to the weight 1980) and gamma ray (Koerperich 1975; Clavier
fraction of both oceanic and continental phases. et al. 1977; Johnson 1978) have been discussed.
For this study, the correlation between the
natural radioactivity from K and Th elements
Computation o f the f o r m a t i o n f ac t or (CGR) and the CEC was selected. Most shale
The electrical resistivity of saturated sediments is are radioactive due to the presence of K 4~ in the
usually quoted in terms of a formation factor potassium-bearing clay mineral illite. A correla-
(FF) to remove the effect of the pore-fluid tion between gamma ray counts and CEC may
resistivity, because the grains themselves are then be expected. Johnson (1978) showed such a
considered as insulators (Archie 1942): correlation for formation containing largely illite
and kaolinite where the relatively high gamma-
FF = Ro Rw-1 = Cw Co 1 (9) ray count of the illite corresponded to high
potassium content thus making it an excellent
where Ro (respectively Co) is the resistivity in 12 shaliness indicator. Scala (see Clavier et al. 1977)
m (conductivity in S m -1) of the porous medium, found a strong correlation between gamma ray
and Rw (respectively Cw), the resistivity (con- count rate divided by the porosity and Qv. In
ductivity) of the pore-fluid. other words, gamma ray log can be used in some
The formation factor of the porous medium cases and after calibration on core as a substitute
depends on the intrinsic geometry of the pore of the CEC measurement. On the basis of Scala
channels, and therefore describes the manner in data, we estimated the proportionality constant
which the grains are arranged in a sedimentary between the two quantities as follows:
formation (Winsauer et al. 1952). Archie's CEC = (0.005) CGR (12)
equation is generally considered to apply satis-
factorily to clean sands. The presence of clay The computed values of CEC are then
minerals, however, has a detrimental effect on converted into Qv using (11).
Co computations: the capacity of a clay to To check the validity of (12), an analytical
exchange cations at the pore-mineral interface maximum and minimum CEC are estimated
induces the presence of a surface conductivity with CEC values from Table 1 in each zone
term (Waxman & Smits 1968). A resistivity (Table 2). Using the relative proportions of each
model taking into account the effects of dis- clay mineral, an estimate of the CEC of the clay
persed clays was proposed by Waxman & Smits assemblage can be computed, using a linear
(1968) and Waxman & Thomas (1974): summation.
Fig. 6. Log analysis results. (a) Grain density; from core (solid squares) and computed (solid line) (b) Opal
fraction from core (after Dunbar et al. 1992) and computed. (c) Computed continental sedimentary fraction. (d)
Computed CEC (derived from CGR) and Qv values. (e) Computed formation factor from definition (dash) and of
Waxman & Smits (1968) (solid).
205
"-~21q
fractions using the photoelectric absorption method is also used to model the natural gamma
cross section (U) is in agreement with core ray data (CGR). This study is restricted to a 20
measurements and, so, might be used to predict m-long interval (200-220 mbsf/1.6 to 1.9 Ma).
the core data. Nevertheless, the vertical resolu-
tion of the downhole logs and the computed Numerical modelling
formation factor is rather poor in some zones,
especially in the upper part of the section. A new Modelling code. Resmod2D ~ is a newly devel-
forward modelling method is therefore proposed oped two-dimensional finite element numerical
in the following to improve the vertical resolu- code. It allows modelling of the response of
tion and derive more accurate Rt, CGR and FF electrical resistivity downhole probes, such as
profiles. the Spherically Focused tool (SFL). In brief, a
formation resistivity model composed of hor-
Forward model izontal sedimentary beds (layers) with fixed
thicknesses and resistivities, is entered in the
The aim is to obtain an accurate formation code in order to compute the response of the
resistivity model (Rt) from the numerical mod- probe in front of this formation. The resistivities
elling of the electrical resistivity log (SFL), of the model are referred to as 'true', whereas the
constrained by the high-resolution electrical computed resistivities (so the simulated response
images of borehole surfaces (FMS). A statistical of the tool) are referred to as 'apparent' because
FORWARD MODELLING OF OCEANIC SEDIMENT PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 125
and mostly obliterated by bioturbation. The for example the importance of cm-scale resistive
determination of the boundaries in the model beds on the response of m-scale logs. This case
seems therefore to be relatively accurate. study, which now requires additional measure-
ments on core to further improve the precision
Formation factor, The formation factor is of the method, could become a parallel method
computed for the modelled logs (Rt and CGR) to obtain meaningful physical properties and
on the basis of the method presented in the log palaeoclimatic data from future sites.
analysis section.
The results for the F F model are similar to This work was carried out by the main author with
those for the Rt model. The F F model has a financial support from the French 'Minist~re de la
better resolution than the F F computed from Recherche et de l'Enseignement Sup6rieur'. The
authors wish to acknowledge the contribution of GaYa
logs, as the former displays small events not
Entreprises (Marseille) for the use of the forward
detected by the latter (Fig. 8e). The major peaks modelling code Resmod2D". They also wish to thank
are also more pronounced: the peak at about S. Brower (LDEO) for providing the logging data, C.
211.15 mbsf has a value of 3.48 for the raw log, Robert (COM, Marseille) and the two anonymous
and 4.62 for the model. Changes between glacial reviewers for their helpful comments.
and interglacial periods also present the same
characteristics as the Rt model (sharp transition
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Lithological classification within ODP holes using neural networks
trained from integrated core-log data
G. W A D G E 1, D. B E N A O U D A 1, G. FERRIER l, R. B. WHITMARSH 2, R. G.
ROTHWELL 2 & C. M A C L E O D 3
1Environmental Systems Science Centre, University of Reading, PO Box 238, Reading RG6
6AL, UK
2 Southampton Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton, Empress Dock, European
Way, Southampton S014 3ZH, UK
3Department of Earth Sciences, University of Wales College of Cardiff, PO Box 914,
Cardiff CF1 3 YE, UK
Abstract: Neural networks offer an attractive way of using downhole logging data to infer
the lithologies of those sections of ODP holes from which there is no core recovery. This is
best done within a computer program that enables the user to explore the dimensionality of
the log data, design the structure for the neural network appropriate to the particular
problem and select and prepare the log- and core-derived data for training, testing and using
the neural network as a lithological classifier. Data quality control and the ability to modify
lithological classification schemes to particular circumstances are particularly important. We
illustrate these issues with reference to a 250 m section of ODP Hole792E drilled through a
sequence of island arc turbidites of early Oligocene age. Applying a threshold of > 90%
recovery per 9.7 m core section, we have available about 50% of the cored interval that is
sufficiently well depth-matched for use as training data for the neural network classifier. The
most useful logs available are from resistivity, natural gamma, sonic and geochemistry tools,
a total of 15. In general, the more logs available to the neural network the better its
performance, but the optimum number of nodes on a single 'hidden' layer in the network
has to be determined by experimentation. A classification scheme, with 3 classes (claystone,
sandstone and conglomerate) derived from shipboard observation of core, gives a success
rate of about 76% when tested with independent data. This improves to about 90% when
the conglomerate class is split into two, based on the relative abundance of claystone versus
volcanic clasts.
Within the Ocean Drilling Program (ODP), one not k n o w the exact sub-bottom depth of the core
c o m m o n application of d o w n h o l e logs is to samples that are recovered, though we may
c o m p l e m e n t and calibrate measurements m a d e assume their relative original positions are
on cores and to fill in the gaps left by incomplete preserved. Thus, at the limit, a continuous
core recovery. Below the range of the Advanced 1.5 m section recovered from a 9.7 m core may
Piston Corer (typically about 200 m sub-bottom) have originally come from the top or the b o t t o m
core recovery is rarely m o r e than about 50% for 1 . 5 m interval. A g r i n i e r & A g r i n i e r (1994)
sediments and 40% for basement rocks ( O D P showed that the best estimate of the position
1990). D o w n h o l e logs make measurements at within finite limits of any arbitrary length of core
ambient temperatures and pressures and sense a sample is given by Euler's Beta distribution. This
volume a r o u n d the borehole greater than the can be given as a probability density function of
core itself. Such measurements provide a con- position in terms of the lengths of core, section
tinuous stream of in situ data on the wall rocks and the n u m b e r and positional order of core
and borehole fluids. sample. Therefore, d o w n h o l e logs play an even
The above figures for typical core recovery are more important part in filling the gaps in our
aggregate values. Our knowledge of the exact knowledge of rock sequences for which there is
depths of recovered core samples is, in general, incomplete core recovery.
worse than these figure imply. In the ODP, If we can identify the characteristic ranges of
coring advances in steps of about 9 . 7 m (the combined log values that correspond to different
length of individual core barrels). Unless core lithologies penetrated by the hole then we have a
recovery for this 9.7 m interval is complete we do means of assigning lithological class labels to the
total interval from the downhole logs. We show foraminiferal). This nomenclature is applied by
how this can be done for ODP data when we can the shipboard petrologists when the cores are
assign the lithological classes from those sections split and each 1.5m section of recovery is
where we do have 'complete' core recovery and described individually on the Visual Core
extend the classification to the full hole. Our Description sheets in freehand. This description
approach has been to develop software that may show some variation from one petrologist
supports a general user in completing this task. to another. From this initial detailed visual
There are a number of methods by which such description a more generalised sequence of
a classification scheme can be driven (e.g. graphical codes (from a total of about 50) are
discriminant functions, principal components assigned to each interval of core to denote a
analysis and cluster analysis; Doveton 1994). lithological class label (e.g. T6=sandstone;
We have chosen to use classifiers based on C34= foraminiferal chalk) so that a composite
artificial neural networks, principally because of graphical log (Barrel Sheet) of all the core
their ability to cope with complex non-linear recovery can be drawn for publication in the
problems. Also, neural network classifiers have Initial Report series of ODP publications.
been shown to be of value for lithological Beyond this the shipboard scientists can, and
classification of downhole logs in hydrocarbon sometimes do, erect other, non-standard but
exploration wells, in many cases with superior complementary, classification schemes, perhaps
results to other techniques such as discriminant based on local variation of the sediment. Within
analysis (Baldwin et al. 1990; Rogers et al. 1992; the ODP there is no official archived digital
Wong et al. 1995). Goncalves (1995) reports version of the lithological classification of core.
similar findings for ODP data. Hence working on core classification off the ship
This paper has three main sections. Firstly we requires digital recoding of the shipboard
present the main factors involved in the classi- scheme(s).
fication task. These are how the problem is The neural network approach is a supervised
defined, the constraints imposed by the data classification scheme. It requires that a sufficient
available and how to validate the results and number of training examples of the logs from
assess performance. Next we describe how we each separate lithological class be made avail-
have implemented the neural network method able for the algorithm to learn the character of
on our computer system. Finally, we present that class. Two general rules apply here. First, if
classification results from ODP Hole 792E. The there are too few samples within a class then
succession represented in this hole is a complex those samples will not fully represent the
sequence of island arc lithologies that is a good distribution of values that the classifier might
test of the general usefulness of the technique. meet through the whole borehole. Second, the
number of samples presented to the classifier
ODP lithological classification from each class should be approximately the
same. If the number of samples from one
The lithologies encountered in ODP holes are lithology presented to a neural network classifier
usually deep-sea sediments and oceanic crustal is much greater than for the other classes then
rocks and are generally distinct from those the network will tend to bias its classification in
encountered during drilling in sedimentary favour of this class. This problem becomes
basins underlain by continental crust. Deep sea serious whenever the logs do not provide a clear
sediments are often relatively unconsolidated separation of the lithological classes.
and rich in carbonates and/or silica or composed The quality of log samples used to train the
of terrigenous or volcanic detritus; they may be classifier is also important. In addition to
underlain by a basaltic basement. Porosity is checking for spurious outliers we use three logs
typically high, with ubiquitous saturation by for quality control. Samples exceeding any of the
sea-water. The classification framework of Maz- threshold values for the caliper, density correc-
zullo et al. (1987) is widely employed for tion and geochemical factor logs are not used for
sediments by ODP. The highest-level division is supervising or testing the classifier.
into granular and chemical sediments. Granular
sediments are subdivided into pelagic, neritic, Classification choice
siliciclastic, volcaniclastic and mixed sediments
and chemical sediments into carbonaceous, The choice of what classification to attempt is of
evaporites, silicates/carbonates and metallifer- vital importance. The ideal is to have a set of
ous sediments. Below this level classes are based lithological classes that best represents the
on principal names (e.g. ooze, chalk) together geological information required from the hole
with major or minor modifiers (e.g. nannofossil, and which produces distinctive responses in the
ODP LITHOLOGY USING NEURAL NETWORKS 131
suite of available downhole logs. The usual sub-populations are used to train and test the
starting point will be the principal-names level of performance of the classifier (e.g. discriminant
shipboard classification of the core. Classes with analysis) and the classification rates of the two
very few member samples may need to be classifiers can now be compared.
amalgamated with other classes. The lithological
information required from the hole may not be Implementation of a neural network method
the most obvious. For example, a hole may
penetrate a succession of oozes above siliciclastic System design
rocks lying on a basaltic basement. Classifying
such a tripartite division should be trivially easy The quite complex processing chain implicit in
and the real problem of interest may be in the the above discussion is best handled by a
second-order variability, say, distinguishing vol- computer system designed for the job. We have
canic from non-volcanic rocks in the siliciclastic designed such a system, the essential elements of
sequence. In this case the classification task can which are shown in Fig. 1. The computing
be constrained by choice of depth interval. platform is a Sun Sparcstation and the graphical
Alternatively, the need to change the class user interface is designed using PV-WAVE
labelling given to the core samples to best fit visualization software. There is a separate
the problem may only become apparent after an development environment for designing the
initial attempt at classification. Merging and neural networks that the user does not see, but
splitting of classes may be required. There is a which can create portable networks (as C code)
clear general need for more than one classifica- that can be retrained. The user must define the
tion scheme to be tested and for the editing problem by choosing appropriate depth inter-
facilities to support that need. vals, lithological classes, logs and a neural
There is no guarantee that the recovered core, network. The results of running the network
and hence any classification scheme based on it, are displayed graphically and in terms of relative
is fully representative of the lithologies in the performance of the classification rate. There are
missing intervals. Examples of preferential three main functional components to the system.
recovery of, say, clays relative to sands are These are shown in Fig. 2 and are described in
well-known. At the extreme a relatively common detail in the following sections.
lithology may not be recovered at all. It is more
likely that a lithology only ever exhibits low
recovery and hence cannot be matched to
specific depth intervals and used with confidence
to train the classifier. This problem of a missing
class(es) can be partly addressed using explora-
tory data analysis of the logs themselves. If it is
clear that some populated area of log-space is
not represented by the current classes then a
search can be made to identify the missing class.
Performance measures
Having trained a neural network classifier, some
way of assessing its performance is required. The
standard way to do this is to take a separate sub-
population of core-classified samples from the
same general population and classify it indepen-
dently with the network. The goodness of fit of
the two classifications (classification rate) gives a
measure of how well the network classifier
performs relative to the visual description
classification. If this performance is thought
satisfactory then the network can be run on the
full problem interval. What is 'satisfactory' in
this context is best left to the geologist. One,
albeit relative, benchmark by which to judge
satisfactory performance is to compare with Fig. 1. Schematic structure of our computer system to
another classification technique. Again, the same derive lithological logs from ODP core-log data.
132 G. WADGE ET AL.
Table 1. Representative part of a L O G - C L A S S file with 4 classes. Only 3 o f the logs are shown. There is no sample
classified as Conglomerate 2 in this selection shown
each class. There is at least one other, 'hidden', outcome of the training and testing cycle is
layer of nodes between the input and output considered satisfactory then the network can be
layers with weighted connections between nodes applied to the full interval under consideration.
of different layers. The number of hidden nodes
is not externally constrained and can be changed
to suit a particular problem. The other network Application to Hole 792E
parameters are rnainly related to the weightings
applied to the connections. These can be tuned Hole 792E of the ODP was drilled in the Izu-
to improve performance, but detailed optimiza- Bonin foreare sedimentary basin in 1989
tion of neural networks is a complex issue. Our (Taylor et al. 1990). The primary objective of
strategy is to make available a limited number of drilling at Site 792 was to understand the
default networks initially and optimize indivi- stratigraphy of the forearc and the temporal
dually applied networks later. variations in sedimentation and volcanism that
Once the network has been selected it begins controlled it. About 800m of sediment were
training with the prepared training data by drilled above volcanic (andesite) basement,
selecting samples, at random, and presenting including rocks of Pleistocene, !ate Pliocene,
their log values to the input layer of the network. Miocene and early Oligocene age. The lower
The effect of these values propagates through to part of this section is a more volcaniclastic-rich
the output layer where the 'error' between the sequence. The interval between 482-732 m below
network node values and the 'correct' values is sea floor (mbsf) is the focus of this study and
then propagated back through the network, comprises a large part of Unit IV, a sedimentary
thereby changing network weightings. In this succession of early Oligocene age (Fig. 3).
way the network, after hundreds to thousands of Overall, Unit IV is composed of vitric sandstone
learning cycles, improves its ability to recognize (58%), sandy pebble-granule conglomerate (
classes until no further improvement is achieved 10%), silty claystone (9%), nannofossil-rich silty
and the network is said to be trained. The claystone (5%), claystone (4%), siltstone (4%),
trained network can now be tested by presenting nannofossil c l a y s t o n e ( l % ) , clayey siltstone
each of the test samples to the network once, (1%), sandy mudstone (1%) and sandy siltstone
and recording how close the network result is to (1%). This unit is interpreted by Taylor et al.
the correct classes. The network gives propor- (1990) as a rapidly deposited turbidite blanket in
tional values for each class within the range 0-1, an oversupplied basin or distal fan. The pumice
whereas the core-derived class labels are binary clasts of some of the coarse sandstones and
(0 or 1). The network results are thus essentially conglomerates indicates contemporary volcan-
probabilistic. We express the test result as a ism but most of the andesite and dacite clasts are
thresholded classification rate. For example, at a probably the result of erosion from the arc
user-defined threshold of 70% probability, a test volcanoes.
result of 0.76 sandstone, 0.20 siltstone and 0.04
claystone for a sample with class values of 1,0,0 Core recovery
would count as a correct classification, though
not at a threshold of 80%. 92 such correct Hole 792E had a recovery of 48.2% of total
results out of 100 test samples, for example, possible core length. Recovery for the 482-732
would give a classification rate of 92%. If the mbsf interval was 79.1%. However, as discussed
134 G. WADGE E T AL.
Downhole measurements
also marks the d o w n h o l e increase in There are 17 logs available for the interval
smectite concentration and magnetic sus- 482-550 mbsf, but only 15 (no density and
ceptibility. photoelectric logs) were considered for the full
interval between 482-732 mbsf. Using the basic
Performance of different neural networks rock type classification, the 482-550 mbsf
interval has 98 claystone, 164 sandstone and 46
There is no one single neural network that will conglomerate samples available for training and
work for all classification problems. The basic testing. Network 1 (Table 2) then, is a 17-17-3
type used here, whose structural variants we now network used for 482-550 mbsf that gives a total
discuss, is a back-propagation network with a classification rate of 88.4%. Using only 15 logs
single hidden layer and a sigmoidal activation for the same interval in network 2 gives a
function at each node. As part of the pre- reduced rate of 85.5%. Hence density and
processing for neural network training the data photoelectric effect logs do have some extra
from each log that are input to the network are capability to discriminate between these rock
normalized to the range 0-1. Logs with large classes in addition to that present in the other 15
potential ranges, such as the resistivity tools, logs. However, when we use the same type of
may be best converted to a logarithmic scale network for the 482-732 mbsf interval, but
first. However, the resistivity values of Hole trained using the samples from a 183 claystone,
792E did not show a very great range and this 407 sandstone and 185 conglomerate pool of
was not done. As was discussed earlier, the samples (network 3), the classification rate falls
number of nodes in the input and output layers to 75.8%. This means that the claystone-
is at least partly determined by the nature of the s a n d s t o n e - c o n g l o m e r a t e classification that
data and the problem to be solved; the number worked well from 482-550 mbsf is much less
of nodes in the hidden layer is chosen to appropriate below 550 mbsf. There is a distinct
optimize performance once the input and output fall in the capability of the network to recognize
layers are fixed. In the performance results the conglomerate and sandstone class samples.
reported in Table 2 we use a convention in Exploring the log data over this wider interval
which a 15-10-4 network means 15 input nodes suggests that core samples classed as conglom-
(downhole logs), 10 hidden nodes and 4 output erate may be usefully split into more than one
nodes (lithological classes). type. For example, principal components analy-
136 G. WADGE E T AL.
100 60
x
90 9 50
80 40
~
o
x
x
=
O
i
70 30
9 Classification Rate
x Computing Time
60 ! n ! i I l 20
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Number of Logs
Fig. 4. Plot of classification rate performance and elapsed computing time versus increasing numbers of
geophysical logs as input to the neural networks (networks 4-8).
B
90
ra
88 9 m ra
86
84
82
80
o
78
76
.--4
74
72
70 9 i 9 i 9 i 9 i 9 i , i 9 i 9 1 9 i 9 i
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Fig. 5. Plot of classification rate performance versus the number of nodes in the hidden layer (networks 9-18).
sis of shallow resistivity, sonic velocity, spectral erate 2. Conglomerate 1 includes those samples
gamma, computed gamma and potassium oxide classed as conglomerate in networks 1 and 2;
logs shows that some of the conglomerate class conglomerate 2 (the samples described above)
samples give much lower values of principal corresponds to core which is conglomeratic but
component 3 and higher values of principal has higher proportions of large ( > 5 cm) clay-
component 4 than the other conglomerate stone clasts than conglomerate 1. In the logs,
samples. Thus we have created a second conglomerate 1 has distinctly lower spectral
classification scheme with four classes: clay- gamma and potassium values than those of
stone, sandstone, conglomerate 1 and conglom- conglomerate 2. Sonic values are also lower in
ODP LITHOLOGY USING NEURAL NETWORKS 137
Fig. 6. Component lithological classification using neural network 4. The four columns display the component
contribution of the rocks types (claystone, sandstone, conglomerate 1 and conglomerate 2) for each sampling
interval of the logged hole. The depth in mbsf is shown on the left and the core number on the right of each
column. The same colours are also used to display the classification in the visual core descriptions in the narrow
column to the left of the core numbers.
conglomerate 1 but the separation is less justification for the 15 nodes in the hidden layer
distinct. With four classes, network 4, otherwise is provided by a systematic test of performance
equivalent to network 3, gives a much improved in a series of networks with variable numbers of
classification rate for the whole 482-732 mbsf hidden nodes (networks 4, 9 to 18 inclusive; Fig.
interval of 90.0%. 5). The optimum configuration of the hidden
We saw an example of improvement in layer of 15 nodes is given by the maximum
performance with increased numbers of logs performance value. In this case the number of
(from network 1 to 2) for the 482-550 mbsf hidden nodes equals the number of input nodes.
interval. For the full interval with 4 classes it is This would be a useful rule-of-thumb for initial
also generally true that the more logs input to network configuration but it does not guarantee
the network the better the performance (net- the optimum solution. For instance, as can be
works 4, 5 to 8 inclusive; Fig. 4). There is a seen from networks 3 and 19 to 22 inclusive,
penalty to pay in terms of increased computing greater numbers of hidden nodes (and even a
time (Fig. 4) but this is not too great a burden. second hidden layer) can give improved perfor-
Hence it makes sense to use as many useful logs mance, but at the cost of increased computing
as are available at the outset. time.
Network 4 has a 15-15-4 structure. The
138 G. WADGE ETAL.
Computed lithological log results spondence is more difficult to assess. For some
cores such as 39 and 55, correspondence could
Figure 6 shows the output of network 4 when be achieved by appropriate expansion of the
applied to the whole 250 m interval of downhole core lithology down section to match the
logs from 482-732 mbsf. The aggregate thick- network lithological log results. For other
nesses of the lithologies according to this intervals no such a c c o m m o d a t i o n can be
classification are: c l a y s t o n e = 4 4 m , sandsto- achieved (e.g. core numbers 45, 52 and 59).
ne = 130 m, conglomerate 1 = 42 m, conglomer- The two main possible explanations of this are
ate 2 = 34 m. that the network is 'overtrained' and has lost its
Some sample intervals are classed as 100% of ability to generalize when exposed to new data,
a particular lithology but many are classed as and that the classification scheme is not optimal.
mixtures, with one dominant lithology and one The way ahead in our system would be to
or more minor components. This is particularly explore the second possibility by choosing
noticeable for mixtures of sandstone and con- another classification scheme. Because the sand-
glomerate 1, but much less so for mixtures stone group of samples is the largest and shows
involving the other two lithologies. In Fig. 7 the poorest general classification performance
the results from this network have been recast figures (Table 2) this is the most likely group for
such that the major ( > 5 0 % ) lithology in the possible splitting into two or more classes. Some
output is attributed to that depth interval. This of the geochemical logs such as TiO2 and CaO
gives a columnar plot that mimics a traditional show clear evidence of alternating high and low
Lithological log and allows direct comparison valued sandstone horizons (e.g. 670--682 mbsf)
with the visual core classification. that could form one of the criteria of such a new
The change in character of the rocks at about classification scheme, though this is not pursued
515 mbsf noted above is apparent but is over- here.
shadowed by the decrease in claystone which
occurs about 20 m higher. Lower down the hole
the occurrence of conglomerate 2 is restricted to Discussion
3 zones where there is an apparent association of
claystone-conglomerate 2. The base of the We have chosen to ignore a number of major
shallowest of these zones corresponds to the issues of core-log-driven classification including
major break noted at 587 mbsf, though there is graded bedding, the differences in spatial resol-
no obvious change in general lithological char- ving power of the logs and the use of segmenta-
acter below this. The log gives the impression of tion, in order to emphasize the value of quality
three major cycles of mixed conglomerate and control of the data and careful consideration of
sandstone sitting above conglomerate 2 and the optimal structure of the neural network. In
claystone (515-587, 587-660, 660-732 mbsf). particular, we wish to stress the need to have a
The second thickest interval classed as conglor- flexible mechanism for changing the classifica-
nerate 2 is from around 640 mbsf, where there is tion scheme of rock types based on the
no core recovery. In fact there is no sense of this information content in the logs and the ship-
second cycle in the recovered core. The lowest of board-derived classification scheme. Such an
the three cycles is richer in sandstone at the approach is inherently hole-specific. It lies at
expense of conglornerate 1. an intermediate position between a totally
As discussed earlier, the rocks recovered from empirical approach, driven solely by the log
only 50% of the full 482-732 mbsf interval were data, and one that might use a universal library
used to train and test the neural network. Figure of log responses derived from fundamental core
7 displays these core (core numbers 37-39, 40, components (e.g. sand, carbonate, sea-water
42-43, 46, 48-50, 56-57, 60, 61) together with etc.). If the data can support it, the refinement
the additional recovered core, that comprised of the classification scheme in a hole will be
29% of the total interval, that was not used in essentially hierarchical. However, there is no
training and testing the network because of poor guarantee that the way that the log data can be
depth control (core numbers 39, 41, 44-45, 47, optimally divided will correspond to the classi-
51-55, 58-59, 61). For many of the intervals used fication scheme that the geologist wants or
in the training and testing there is a high degree expects. This sort of approach should be of
of detailed correspondence between the core and value to ODP scientists both on and off the ship.
the network classifications (e.g. core numbers Results of our work using data from other ODP
37-38, 50, 62) as we would expect. For a few, the holes will be presented elsewhere. We also
correspondence is weaker (e.g. core 43). For the envisage that this technique might be of value
core intervals with < 90% recovery any corre- for providing rapid lithological analysis of
ODP L I T H O L O G Y U S I N G N E U R A L N E T W O R K S 139
Fig. 7. Majority component lithological log output of the neural network 4. The main column is the network
classification, the narrow column to the right is that classified from recovered core.
140 G. WADGE ET AL.
piston cores from which horizontal-track logs GONCALVES, C. A. 1995. Characterisation of formation
have been collected o n - b o a r d ship. heterogeneity. PhD Thesis, University of Leice-
ster.
MAZULLO, L, MEYER, A. & KIDD, R. B. 1987. A new
sediment classification scheme for the Ocean
This work is funded by a grant (GST/02/993) to RBW
Drilling Program. ODP Technical Note, 8.
and GW under the NERC Special Topic--UK ODP
ODP 1990. Wireline Logging Manual, Ocean Drilling
Science Programme. ESSC work is supported by
Program. Borehole Research Group, Lamont-
NERC grant F60/G6/12/02. We are very grateful to
Doherty Geological Observatory.
our collaborators Drs P. Harvey and H. Grubb, for
PRATSON, E. L., REYNOLDS, R., LOVELL, M. K.,
their help and the Borehole Research Group at LDEO
PEZARD, P. A. & BROGLIA,C. 1992. Geochemical
and ODP/TAMU for supplying data.
well logs in the lzu-Bonin arc-trench system, Sites
791, 792, and 793. Proceedings of the Ocean
Drilling Program, Scientific Results, 126, 653-676.
References ROGERS, S. J., FANG, J. H., KARR, C. L. & STANLEY,D.
K. 1992. Determination of lithology from well
AGRINIER, P. & AGRINIER, B. 1994. A propos de la logs using a neural network. American Association
connaissance de la profondeur a laquelle vos of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 76, 731-739.
echantillons sont collectes dans les forages. TAYLOR, B., FUROKA, A. & OTHERS 1990. Proceedings
Comptes Rendus de la Academie Sciences de Paris, of the Ocean Drilling Program, Initial Results, 126.
318, serie II, 1615-1622. VERMEER, P. L. & ALKEMANDE, J. A. H. 1992.
BALDWIN, J. L., BATEMAN,A. R. M. & WHEATLEY,C. Multiscale segmentation of well logs. Mathema-
L. 1990. Application of neural networks to the tical Geology, 24, 27-43.
problem of mineral identification from well-logs. WONG, P. M., JIAN, F. X. & TAGGART, I. J. 1995. A
The Log Analyst, 3, 279-293. critical comparison of neural networks and
DOVETON, J. H. 1994. Geologic log analysis using discriminant analysis in lithofacies, porosity and
computer methods. Computer Applications in its permeability predictions. Journal of Petroleum
Geology, 2. American Association of Petroleum Geology, 18, 191-206.
Geologists, Tulsa.
Core-derived acoustic, porosity & permeability correlations for
computation pseudo-logs
A. C. B A S T O S , L. D. D I L L O N , G. F. V A S Q U E Z & J. A. S O A R E S
Petrobras Research Center-SEGEST, C i d a d e Universitaria - Q . 7 - P r e d i o 20, Ilha do
F u n d a o - R i o de Janeiro, 2 1 9 4 9 - 9 0 0 , B r a z i l
Indirect generation of unmeasured in situ logs tory measurement of static and dynamic
like shear wave velocity (Vs), permeability (k) elastic constants as a calibration reference;
and elastic constants (Young (E), shear (G) and (3) obtain empirical correlations, for each well,
bulk (K) modulus) have been the subject of between Vp, k and q~, thereby yielding a
various works in geophysics (Wendt et al. 1986; calculated permeability log.
Castagna et al. 1993; Bastos et al. 1995; Tang et
al. 1996). In this paper we present, for three Methodology
Brazilian offshore wells, a generation procedure
for Vs, k and elastic constants logs calculated Ultrasonic P and S wave velocities were mea-
from laboratory data: Vp, Vs, porosity (~), (k) sured in about 120 samples of limestone from an
and static and dynamic elastic constants on offshore Brazilian field. These samples were
cores. The importance of the generation of retrieved from three vertical wells at depths of
unmeasured in situ logs includes the possibility about 2350m to 2550m and vertically cut as
of obtaining more accurate information about right cylindrical plugs with diameter 2.5 cm and
lithology and fluid content in reservoir rocks 3.75 cm and length 3.75 to 5cm. The measure-
and, in this way, contributing to generating ment frequency was 500 kHz for both Vp and Vs
more reliable AVO and seismic models, and also and over a range of confining pressure of 1000
optimizing drilling and hydraulic fracturing psi to 5000 psi at room temperature. The
programes. For reservoir development, these porosity and permeability range were 5% to
kind of data are also helpful for generating 35% and 0.1 mD to 1800mD, respectively. The
correlations between seismic attributes and same measurements were made under dry and
petrophysical properties and for monitoring formation water saturated conditions. However,
subsurface fluid flow. So, our main goal in this the results showed only small variations due to
work was to: saturation, as noted by Bastos et al. (1995).
Simultaneous measurements of static and
(1) obtain empirical correlations between Vs dynamic elastic constants were made on some
and Vp from laboratory data in order to samples of diameter 5cm and length 12.5cm.
generate unmeasured Vs logs from mea- These samples were placed in a triaxial cell and
sured Vp logs; subjected to an in situ confining stress of about
(2) generate logs of static and dynamic elastic 5000 psi, and to a deviatoric stress which was
constants using the simultaneous labora- increased up to the sample failure. The deforma-
BASTOS, A. C. DILLON, L. D. VASQUEZ,G. F. & SOARES,J. A. 1998. Core-derived acoustic, porosity 141
& permeability correlations for computation pseudo-logs In." HARVEY,P. K. • LOVELL,
M. A. (eds) Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 141-146
142 A . C . BASTOS E T A L .
4000
I tion related to the increasing deviatoric stress
allowed us to determine the static constants. The
Vm - 0 , 5 5 V p + 4 1 , 6 0 c c " 0,96 dynamic constants are obtained simultaneously,
by monitoring changes in transit time.
2390
2400
2410
242O
2430
2440
A
E
.....
245O
Q
2460
247O
2480
249O
2500
2510
2520
Fig. 2. Vp and Vs from laboratory data (symbols) and calculated Vp and Vs logs (curves). The three wells show
good agreement between laboratory and log data.
CORE-DERIVED COMPUTATION OF PSEUDO-LOGS 143
2O
' I ' I ' I ' ' I ' I ' I '
..y
6O
i
,-. 4O ,..,.
o (P
f "
I11 9 _
20
2O
"2d,:, , , , , J I i
0 0 0
20 40 60 80 20 40 60 80 0 2O 40
E d y n (GPa) K d y n (GPa) G d y n (GPa)
Fig. 3. Static and dynamic elastic constants for sedimentary rocks obtained from simultaneous laboratory
measurements.
WELL - C
2400 I b
- i ~ 1 I I - 1 I I I
2410 9 I I I t
I I t I -
2420 , ', I I
I I I 1 I I -
2430 I l , i I
I I I I I I -
2440 i" i I I I I
I I I t I t -
•. 2450 I 1 I I J i
i I I I I _
I I I I i t I I i I
I~ 2460
I I I I I
I I I I I I
2470
I I I 1
,i,},,
I I I I i :l ~ I I
2480
~ '' t I I -! I ,~ I I t
I I I
2490
I I I I I
b ~ ~ L i I I I ~ )l L I
2500
I I I !, ~, , ,
, I I I N ~1 i i
2510
2520
L
,k, >
L
I,I,
| I
i,l,I,
I I
, ,
)I
,t,t,
I I I
I,
Fig. 4. Calculated static and dynamic elastic constants logs for weU-C.
polynomial fit proposed by Castagna et al. 2). There is good agreement between pseudo-
(1993) even for values of Vs close to 1500ms -1. logs and laboratory data. With the Vp, Vs and
The regression algorithm is: density (p) logs and the following elastic theory
equations:
Vs = 0.55 Vp + 41.60 (1)
+ 4#/3
Using this relationship and the in situ Vp logs
v~ = d
/ K (2)
v Pb
it was possible to calculate Vs pseudo-logs (Fig.
144 A.C. BASTOS E T AL.
WELL - A
5000 I
4000
j ../
3000
2000 1 I ~ I , I , I , I ,
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Porosity (%) Porosity (%)
WELL - B
6000 I ' I ' i ' r ' I ' 5 -- ' I ' I ' I ' I ' I
-o.026
t4 e ; cc ,, 0.93 0.179
~o~
4 K" 0.024 e ; cc = 0.77
5000 -
,ooo t-
1
9 9 9
2000 1 , I , I J I ~ I , I ,
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Porosity (%) Porosity (%)
WELL - C
..
6000 ' i ' 1 i ' i ' i 2000 ' I ' I ' r ' I ' T
B 0.4 6 El
V p =, 5 8 2 2 e0.021 ; c c ,, 0 . 8 9 K = 0.0002 e ; cc =0.93
5000
.~4000
D,.
3000
i i000 9
2000 , I , I , I , I , I J
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Porosity (%) Porosity (%)
Fig. 5. Exponential fits of velocity and permeability versus porosity for three wells.
2390
2400
2410
2420 I
2430
2440
2450
I
2460
g
r,,
2470
2480
_s
Q 2490
2500
2510
2520
2530
254O
2550
2560
2570
Fig. 6. Calculated permeability logs obtained from laboratory k-Vp relationship show a good correlation for
wells A and C, but less so for well B. The crossed points in well A were not used to develop the k-Vp relationship.
Estat = 0.675 Edyn -- 3.84; correlation laboratory permeability, porosity and velocity
coefficient --- 0.95 (4) data. Figure 5 shows core data, the cross plots of
velocity against porosity, and permeability
Kstat = 0.992 Kdyn -- 8.82; correlation against porosity. From these plots it has been
coefficient---- 0.89 (5) possible to deduce a relationship between Vp, ~b
and k. As can be seen in Fig. 5, an exponential fit
Gstat = 0.621 Gdyn -- 0.95; correlation was the best one obtained for both the Vp-q$ and
coefficient = 0.94 (6) the k-~b relationships for the three wells. Thus,
with the equations obtained (equations (7), (8),
where the subscripts 'stat' and 'dyn' denote (10), (11), (13) and (14)) we can isolate qb from
static and dynamic moduli, respectively. Vp-q) and k-q5 relations and then obtain k-Vp
relationships (equations (9), (12) and (15)) which
Figure 4 shows the calculated log of static and can be used to calculate the k-log shown in Fig.
dynamic constants obtained from equations (4) 6. In order to check these relationships we
to (6) for well C. As expected, the logs of the include some points in well A (cross points in
dynamic elastic constants show higher values Fig. 6) which were not used to obtain equations
than their static equivalents. (7) to (15). Again, it can be seen that there is a
good correspondence between these points and
Calculated logs of permeability the obtained log:
P. S. D E N I C O L 1 & X. D. J I N G
Centre for Petroleum Studies, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine,
London S W 7 2BP, UK
DENICOL,P. S. & JING, X. D. 1998. Effects of water salinity, saturation and clay content on the 147
complex resistivity of sandstone samples In: HARVEY,P. K. • LOVELL,M. A. (eds)
Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 147-157
148 P.S. DENICOL & X. D. JING
Table 1. List of petrophysieal parameters and chargeability at full and partial water saturation.
frequency dependence) can be used to estimate layer by an oscillating electrical field is usually
rock petrophysical properties, such as specific accepted (Lima & Sharma 1992) as the main
surface area and permeability. mechanism for the frequency dependence of
The origin of the frequency dependence can be rocks. Therefore, this interface polarization may
related to geometrical effects of the clay particles provide a link between complex resistivity data
(Sen 1980) or electrochemical phenomena at the and pore-scale attributes, such as pore geometry
fluid-grain (Rink & Schopper 1974) and/or and specific surface area, which in turn can be
fluid-fluid interface (Knight & Endres 1991). related to rock permeability through a Kozeny-
The interface region between matrix and the Carman type of relationship ( Borner 1995;
fluid-filled pore space is complicated due to the Denicol & Jing 1996). Since the frequency
existence of the ionic double layer. The concept dependence is reflecting interface phenomena,
of the electrical double layer forms the theore- salinity of the pore water also influences the
tical basis for understanding the electrical dispersion due to the variation in the double
properties of rocks, especially shaley sandstones. layer thickness and ion mobility. Furthermore,
Electrochemical theory suggests that the surface fluid saturation also plays a role due to addition
of clay minerals carries excess negative charges of the water/oil interfacial area, an increase in
as a result of the substitution of certain positive the tortuosity of the brine-phase distribution
ions by others of lower valence. When the clays and the presence of a non-ionic fluid. The main
are brought in contact with an electrolyte, these objective of this paper is to investigate, experi-
negative charges on the clay surface attract mentally, the effects of brine salinity, fluid
positive ions and repulse negative ions present in saturation and clay minerals on the complex
the solution. As a result, an electrical ionic impedance of different rock samples with vary-
double layer (or diffuse layer) is generated on the ing porosity and permeability. The samples
exterior surface of particles. Typical distribution include outcrop cores, oil-field reservoir rocks
for ionic concentration and electric potential can and synthetic shaley rocks (Tables 1 and 2). A
be predicted by the Guoy (1910) theory. The brief geological description of all sandstone
Gouy theory also predicts that the double-layer samples is given in the Appendix.
thickness (Xd) is reduced as the concentration of
the bulk solution increases. The region outside Experimental apparatus and procedures
the electric double layer (distance > Xd) is called
the free-water region. Complex impedance measurements were per-
Ionic double layers exist between rock and formed using a multi-sample rock testing sys-
fluid interfaces. The perturbation of the double tem. The apparatus can accommodate five
Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the experimental apparatus.
carefully measured to allow the calculation of tmorillonite) and SZ4 (15% montmorillonite).
average sample saturation by material balance. The sand and clay mixtures were mixed uni-
The effect of clay minerals on the complex formly to achieve homogeneous samples. Table
resistivity was investigated using synthetic shaley 2 lists the petrophysical characteristics of the
samples following the method established by synthetic samples. After loading the samples in
Jing et al. (1992). According to this technique, the high pressure cell, they were saturated with
mixtures of sands with different ranges of grain 5% by weight of NaCI brine and the consolida-
sizes and different clay types and contents can be tion process was started. Repeated loading and
prepared and consolidated through cycles of unloading cycles were performed with confining
loading/unloading and heating/cooling in a high pressures varying from 500 psi to 4000 psi until
pressure and high temperature cell. The main sample consolidation.
advantage of the technique is full control of the
sample preparation so that the desired variation Results and discussion
of clay type, content and distribution can be
systematically obtained under laboratory condi- Frequency effect
tions.
Five synthetic samples of different clay con- Figures 3 and 4 show the real component and
tents were prepared , namely SZ1 (clay free), phase angle versus frequency for two reservoir
SZ2 (5% montmorillonite), SZ3 (10% mon- core samples. This plot of resistivity and phase
THE COMPLEX RESISTIVITY OF SANDSTONE SAMPLES 151
Fig. 8. Normalized impedance at two brine concentrations showing salinity dependence for sample Z7.
(1) The complex impedance decreases as the favour the expansion of the double layer. The
brine salinity increases in the whole fre- frequency dependence, as expressed by the slope
quency range; taken from the semi-log plot of the normalized
(2) The complex impedance decreases with impedance in the frequency range from 10 to 100
frequency for both brine concentrations; kHz, is found to increase from 5% to 2 % NaC1.
(3) The rate of decrease is more pronounced Similar results were reported by Kulenkampff et
for the lower brine concentration, that is, al (1993) and Kulenkampff & Schopper (1988).
the lower the salinity of the brine the higher This salinity dependence is also related to the
the frequency dependence. This behaviour relative mobility of the ions in the pore space
is best illustrated when the normalized from the free water to the double layer near the
impedance is plotted against frequency in solid surface. In the free water region, the charge
the range from 10 to 100 kHz (Fig.8); carriers are free to move and therefore follow the
(4) As the salinity of the brine increases, the alternating electrical field. On the other hand, in
relaxation frequency increases. the double layer region, the movement of ions is
partially restricted by the electrostatic potential.
The frequency dependence as a function of The result is a delayed oscillation of the diffuse
salinity variations is related to the electrical layer when compared to the free ions of the bulk
double layer, the thickness of which varies with solution that react promptly to the alternating
the brine concentration. High solution concen- electrical field. Consequently, a phase lag is
trations are associated with the compression of established between the input voltage and the
the double layer whilst low concentrations corresponding current flowing through the pore
THE COMPLEX RESISTIVITY OF SANDSTONE SAMPLES 153
Fig. 9. Frequency dependence of resistivity and phase angle at partial saturation for sample Zl.
Fig. 10. Frequency dependence of resistivity and phase angle at full brine saturation for sample ZI.
Fig. 11. Saturation dependence of the resistivity for sample Z1 as characterized by the chargeability (m)
154 P.S. DENICOL & X. D. JING
0.85
space. If the concentration of NaCl decreases, Z3
Zl 9
the double layer thickness increases and the 080
phase lag is more accentuated. Additionally, an E_075 Z4
increase of the diffuse layer thickness favours the ~"070
blockage of ions, especially at narrowing pores, ~ 065
with consequent accumulation of charges and ="0.60
local concentration gradients.
0.55
0.50
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0,8 0,9
Saturation dependence Sw (fraction)
The saturation dependence was studied by Fig. 12. Correlation between chargeability (m) and
comparing the frequency spectrum of the real water saturation.
part of the resistivity at full and partial water
saturation. The partial saturation was arrived at
by displacing brine with Isopar H which has a metallics, also plays an important role in
dielectric constant of 2.02 at 25 ~ So far, only increasing the complexity of the frequency
water-wet samples have been tested. The fre- dispersion. However, the general behaviour of
quency dependence of the in-phase resistivity the saturation dependence is characterized by an
and phase angle are shown in Figs 9 and 10 for increase of the frequency effect in response to the
sample Z1 at 33% and full brine saturation, oil saturation, as distinguished by the phase
respectively. The saturation dependence be- angle and chargeability results.
comes clearer when both resistivity curves are It is important to note that in two-phase
displayed in a log-log plot (Fig. 11). The fully systems, the frequency dispersion due to the
saturated curve is almost flat for the whole polarization at the solid-liquid interface (pore-
frequency range. On the other hand, the grain) may be added to by polarization at the
partially saturated curve is flat in the low liquid-liquid interface (oil-water). As the water
frequency range and shows clear frequency saturation decreases, there is an increase in the
dependency above the relaxation frequency. water-oil interfacial area and an increase in the
The frequency effect can be better analysed by complexity of the brine phase topology. For any
the empirical parameter chargeability (m) de- rock-fluid systems, wettability plays a significant
fined as follows (Siegel 1959): role in controlling fluid distribution at the pore
scale. Therefore, it might be possible to derive
m = R1/(R1 +R2) (6) wettability information based on the frequency
dispersion measurements of reservoir rock-fluid
where R1 and R2 stand for the low and high systems. However, further research is needed in
resistivity asymptotes, respectively. Table 1 this area.
summarizes the results obtained for the charge-
ability of the samples. For a given sample, there Clay effects
is a consistent increase in m when brine is
displaced by oil. The correlation between m and Synthetic shaley samples with controlled clay
the water saturation is shown in Fig. 12 for all type, content and distribution were used to
the samples. Although a general trend of higher investigate the effects of clay minerals on
m for lower saturation can be observed, the complex impedance measurements. Figure 13
correlation is weak. Samples Z3 and Z9 showed shows the results for the synthetic sample SZ4.
a more remarkable deviation from the trend, The low-frequency region from 10 Hz to ~10
possibly due to the high iron oxide content in the kHz indicates strong dispersion in both impe-
former and dispersed glauconite in the latter. dance and phase angle which is attributed to
Knight & Nur (1987) also observed that a electrode polarization. In the intermediate fre-
sample with high iron oxide content (Indiana quency range (1 to ~100 kHz) the impedance
Dark sandstone) had an anomalous dielectric decreases monotonically while the phase angle
exponent apparently due to the effect of the reaches a minimum and then starts increasing.
magnetic susceptibility on the dielectric re- The high frequency region is characterized by
sponse. the relaxation frequency at N800 kHz where the
The interpretation of the saturation depen- phase angle reaches a maximum and the
dence upon frequency is difficult due to the impedance decreases more drastically. All the
intricate geometry of the pore space and its effect synthetic samples present the relaxation fre-
on distribution of fluids within the rock. Miner- quency at around the same position. However,
alogical complexity, mainly related to clays and the value of the phase angle at the relaxation
THE COMPLEX RESISTIVITY OF SANDSTONE SAMPLES 155
Fig. 13. General frequency dependence behaviour of impedance and phase angle for sample SZ4.
Fig. 14. Normalized impedance versus frequency relationships of four synthetic samples containing various
amounts of montmorillonite.
Fig. 15. Correlation between clay content and frequency dependence for the synthetic samples.
156 P.S. DENICOL & X. D. JING
frequency increases with the amount of clay, applications for the evaluation of low resistivity
varying from 1 degree for the clay-free sample to and low contrast pay formations.
5 degrees for the 15% montmorillonite sample. The frequency dispersion consistently in-
This observation suggests that a polarization- creases with the amount of clay in the sample.
like process is being caused by the clay presence This effect is better illustrated when the normal-
although the classical induced polarization effect ized impedance is plotted in the frequency range
would be expected at lower frequencies. A from 10 to 100 kHz . The impedance slope is
possible explanation for this frequency effect relatively flat for the clay-free sample (SZ1) and
may be related to the electro-osmotic coupling increases with the content of montmorillonite
due to the accumulation of charges at narrowing for the shaley samples. A plot of the clay content
pores (Marshal & Madden 1959; Dankhazi versus the frequency dependency clearly shows a
1993). Although its effect is found to be very relationship.
weak, this type of polarization is expected to
increase with a reduction of the sample perme- We would like to thank Petrobras S.A. for sponsoring
ability. Indeed, the synthetic samples show a P.S. Denicol and for providing reservoir rock samples.
decrease in permeability with increasing amount We also wish to thank M. S. King for many valuable
of clay (Table 2) that leads to the narrowing and discussions.
reduction of effective pores and hence the
electro-osmotic coupling.
The slope of the impedance curve in the range References
from 10 to 100 kHz is also found to correlate
with the clay content of the samples. Figure 14 BORNER, F. D. 1995. Estimation of hydraulic con-
shows the normalized impedance versus fre- ductivity from complex electrical measurement.
quency for the samples containing montmor- International Symposium of the Society of Core
illonite. The graph indicates a consistent increase Analysts, paper 9523.
COLE, K. S. & COLE, R. H. 1941. Dispersion and
in the frequency slope from sample Z1 (clay- absorption in dielectrics. Journal of Chemistry and
free) to sample Z4 (15% montmorillonite). A Physics, 9, 341.
plot of the rate of impedance decrease with DANKHAZI, G. 1993. A new principle approach to
frequency versus clay content is shown in Fig. induced polarization in porous rock. The Log
15, where the clay effect appears to decrease at Analyst, 34, 54-66.
higher clay contents. DEBVE, P. 1929. Polar molecules. Chemical Catalogue
Co.
DENICOL, P. S. & JING, X. D. 1996. Estimating
Conclusions permeability of reservoir rocks from complex
resistivity data. Society of Professional Well Log
The frequency effect in the intermediate fre- Analysts, 37th Annual Logging Symposium,
quency range (10-100 kHz) increases when the paper X.
solution concentration is decreased from 5% to ELASHAHAB,B. M., JING, X. D. & ARCHER,J. S. 1995.
2% NaC1. This salinity dependence may be Resistivity index and capillary pressure hysteresis
explained by variations of the double layer for rock samples of different wettability charac-
thickness and ion mobility. At high salinity, teristics. SPE paper No. 29888, the 9th Middle
the double layer is compressed to the pore East Oil Show and Conference, March, Bahrain.
surface and gradually expands with decreasing Gouv, G. as discussed in HUNTER, R. J. 1988. Zeta
brine concentration. As a consequence, the Potential in Colloid Science, Academic Press.
JING, X. D., ARCHER, J. S. 8r DALTABAN,T. S. 1992.
mobility of the ions in the diffuse layer is Laboratory study of the electrical and hydraulic
reduced at high salinity preventing them from properties of rocks under simulated reservoir
following the alternating field as opposed to the conditions. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 9,
free ions in the centre of the pore. Additionally, 115-127.
the expansion of the double layer supports the KNIGHT, R. & NUR, A. 1987. Geometrical effects in the
blockage of ions particularly at the smaller pores dielectrical response of partially saturated sand-
with subsequent electro-osmotic polarization stones. The Log Analyst, 28, 513-519.
due to the accumulation of charges. KNIGHT, R. & ENDRES,A. 1991. Surface conduction at
The frequency effect is found to increase for the hydrocarbon/water interface. Society of Pro-
fessional Well Log Analysts, 32nd Annual Log-
the whole frequency range when brine is ging Symposium, paper I.
displaced by oil (Isopar H). A variation in water KULENKAMPFF,J. M. & SCHOPPER,J. R. 1988. Low
saturation from full to partial saturation re- frequency conductivity--a means for separating
sulted in a dramatic increase in the frequency volume and interlayer conductivity. Society of
dispersion and a clear shift of the relaxation Professional Well Log Analysts, 12th European
frequency. This observation may have potential Formation Evaluation Symposium, paper P.
THE COMPLEX RESISTIVITY OF SANDSTONE SAMPLES 157
--, BORNER, F. D. & SCHOPPER,J. R. 1993. Broad logically mature, texturally submature to
band complex conductivity lab measurement mature.
enhancing the evaluation of reservoir properties.
Society of Professional Well Log Analysts, 15th
European Formation Evaluation Symposium,
Sample Z3 (Block 18-2)."
paper A. Lower Permian "Penrith Red Sandstone", pre-
LIMA, 0. A. L. t~ SHARMA, M. M. 1992. A grain dominantly quartz grains cemented by quartz
conductivity approach to shaly sandstone. Geo- over-growths with iron oxide petina, sub-
physics, 55, 1-10. rounded-rounded, mineralogically and textu-
LOCKNER, D. A. & BYERLEE, J. D. 1985. Complex rally sub-mature.
resistivity measurements of confined rock. Journal
of Geophysical Research, 90, 7837-7847. Sample Z4 (Block 16-2):
MARSHALL, D. J. t~ MADDEN, T. R. 1959. Induced Upper Carboniferous sandstone, grain size : 0.1-
polarization, a study of its causes. Geophysics, 24,
790-816. 0.3 mm, 85% quartz, 0% alkali feldspar, 5%
RINK, U. • SCHOPPER,J. R. 1974. Interface conduc- mica, very irregular, poor sphericity, texturally
tivity and its implications to electrical logging. immature and mineralogically submature.
Society of Professional Well Log Analysts, 15th
Annual Logging Symposium, paper J. Sample Z5 (Block 19-4):
SEN, P. N. 1980. The dielectric constant and conductiv- Lower Triassic 'Bunter' sandstone, fine to
ity response of sedimentary rocks. Society of medium grain sizes (< 0.5 mm), 95% quartz,
Petroleum Engineers, paper 9379. % alkali feldspar and calcite, sub-rounded, poor
SEN, P. N. 1981. Relation of certain geometrical sphericity, texturally and mineralogically ma-
features to the dielectric anomaly of rocks.
Geophysics, 46, 1714. ture.
SEIGEL,H. 0. 1959. A theory for induced polarization
effects (for step excitation function). In: WArr, J. (b) Reservoir rocks
R. (ed.) Over Voltage Research and Geophysical
Applications. Pergamon Press Inc., 4-21. Sample Z7:
TAHERIAN, M. R., KENYON, W. E. & SAFINYA, K. A. Glauconitic sandstone, semi-friable, grains are
1990. Measuremen of dielectric response of water- sub-rounded with regular to good selection.
saturated rocks. Geophysics, 55, 1530-1541. Mineralogy also includes quartz, feldspar and
mica.
Appendix: geological description of sand-
stone rocks Sample Z8."
Sandstone with pseudo-argilaceous matrix (27
(a) Outcrop rocks %), quartz (31%), K-feldspar (18%), glauconite
(6%), plagioclase (5%), others (2%). Cements
Sample Z1 (Block 15-8): include dolomite and pyrite.
Lower Carboniferous sandstone, average grain
size 0.2 ram, 95% q u a r t z , alkali feldspar, clay, Sample Z9."
biotite, alcite cement (5%) with some chert, Sandstone with pseudo-argilaceous matrix,
angular to sub-angular, poor sphericity, minera- quartz, K-feldspar, glauconite, and plagioclase.
Acoustic wave anisotropy in sandstones with systems of aligned cracks
A. S H A K E E L 1 & M . S. K I N G 2
1Production Department, Oil and Gas Development Corporation, F-8 Markaz Islamabad,
Pakistan
2 Department of Earth Resources Engineering, Royal School of Mines, Imperial College,
London SW7 2BP, UK
Abstract: Seismic anisotropy has been studied on a number of dry cubic sandstone
specimens, of 51 mm side, in which a system of aligned cracks has been first introduced
progressively by the application of a polyaxial state of stress, and then closed by hydrostatic
stress. One P- and two S-wave velocities polarized at right angles, along with the
deformation, have been measured at each stress level in each of the three principal stress
directions. Thomsen's (1986) anisotropy parameters (e, 7, 6) have been calculated at each
stress level during the cracking and crack closing cycles using Nishizawa's (1982) theory.
Test results indicate that anisotropy in the P-wave velocity is greater and more sensitive to
the presence of aligned cracks than that observed for S waves. Modelling studies show that
the P-wave anisotropy parameter e is always greater than that of anisotropy parameter 8, for
low crack densities and for small aspect ratios. The reverse is true for high crack densities
and low aspect ratios. The results of numerical studies indicate that S-wave anisotropy is
independent of the nature of the saturating fluid and that it is possible to observe elliptical
anisotropy in a medium containing aligned dry ellipsoidal inclusions.
It is well known that the presence of microcracks cracks has been extensively studied by, amongst
and fractures reduces the acoustic velocities of others, Crampin (1984, 1985a,b) and Crampin &
P- and S-waves in rocks. When the principal Atkinson (1985), who are of the opinion that S-
stresses are altered on a rock that initially has a wave velocities are more sensitive to the presence
random distribution of cracks, the crack dis- of aligned cracks and that they provide a better
tribution no longer remains randomly oriented. quality of information on anisotropy effects than
The effect of an applied non-hydrostatic stress is does the P wave. Crack orientation, when cracks
to close cracks in some directions and leave are aligned vertically, can easily be determined
cracks open in others (Sayers 1988). Those by the splitting of vertically propagating polar-
cracks with their normals lying close to parallel ized shear waves. This splitting occurs as a result
to the new major principal stress will tend to be of azimuthal anisotropy induced by the micro-
closed more than those with their normals sub- cracks and fractures. A knowledge of seismic
parallel to the new minor principal stress (Sayers anisotropy can provide useful information about
1988). The elastic and transport properties of the the mineralogy, the orientation of cracks and
rock then become anisotropic in their behaviour, pores, the degree of cracking and crack geome-
with the degree of anisotropy depending on the try, orientation of the in situ stress field, and the
magnitude of the principal stress differences, the possible proportion of gas and liquid within the
type of fluid filling the cracks (Xu & King 1989, inclusions in hydrocarbon reservoirs (Crampin
1992; King et al. 1995a,b). 1985a).
Seismic anisotropy was studied more than 40 Thomsen (1986) has derived a set of three
years ago by Postma (1955) and Uhrig & Melle dimensionless anisotropy parameters (e, 7 and 8)
(1955), but for a long time its effect was ignored to describe weak to moderate transverse iso-
or considered insignificant, due to the fact that tropy of a medium. These parameters are
most of the seismic surveys carried out were for defined in terms of the five components of the
P-wave reflection and conducted at small angles stiffness tensor (Cll , C33 , C13 , C44, C66) relating
to the vertical. However, for seismic surveys stress and strain for the transversely isotropic
conducted with large angles of the incidence medium as follows:
waves (such as VSP surveys), the effect of
a n i s o t r o p y c a n n o t be i g n o r e d ( C r a m p i n Cll -C33 V 2 1 - V22
-- - - -- (1)
1985a,b). Seismic anisotropy due to aligned 2C33 V 22
SHAKEEL,A. & KING, M. S. 1998. Acoustic wave anisotropy in sandstones with systems of aligned 173
cracks In. HARVEY,P. K. & LOVELL,M. A. (eds) Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London,
Special Publications, 136, 173-183
174 A. SHAKEEL & M. S. KING
9 , ,
TRANSDUCER HOLDERS
HYDRAULIC PRESSURE,
2-DIRECTION
4. HYDRAULIC RAM,
2-DIRECTION
5. HYDRAULIC PRESSURE,
3-DIRECTION
6. HYDRAULIC RAM,
3-DIRECTION
7. "fRANSDL~ER HOLDERS
8. CUBIC ROCK SPECIMEN
9. REACTION RING
: C r a c k density = 0 . 0 1
0~0 . . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . . | . . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . .
0.5 . . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . . i . . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . .
Crack density = O. I0 ~)
0.4 9 ~"
"~ "..--.'.'T ." . - : -" . " . ~. - - - : . ' T . . " . ' : " -".:. 7----.-.-: : .--.'..--:.--. - .-"" -- "~.'.'T 2 2": : .".-:" - -~....: : :"; "'~" ". ~
o.3 ~';r
O~ y '~.~
/
0.1
O.O . . . . , , ..! 9 , , i , , ,r I . . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . . I . . . . . . .
l.o .". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 8
p..
/ Y "'-..
Fig. 2. Thomsen anisotropy parameters as a function of aspect ratio for dry inclusions for crack densities, (a) ~ =
0.01, (b) ~= 0.05, (c) ( = 0.10, (d) ~= 0.20.
there is also a constant difference between the for dry inclusions of crack density of 0.01. In
two P- and two S-wave velocities propagating this figure (also in Fig. 5) the slower acoustic
both parallel and perpendicular to the plane of velocities (VP2 and VS2) are represented by
cracks for the same range of aspect ratios. This dotted lines and the faster (VPi and VS1) by
conclusion corresponds to Fig. 4 which shows a solid lines. A study of Fig. 2 indicates that the
very small variation in P- and S-wave velocities anisotropy parameters follow a certain pattern
propagating both parallel and perpendicular to for dry inclusions, i.e. for low crack densities
the plane of cracks as the aspect ratio is changed < 0.1, e > 6 > 7, (Figs 2 a-b) and for high crack
ANISOTROPY IN CRACKED ROCKS 177
+r O.Ol
0 ..... -+"~
o-,"
-0.01 ..................... .~-"*"
(a)
O.IS ......... I . . . . . . . . I ~ . . . . . . . I
0.1
C r a c k density = 0.05 ........... ","U:':u:-':~.:. ,,
/ ...... . .... _.-j.....-
0.05
s . ...o..-o'~ ~- j-
.................................. ~
,,J 0
. o~"
-0.05 ................ .---"
, . , , .... I , , , , , ,.,1 i n i i i '''I
-0.1
0.0001 0.001 O.OI 0.1
(b)
0"~ ........ ! ........ 1 ........ i .......
0.2 C r a c k density --- 0.10 + ..)~ ~~ ~~ -'~" = : z.-;~..
/ ........ . - \
.o 9
,r 0,1 ~ ~ .......... .....~ .*" f . /
-0.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "~'~"
-0.2 . . . . . . . . i . . . . . . . . i . . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . .
(c)
0.3 I o
~ - i -/" \ 9
-0.15
-0.3 1.. . . . . . . I i . . . . . +,il I i . . . . . . l , , , ....
0.O~i 0.001 0.01 O.l
Aspect Ratio
(d)
Fig. 3. Thomsen anistropy parameters as a function of aspect ratio for liquid filled inclusions for crack densities,
(a) ~= 0.01, (b) ~= 0.05, (c) ~= 0.10, (d) ~=0.20.
densities ~>_0.1, 6 > ~ > 7 (Figs 2 c-d). result corresponds to Fig. 5a which shows a
However, for a solid permeated with liquid- significant variation in V P 2 a s the aspect ratio is
filled inclusions, a large variation in anisotropy changed for liquid-filled inclusions of crack
parameters ~ and 6 is observed as the aspect density ~=0.01. It can be seen from Fig. 3 that
ratio is changed (Fig. 3). The changes in e are the value of ~ tends to zero for very small aspect
related to P-wave velocities, especially VP2 ratios for all the crack densities, indicating that
which is strongly influenced by the liquid-filled the difference between the P-wave velocities in
inclusions as the aspect ratio is changed. This both the directions parallel and perpendicular to
178 A. SHAKEEL & M. S. KING
6.60 . . . . . . . . i . . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . . J
6.55
6.$0
6.45
6.40 ......................................................................... ~
6.35 ,,.
Vr2
6.30 Crack density = 0.01
, , , , , , , I , , t . . . . . i
6.~g . . . . . . . . t .
Aspect Ratio
(a)
3.85
3.80 Vs~
3.75
3.70
3.60 , , . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . . I , , , . . . . . I
Aspect Ratio
(b)
Fig. 4. Changes in acoustic wave velocities as a function of aspect ratio for dry inclusions (a) P-wave velocities and
(b) S-wave velocities. The crack density is ( = 0.01.
the plane of cracks also tends to zero. This effect both dry and liquid-filled inclusions, the acoustic
is clearly shown in Fig. 5a. The changes in ~5are velocities VS1 and VS2 are not strongly affected
related to those P- and S-wave velocities which by aspect ratios (Figs 4b and 5b for a crack
are either propagation or polarization perpendi- density ( = 0.01).
cular to the plane of cracks (3-direction). For all the cases studied for dry and liquid-
A comparison of Figs 2 and 3 with each filled inclusions, the values of e, 7 and 6 are
respective crack density, indicates that there is always positive, indicating that the P- and S-
hardly any difference in the value of anisotropic wave velocities (VP 1 and VS1) propagating
parameter 7 for a large range of aspect ratios perpendicular to the axis of symmetry are always
when either dry or liquid-filled inclusions are greater than those propagating along (VP2 and
used. This behaviour corresponds to the fact VS2) the symmetry axis (Figs 4 and 5). Finally,
that S-wave velocities are not affected much as Figs 2 and 3 show that the parameters e and 6
the condition of inclusions is changed from dry are equal for aspect ratios lying between a = 0.4
to liquid-saturated. Since the parameter 7 is and 1 for both dry and liquid-filled inclusions.
constant for a large range of aspect ratios for This suggests that the resultant anisotropy is
ANISOTROPY IN CRACKED ROCKS 179
Vp l
6.55
6.50
6.45
6.40
6.35
Vp2
6.30 Crack density = 0.01
3.85 . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . I . . . . [ ~ . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . .
3.80
Vs i
E
.'a 3.75
3.70
i
3.65
Crack density = 0.01
. . . . . . . . l 1 1 . . . . . . I . . . . . . . . I , [ . . . . .
3.60
0.01.| 0.001 0.01 0.1
Aspect Ratio
(b)
Fig. 5. Changes in acoustic velocities as a function of aspect ratio for liquid-filled inclusions (a) P-wave velocities
and (b) S-wave velocities. The crack density is ~= O.O1.
elliptical (Thomsen 1986) for both the dry and involves measurements on the flesh, uncracked
saturated cases in this limited range of aspect rock specimen during the application of an
ratios. increasing hydrostatic stress. The second cycle
involves measurements while a system of aligned
Experimental results and discussion cracks, with their normals parallel to the minor
stress direction, is formed in the rock specimen
Tests have been performed on five dry sandstone (cracking cycle). The third cycle involves mea-
specimens, in which a system of aligned cracks surements during the application of a further
has been first introduced by increasing the major increasing hydrostatic state of stress to close the
(el) and intermediate (~2) principal stresses in cracks formed during the cracking cycle (crack
unison to near failure, while keeping the minor closing cycle).
(or3) principal stress constant at some low level. Discussed here as being characteristic of the
The aligned cracks are then closed by the studies made on five sandstones tested in this
application of a hydrostatic compressive stress. research programme will be that of Penrith
The nine components of velocity are measured sandstone. This is a fine-to-medium grained
throughout three separate stress cycles. The first sandstone of lower Permian age having a low
180 A. SHAKEEL & M. S. KING
S.O . . . . [ . . . . i I . . . . I . . . . i . . . . [ . . . .
. . . . i . . . . i 9 -
o3 = 3 M P a (constant)
4.0 4.0
3..~
3.0
:~- 3.0
ft. 2..~
2.0 ~
= Pll : P22 a P33
1.5 . . . . ' . . . . ] . . . . I . . . . J , , 9 . , ....
l.$ . . . . . . i . . . . [ 9
0 25 SO 75 100 12S ISO
O 50
01 = o 2 = 0"3 ( M P a ) ;~-- 01 = O2 ( M P a ) ~:~
o l > o 2 = IOOMPa
3.2 . . . . i . . . . i . . . . i . . . . ~ . . . . i . . . . "
3.2 . . . . i . . . .
03 - 3 M P a (constant)
2.9 . r -*1%
2.9 -'r -*1%
~ 2.6
2.3
!~
~ 2.,
g 2.0
1.7
$31 ~ $23---o--- $21
1.7 t S13 ~ $32 9 S12
I S13 ~ $32 ! S12 1.4 ,,. i .... i .... i .... i.,,. i ....
50 75 100 125 l.gO
1.4 , , , , I , , , , ~ , ,
50
i~ o I = 02 ( M P a ) =',~
o 1 = 0 2 = 0 3 (MPa) o 1 > o 2 = IOOMPa
7Z:L~ ,--]
5~ 9 9" * 9 I '' " * " " ' 'I . . . . 2.4 . . . . i . . . . i . . . . , . . . . i . . . . i . . . .
4J I 7-O
~ 1.6
3,$ ,o
~ 3.0
G a m m a , ,
O.8
'-4
3.2 ,~., . ~ . A L
Aspect Ratio ct = 0 . 0 0 ~ /
2.0
2.9 -Z • ~
I~lta.
1.6
A 2.6
/ ,,
I..*
0J
o.4
1.7 .--o--- $31 ~ $23 ~ $21
. . _ , . ~ - - I - .
4 ..... SD ~ S32 x S12
o.o
1.4 . . . . ~ " , , , f , * , , 0 0.1 0.2 o.3 0.4
5O 7$
Crack Density
01 - 0 2 - 0 3 (MPa)
Fig. 8. P and S-wave velocities as a function of Fig. 9. Thomsen's (1986) anisotropy parameters for
hydrostatic stress during the crack closing cycle for Penrith sandstone sample during the cracking cycle as
Penrith sandstone sample, (a) P-wave velocities and (b) a function of (a) stress and (b) crack density of the
S-wave velocities. aligned cracks.
velocities that are propagating in the 3-direction described in detail by Shakeel (1995), who found
(V31 or V32). This behaviour suggests that the excellent fits (within 4-1% at all stress levels) in
aligned crack density towards the extremities of comparing the theoretically modelled and the
the specimen in the 3-direction is higher than in the laboratory measured velocities during both the
centre for values of stress greater than 100 MPa. cracking and crack closing cycles.
Figure 8 shows changes in three P- and six S- As the Penrith Sandstone was tested in its dry
wave velocities plotted as a function of hydro- state, a value of 1.5x 104 GPa was chosen for
static stress during the subsequent crack closing the fluid bulk modulus. A range of aspect ratios
cycle. As the stress is increased, both sets of P- (0.0005 to 0.002) was employed during each of
and S-wave velocities appear to be approaching the stress cycles to obtain the best match
asymptotic values that are only slightly lower in between the modelled and experimental velo-
magnitude than those shown in Fig. 6 for the cities. It was found that a value of aspect ratio
preliminary uncracked cycle. Upon removal c~--8.0xl0 ~ provides the best match between
from the loading frame after completion of the the modelled and the experimental velocities
tests, the specimens all showed signs of through- during the cracking cycle and for the crack
going fractures aligned close to normal to the 3- closing cycle for most of the stress levels.
direction. Figure 9a shows changes in the anisotropy
The nine components of velocity determined parameters e, 7 and 6 as a function of (71 and 0"2
as a function of stress during the cracking and during the cracking cycle, during which o.3 was
subsequent crack closing cycle have been used to kept constant at 3MPa. All the anisotropy
evaluate the Thomsen's (1986) anisotropy para- parameters increase as the stress is increased
meters and crack density for the cracks aligned due to an increase in crack density (Fig. 9b). The
perpendicular to the symmetry axis (3-direction). rate of increase in the value of these parameters
The procedure, employing Nishizawa's (1982) is lower as the stresses o-~ =o-2 are increased
theory, first to model the velocity data, is initially from 2 to 100 MPa, but it becomes much
182 A. SHAKEEL & M. S. KING
. . . . I , . . . . . . . . i . . . . i . . . . i . . . . i . . . . i'.
1.5
Epsilon, 9 ~
1.0
. . . . t , J 9 - J . . . . L . . . . L . . . . i . . . .
U)
0.02 0.04 0.06 0,(]~ 0.I 0.12 0,05 O.l 0. I$ 0.2 0.25
(b) (b)
Fig. 10. Thomsen's (1986) anistropy parameters for Fig. 11. Thomsen's (1986) anistropy parameters for
Penrith sandstones sample during the crack closing Crosland Hill sandstone sample during the cracking
cycle as a function of (a) stress and (b) crack density of cycle as a function of (a) stress and (b) crack density of
the aligned cracks. the aligned cracks.
higher at higher stresses. The higher rate of The anisotropy parameters follow the same
increase of anisotropy parameters for stresses pattern during the cracking and crack closing
o'1 >a2 = 100MPa is due to the nucleation and cycles, i.e. at each stress level ~ > 7 indicates that
coalescence of the majority of the aligned cracks, the anisotropy in P-wave velocities is greater and
which is also clear from the sharp decrease in more sensitive to the crack density than the
V33 and S-wave velocities propagating or polar- anisotropy in S-wave velocities. Furthermore,
ized perpendicular to the plane of cracks (Fig. for higher crack densities (~> 0.08), ~ is greater
7). than ~, which is in accordance with the predic-
Figure 10a shows changes in the anisotropy tion of Nishizawa's theory as shown in Fig. 2. A
parameters e, 7 and 6 as a function of hydro- study of Figs 9 and 10 also indicates that
static stress during the crack closing cycle. All elliptical anisotropy is only possible in the weak
the anisotropy parameters decrease as the stress anisotropic region (anisotropy p a r a m e t e r s
is increased due to a decrease in crack density < 0.2) which occurs only at low crack densities
(Fig. 10b). Cracks close very quickly during the (~ < 0.06). These results are true for all the other
initial loading, resulting in a consequent rapid sandstones tested in this research program. As
decrease in the value of the anisotropy para- an example, Figs 11 and 12 show similar
meters. When the stress is increased further, a anisotropy results for the Crosland Hill (low
major fraction of the crack surface area comes clay content [< 1%], effective porosity 6% and
into close contact which slows down the closure permeability < l mD) sandstone specimen dur-
of cracks and the anisotropy parameters de- ing the cracking and crack closing cycles.
crease much more slowly than before. Results in
Fig. 10 show that the anisotropy becomes weak- Conclusions
to-moderate and elliptical (e = 6) for hydrostatic
stresses >10 MPa. (1) The results of the experimental study for
ANISOTROPY IN CRACKED ROCKS 183
. . . . i . . . . i . . . . i . . . .
References
J. R. S A M W O R T H
Wireline Technologies Limited, East Leake, Loughborough, Leicestershire L E 1 2 6JX, U K
Abstract: Many logging tools make multiple measurements of the same type that have more
than one depth of penetration. Common examples are Compensated Density, Compensated
Neutron and Array Induction logs. The purpose of the compensation is to reduce or remove
the effects of a disturbance that distort the true measurement. Examples of this disturbance
are the borehole size, mudcake and salinity.
A general technique can be derived based on a theory of Linear Perturbation which
requires no prior knowledge of the nature of the perturbation, the only requirement being
that it is approximately locally linear. Various interpretations can be made of the general
equation depending on the particular circumstances.
The technique also produces a Complementary Parameter associated with the degree of
correction. This parameter is usually discarded or paid scant regard, but can often be of
some significant value and exposes surprising information. A number of examples can be
used to illustrate these techniques, showing that they have wide applicability in situations
ranging from difficult logging conditions (e.g. density through casing) to the apparently
routine, where unusual and unexpected borehole fluids are revealed from neutron logs.
A very common method in wireline logging is to is that although they are associated, varying one
employ a system of transducers making similar of them does not vary the other. For example,
measurements, spaced out along the logging invasion depth and Rt (resistivity) are orthogo-
tool. nal, because varying Rt does not affect the
The main reason for this is to provide invasion depth, and vice versa.
measurements with multiple depths of penetra- However, if we measure resistivity using a
tion in order to compensate for the effects of dual induction tool, the deep and medium
some disturbance to the measurement. This measurements are not orthogonal since varia-
disturbance can have a multitude of origins, tion in R t affects both deep and medium logs.
such as the borehole itself, its size, fluid nature, The tornado chart shown in Fig. 1 is an
caliper fluctuations, etc., or near-borehole effects attempt to transform the measurements into an
such as invasion. orthogonal set, the tornado being a skewed
The compensation relies on the disturbance orthogonal co-ordinate system. All dual or
being common to the array of transducers, and multiple measurements are intended to achieve
requires a model to describe the disturbance (e.g. similar objectives. It will, however, be noticed
a step invasion profile). that the transformed orthogonal pair has two
The multiple spacings employed have differing parameters--we get depth of invasion as well as
vertical resolutions, and much effort in recent Rt. This value of depth of invasion is an example
years has been spent optimizing this resolution of the orthogonal Complementary Parameter.
by ensuring that boundary information is not
lost. The V E C T A R (Vertical Enhancement by Linear perturbation and sharpness
Combination and Transformation of Associated
Responses) computational technique is one such Let us consider an observation O, looking at a
method (Elkington et al. 1990). true value V, subject to a perturbation P. Let us
In this paper, we will consider the converse of suppose we perform all the chart book correc-
this combination method and develop equations tions we can (borehole size, etc.) but we are still
which are not dependent on a pre-imposed left with a perturbation we cannot measure
model but are very general. In the process of directly. Let us further assume that the pertur-
doing this, we will see that another parameter is bation is reasonably small and that it disturbs
revealed that is orthogonal to the true value that the observation from its true value in a linear
is being examined. way. We can then write:-
Orthogonalization 0 = V+ KP (1)
SAMWORTH,J. R. 1998. Complementary functions reveal data hidden in your logs. 159
In." HARVEY,P. K. & LOVELL,M. A. (eds) Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London,
Special Publications, 136, 159-171
160 J.R. SAMWORTH
perturbation rate. If we make two observations cant, as the ratio of perturbation rates is easier
with different transducers but subject to the to calculate, and additionally the rates can
same perturbation we get:- change their absolute values without invalidat-
ing equation (4) as long as the rate ratio is
0 1 = V-t- K1P (2) unchanged.
We can also solve equations (2) and (3) for the
02 = V+ K2P. (3) perturbation P by eliminating V:-
perturbations varies significantly over the bore- is usually one of optimization. We can encapsu-
hole, this variable parameter can be derived late this principle thus:-
explicitly and a curve plotted. That is, it becomes
Sharp. a computational process on a measurement can
only be justified if the result after the process is
Principle of betterness better than the original.
_.~~176 h
C~ sJ
-[ ~_.Gamma Ray
6,5O (
_i
_I
I
_i
I
-I
I
-I
1
-It
DEPTH BA~ED DATA - MAXIMUN S A M P L I N G INCRE~4ENT I O C N . P J E ~ ON AT 20:48
We will now consider several applications of the This equation is identical to that derived by
theory. applying the geometric factor theory to density
logs (Samworth 1992).
Density logs If we wish to explore the complementary
parameter we need to set up the original
We can apply equation (4) directly to the long equations. Density logs can be expressed in
and short-spacing density logs. terms of a Geometric Factor J:
HIDDEN DATA IN LOGS 163
Fig. 4. Use of a derived Apparent Caliper to improve Slim Array Induction logs.
applied. The degree of correction and comple- assume that areas of high corrections are areas
mentary functions are not now associated with of hole enlargement. If we pursue this assump-
mudcake. tion, we can compute a caliper log using
Figure 3 shows a compensated density log equation (11). This caliper log is shown in Fig. 3.
obtained in this manner. If the original sharp
value required is the bulk density, we do not Caliper from array induction logs
have to assign an explicit meaning to the density
correction; it can remain largely unsharp. Induction logs can be combined in a similar way.
Although unsharp, it is still probably safe to Since inductions measure conductivity, we can
HIDDEN DATA IN LOGS 165
~.;~nc~easing ..-""
,~ ~ ,," ~176176 ~176176176
Short
count
rate
Fig. 6. Cross plot to indicate effect of perturbations on Neutron log count rates.
set up the linear perturbation system as in example, that there are three permeable zones,
equations (2) and (3). This has been previously the invasion of the lower two being uniform
explored for slimline array tools (Samworth et since the invasion indicator is of a trapezium
al. 1994). shape. However, the upper zone shows a graded
Figure 4 shows an example of this application. form on its top edge, probably indicating a
A difficult horizontal well was logged with a slim gradation in permeability.
array induction tool, without an opportunity to
run any other log. The borehole fluid was saline Borehole fluid salinity from neutron logs
(.07 52 f2m) and since no caliper was available to
correct the logs, they were apparently quite We can adapt linear perturbation to the dual
poor. (The right hand set of curves in Fig. 4). neutron tool. Dual neutron tools are usually
Since we know the mud resistivity, by assuming designed so that the ratio of the count rates from
that the two shallowest measurements see no near and far detectors is related to the formation
further than the invaded zone we can use linear porosity. The design is normally such that the
perturbation to calculate an apparent caliper. sensitivity of this ratio to such things as borehole
This caliper, shown in the left-hand track, was fluid salinity is minimized. However, a comple-
then used to correct the deeper reading measure- mentary function can be calculated specifically
ments. A much more systematic log then results to be sensitive to this salinity.
(in the centre track of Fig. 4). This is a form of This can be seen in Fig. 6 where we have cross
optimization of the induction logs, and it leads plotted the short spaced count rate against the
to a better product without necessarily being long spaced. On this plot, all points on a straight
absolutely correct. line through the origin have the same ratio, and
this represents the same porosity. A line can also
Invasion indication from induction logs be drawn for constant salinity but with porosity
varying. This mesh is a skewed orthogonal
Figure 5 shows what can be achieved with a system, as described earlier.
simpler slim dual induction tool. Only two In setting up the linear perturbation equations
conductivities are measured here, but unlike in this case, we shall use the two count rates V1
the previous example, the caliper is known as and V2, which are the unperturbed values. So we
well as the mud resistivity, and the appropriate now get:
corrections can be applied.
When linear perturbation is applied here, as O1 = V1 +K1P (12)
well as deriving Rt, we get a lumped comple-
mentary function associated with both Rxo and 0 2 = V 2 + K2P. (13)
invasion diameter. This is shown as the shaded
curve in Fig. 5 and gives some indication of the We can establish a relationship between 01 and
character of the invasion. It can be seen, for 02 by eliminating P. We get:
166 J.R. SAMWORTH
6600
6700
9 ) 6800
Gamma \
J Caliper
fk 6900
! i~ vooo
Bit Size 7100
: k "7:~00 ~ Ne r--~"
r 7~0o
\ ? ,r .
I" 7400 Salinity • ~.~ =
r Indicato~ .~.,.~.s
r
~, 7gO0
?
I
~'- ~ 7600
I
\) 77OO
,L ; "~
,,.&~ 9
b- r
.-.,~ I
d
-,ooo
7900
e-J
_N 2~
i)' 8100
8400-
)I 8~00
-g
iI 8600
2~."
~ bi) 87oo
f f ~ '8800
%-N
i
~" . Y j ogoo
I
0.0 (SalinityIndicator) 1.0 I
API 100l inches 1 0 B/E 10]30 LST% -loI
6600
6700
6800
6900
7"Caliper 70OO
7100
~-Bit Size
7200 sNeor PE
tm~. 1
7300
Salinity
7400
7~00
7600
7700 t',
7800
7
7900
8000
8100
8200
8:S00
<
8400
8~00
8600
8700
8800
18900
I
I5 2 0 0 ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Medium
154oo E
5,5oo
-!
b 5600 -
5"700 :i
b
,58oo --
/ 1~..,..,.Bit Size
51 O0
5200
c,
ma Cahper
5300
5400
55O0
560O
5700
5800
59OO
Figure 7 shows a well where the well fluids Figure 10 shows a horizontal well where there
were static. The salinity indicator shows low are several intervals with an anomalous Array
salinity, i.e. oil, above a high salinity sump in the Induction response (e.g. at 5810-5910). The
reservoir section. Figure 8 shows a log taken neutron based salinity indicator shows high
with the well flowing, i.e. the injector had not levels at these points indicating water plugs in
been turned off. Here the salinity profile is an otherwise oil-filled well. The nuclear logs are
inverted, but the inversion starts several hundred shown in Fig. 11 for reference. Comparison of
feet into the reservoir. the logs with a plot of the hole trajectory shows
Figure 9 is similar to Fig. 7, but with a blip at depressions at these points, the salinity indicator
a similar place to where there is a change in Fig. showing that these are full of water.
8.
The conclusion from these logs must be that Conclusion
the waterflood is breaking through at the top of
the reservoir and not efficiently sweeping the There is much information to be had from well
lower levels. logs by interpreting them in a slightly unconven-
HIDDEN DATA IN LOGS 171
A number of operations involved in the ex- taken from great depth which contain stress
ploitation of petroleum and geothermal energy relief microcracks. The main objective of this
resources require a knowledge of the in situ state study is to contribute to the development of the
of stress. Such data are required for determining technique and to compare the results obtained
borehole stability in the drilling phase, for with those from other proven methods.
avoiding solids production problems and for For the purpose of this study, specimens were
hydraulic fracturing stimulation in the produc- prepared from core samples taken from various
tion phase, and for reservoir characterization in petroleum wells in the Irish and North Seas. The
reservoir engineering. A common method for samples comprised ten sandstone specimens
obtaining in situ stress data from great depth is from depths lying between 1361 and 1422 m
indeed by hydraulic fracturing or, alternatively, and between 3232 and 3304 m, eight of which
sleeve fracturing (Desroches et al. 1995). These (SSA) were oriented and so could be used for
techniques, however, possess certain disadvan- determining the actual orientation of the in situ
tages with regard first to cost and second to stresses. The other two samples (SSB) were not
technical considerations in fractured formations, oriented; they are, however, considered valuable
deviated well bores and high pressures and high for further comparison studies. Descriptions of
temperature formations. Results obtained from the rock samples are provided in Table 1.
these methods are often influenced and biased by
stresses close to the well bore and hence do not Differential stain analysis (DSA)
reflect the governing in situ stress field. To
overcome some of these problems, the technique Technique
of differential strain analysis (DSA) has been
developed. Since it was first suggested by DSA is a method based on the existence of
Strickland & Ren (1980) as a tool for in situ oriented microcracks generated within core
stress determination, DSA has been used fre- samples as a result of stress relief processes
quently; successful applications have been re- which occur during the core process and
ported by various investigators (Dey & Brown recovery of the cores from depth. Evidence of
1986; Dyke 1988; Oikawa et al. 1993). the existence of this type of microcracks has
Nevertheless, considerations of the length of been reported by various investigators using
time required for a DSA test have led to efforts different approaches (Kowallis & Wang 1983,
to find alternative methods. Early studies (Yale amongst others), such as comparing images
& Sprunt 1989) utilized the phenomenon of from scanning electron microscopy (SEM),
ultrasonic S-wave splitting on rock specimens studying P- and S-wave velocities adjacent to
WIOARSONO,B., MARSDEN,J. R. & KIN6, M. S. 1998. In situ stress prediction using differential strain 185
analysis and ultrasonic shear-wave splitting In. HARVEY,P. K. & LOVELL,M. A. (eds) Core-Log
Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 185-195
186 B. WIDARSONO ET AL.
60
/ causes S-wave splitting in the Earth's crust
(Crampin & Lovell 1991), although it is gen-
erally taken to be caused by aligned disconti-
nuities. Crampin (1978) recognized that most
rocks in the crust are likely to contain disconti-
40
~G a u g, e _ _ _, _ , 6 nuities, and that S-wave splitting is probably the
most diagnostic feature of wave propagation in
2O such anisotropic rocks.
Attempts have been made to relate S-wave
0 splitting to the orientation of in situ stress-relief
0 1 2 3
Strain(millist rains) induced microcracks in cores taken from great
depths. Yale & Sprunt (1989) utilized ultrasonic
S-wave splitting on oriented core samples, and
Fig. 2. Typical compression curves from DSA test. concluded that this approach can be used to
predict the orientation of the major horizontal in
situ stress.
overburden stress, /n situ pore pressure, and Shear-wave splitting results from the division
Poisson's ratio for the tested rock. The orienta- of a polarized S-wave into two separate polar-
tion of the reference line with regard to the axes ized S-waves travelling at different speeds when
of the cubic specimen is also required if the true a source of anisotropy is encountered in its path.
orientation of the in situ stress field is to be When a plane polarized S-wave is propagated
determined. through a medium containing a set of aligned
The strains recorded by the data logger are microcracks it will be split into two orthogonally
fitted by a series of curve-fitting programs to polarized S-waves, with one polarized parallel to
produce the pressure-strain curves by way of a the plane of the microcracks and the other,
quadratic fit using five adjacent data points travelling at a lower velocity, polarized perpen-
(Dyke 1988). A microcrack closure strain tensor dicular to the plane of the microcracks. Garbin
is obtained from these quadratic compression & Knopoff (1975) proposed a theory to explain
curves (Fig. 2) for each of the specimens tested. the velocity variations caused by a single set of
To create a complete microcrack strain tensor, parallel cracks which is based on scattering of
six components only are required from the elastic waves by penny-shaped cracks. The
twelve strain gauge measurements. This permits theory explains the variation of S-wave velocity
a statistical analysis to be made of the redundant with changes in ray path angle and wave
data. From the microcrack strain tensor, the polarization relative to the crack plane. The
principal microcrack strains and their orienta- degree of splitting is related to the time lag
tions relative to the reference line are calculated between the arrival of the two waves at the
using the method proposed by Strickland & Ren receiver. The degree of S-wave splitting and
(1980). The ratios of principal strains are taken hence velocity anisotropy increases with an
as the ratios of the principal effective stresses increase in crack density.
and, by a series of tensorial transpositions to
vertical and horizontal planes, the principal Experimental procedure and analyses
strains can be converted to principal in situ
stresses using values of overburden stress, pore As part of this study, S-wave splitting tests were
pressure and Poisson's ratio. Furthermore, the conducted on the same specimens as used in the
true orientations of the stresses can be deter- earlier DSA tests, except in the case of one which
mined if the true orientation of the reference line exhibited such a poor degree of cementing that
is known. satisfactory acoustic coupling between specimen
and transducers could not be achieved. The
Ultrasonic shear wave splitting (USWS) elastomer sleeves were removed from the DSA
samples tested earlier and the latter were re-cut
Technique with flat surfaces perpendicular to the vertical
(Z-axis) and horizontal (X- and Y-axes).
The use of acoustic S-wave splitting (birefrin- They were then oven dried at 35~ so that the
gence) as a source of information regarding the specimens could be tested dry. The principal
188 B. WIDARSONO ET AL.
axes (Fig. I) and reference lines used were the 180 ~, measured relative to the reference line, in
same as those used in the DSA tests, in order to increments of 15~ At each 15~ step, the transit
maintain compatibility between the DSA and S- time of first arrivals and waveforms in digital
wave splitting results. form are recorded. After each test, the S-wave
USWS measurements are performed by rotat- transit time is converted to velocity.
ing the rock specimen containing stress relief
microcracks while pulses of planar S-wave are Experimental results
transmitted parallel to the specimen axis under
nearatmospheric pressure conditions. In the D i f f e r e n t i a l s t r a & analysis
presence of aligned microcracks, S-wave first
arrivals observed by the receiving transducer Results of the in situ stress predictions for all
(polarized parallel to the polarization of the specimens tested are shown in Table 2, in which
transmitter) show changes in magnitude as the stress magnitudes are presented as ratios in
specimen is rotated. When the direction of order to provide a comparison of results. Figure
polarization of the transducers is parallel to 3 shows plots of the results for SSA sandstones
the aligned microcracks, the S-wave first arrival in the form of an equal-angle stereonet (lower-
time is a minimum. Conversely, when the hemisphere projection). Trends of the stresses
transducer polarization is perpendicular to the determined from the oriented cores of the SSA
aligned microcracks, the first arrival time is a specimens are given in degrees measured clock-
maximum. This direction is that of the greatest wise from North, whereas those obtained from
stress relaxation and hence is the major in situ the two unoriented SSB sandstones are simply
stress direction. measured clockwise from an arbitrary reference
Each specimen was first assembled between line. Consequently, the results for SSB samples
pairs of broadband transducers having S-wave are not plotted on stereonet projection, since no
frequencies in the range 300 to 800 kHz (as common reference line exists among the speci-
described by King et al. 1995) with a proprietary mens tested, and such plots could imply
visco elastic S-wave couplant and a stress of 2.5 misleading relations.
MPa applied to the transducers to provide good The results shown in Table 2 and Fig. 3 show
acoustic coupling. This level of axial stress has that the major principal stress (o.~) lies near
been shown experimentally to have a negligible vertical, to within 0 ~ to 23 ~ This result can be
effect on cracks oriented sub-parallel to this regarded as sufficiently precise for a technique
direction of propagation of S-waves. At the start based on stress relief microcracks, since it is
of a test, each specimen is arranged so that the common that the orientations of the micro-
transducer polarization is in the Y-axis direction cracks are modified by grain scale inhomogene-
and the propagation of acoustic energy is either ities. The similarity in magnitudes between
in the Z-axis direction (vertical) or X-axis major (o1) and vertical (i.e. overburden) stresses
direction (horizontal). During a test, the speci- (o'v), represented by the ratio o'1/o'v being near to
men is rotated through an angle between 0 ~ and unity, also indicates that o'1 lies in the vertical
IN SITU STRESS PREDICTION 189
136oN
166oN
196~
226oN
256oN
286oN
316oN
t
60 63 66 69 72 75 60 63 66 69 72
Transit time (pSec) Transit time (pSec)
Fig. 4. S-wave waveforms for sample SSA-1 at various Fig. 5. S-wave waveforms for sample SSA-I at various
rotation angles. (Propagation in vertical Z-axis, and rotation angles. (Propagation in horizontal X-axis, and
polarized in Y-axis direction at X-axis reference line. polarized in Y-axis direction at X-axis reference line.
Arrows indicate detected first peak). Arrows indicate detected first peak).
sandstone specimens is similar to the results for in other directions. Although this behaviour is
SSA, even though the true orientations cannot exhibited by all specimens tested in this study,
be determined due to the unoriented nature of there is one case (SSA-8) where signal attenua-
the core. Since the core is from vertical bore- tion was so severe that it proved impossible to
holes, it can be inferred from Table 2 that the pick the first arrival time. The degree of
major principal stress lies near-vertical; conse- attenuation, nevertheless, varies from one speci-
quently the other two principal stresses lie near- men to another in a manner related to the state
horizontal. of cementation of the specimens (Table 1).
For the purpose of predicting in situ stress
S h e a r w a v e splitting orientations, transit time values were identified
and selected from the waveforms. Since the S-
During each test, a set of waveforms was wave signals observed during the experiment
recorded for each 15~ rotation relative to the vary in quality due to different degrees of
reference line (X-axis for the vertical, and Z-axis attenuation, it was found that the S-wave
for the horizontal wave propagations). Figures 4 velocity calculated from the first peak (or
and 5 illustrate examples of waveforms recorded trough) is more reliable for interpretation than
during measurements on SSA-1 in the vertical the group velocity calculated from the first
(Z-axis) and horizontal (X-axis) directions. arrival.
As expected, the plots show that the transit- Figure 6 shows examples of the variation in
time (At) varies with rotation angle. This first peak velocity with rotation angle as seen for
variation in At can be considered as an sample SSA-1. The velocity plots are shown with
indication of the existence of an oriented set of an error bar of +0.5 %, estimated as represent-
cracks, or at least (provided that a homogeneous ing the confidence in picking transit time values
background pore system exists) is more influen- (+0.125 #s) from waveforms due to variations in
tial in reducing S-wave velocity than any other signal quality and oscilloscope resolution. In
sets of microcracks with lower density oriented general, the velocities plotted against rotational
IN SITU STRESS PREDICTION 191
120 9'o
90
I
150 180 (Z-axis) or, for unoriented cores (SSB), clockwise from
o from vertical reference line (X-axis).
2 = Poor acoustic coupling due to poor cementation of
Fig. 6. Variation of S-wave first peak velocity with the rock.
rotation angle for sample SSA-1. (a) Vertical Z-axis
propagation, polarized in Y-axis direction; (b) hor- Table 3 summarizes the results of the S-wave
izontal X-axis propagation, polarised in Y-axis direc- splitting measurements. Note that USWS mea-
tion. surements on SSA-3 and SSA-8 (Z-axis propa-
gation) were not carried out, due to poor
transducer-sample acoustic coupling. The results
angle result in a sinusoidal pattern, indicating show that one of the principal in situ stresses lies
the presence of azimuthal velocity anisotropy in the vertical direction, even though accuracy is
over 90 ~ As shown in Fig. 6, similar behaviour limited by the 15 rotational sampling. The
is also observed in both the vertical and vertical stress lies within 7.5 of the peak of the
horizontal directions, indicating the presence of velocity profiles shown in the plots (except for
aligned stress relief microcracks of different sample SSA-2). The same resolution limit
densities as the source of anisotropy. Generally, applies to 0-H. Furthermore, from comparisons
for SSA sandstone specimens, S-wave velocity between the horizontal and vertical velocity
splitting of 1 to 3.5% and 3 to 13.5% (relative to plots, it is apparent that 0-v is the major principal
the highest velocity) for vertical and horizontal stress, o1, as indicated by relatively larger
propagation, respectively, are observed. For velocity anisotropy for horizontal than for
SSB samples, SSB-1 shows 2.2% splitting, vertical propagation. To illustrate this, 1 to
whereas SSB-2 shows 1.1% and 1.6% velocity 3.5% velocity variation exists over 0~ ~
splitting, respectively in the vertical and hor- relative to the highest velocity for vertical
izontal propagation direction. propagation, in comparison to 3 to 13.5% for
Accepting the hypothesis of a relation be- horizontal propagation in the SSA sandstone.
tween S-wave splitting and in situ stress relaxa- Consequently, 0-2 and 0-3 lie in the horizontal
tion and orientation of stress relief microcracks, plane.
velocity plots such as in Fig. 6 indicate the As seen from DSA, the trends of the
orientations of the in situ stresses. From the horizontal in situ stresses are more easily
velocity profiles, for S-waves propagating in the identified if illustrated on stereonet projections.
Z-axis direction, the major horizontal stress (O-H) Figure 7 illustrates the orientations of the major
lies in the direction at which maximum velocity horizontal in situ stress axes for the SSA
occurs, whereas the minor horizontal stress (o-h) sandstones plotted. As with the DSA stereonet
lies at right angles to it, as indicated by the projections, the orientations are relative to
192 B. WIDARSONO ET AL.
Table 4. Comparison of/n situ stress orientations from DSA and USWS
1Azimuths measured clockwise with respect to North (Z-axis) or, for unoriented cores (SSB), clockwise from
reference line (X-axis).
2 = Poor acoustic coupling due to poor cementation of the rock.
However, in the presence of large discontin- dominant and mutual perpendicular micro-
uities, the reverse is true. Large discontinuities in cracks sets. Although this assumption is logical,
specimens influence acoustic wave propagation, as demonstrated by Charles et al. (1986), DSA
whereas any non stress relief behaviour in the does not provide a direct illustration of the
DSA tests can usually be avoided by strain microcrack system. Direct observation such as
gauge emplacement. Consequently, DSA can scanning electron microscope (SEM) of oriented
produce more reliable results in this case. samples used in conjunction with DSA can,
The DSA results in Table 2 show that the however, provide an insight into microcrack
principal stresses do not lie in exactly horizontal orientations and distributions.
or vertical directions. In other words, the The results of S-wave splitting measurements
induced cracks in most cases are not exactly can provide, to some extent, additional informa-
parallel or perpendicular to the vertical axis in tion on microcrack configurations. Velocity
situ. However, the reasonably good agreement plots, such as shown in Fig. 6, have demon-
between the two techniques has shown that strated that velocity anisotropy can occur
acoustic velocity anisotropy can still be observed between measurements in the vertical and
even though the microcracks dip from these horizontal directions. There are several factors
directions, which is more often than not likely to that can lead to such acoustic anisotropy, and to
be the case. This fact is very important in any S-wave splitting in particular, but it is generally
effort to establish USWS as an alternative accepted that aligned cracks are the major cause
technique for in situ stress determination, bear- of S-wave splitting (Crampin & Lovell 1991). At
ing in mind that it is most likely that grain scale the small scale, such as in USWS tests, there is
heterogeneities can cause local deviations in always a possibility that other sources of
microcrack orientations. anisotropy, such as lamination and crystal
alignment, can contribute to the overall aniso-
tropy. As shown in Table 1, SSA sandstone
Configuration o f stress relief microcrack samples exhibit signs of bedding (between 4 ~ and
system 22 ~ from the horizontal), even though not all
samples were found to exhibit dominant bed-
In DSA the principal strains are determined ding. However, in this study, there is evidence
from analysis of the microcrack closure strain that the presence of bedding planes has not
tensor obtained from a test. The principal strains contributed to the velocity anisotropy for the X-
obtained provide the orientations of the stress axis (horizontal) propagation direction. For
relief microcracks, since it is assumed that the example, the results for SSA-5 (Table 3) show
greatest strain occurs in the direction normal to that, despite the 18.5 ~ dip in bedding (Table 1),
the plane of the microcracks. In other words, it the USWS measurements indicate the presence
is assumed that it is represented by three of a set of horizontal microcracks as indicated
194 B. WIDARSONO E T AL.
by 0 ~ in the O 1 column. Another example is seen successfully. In general, individual results of the
with SSA-2, for which the bedding dipped at 22 ~ two techniques are found to be in agreement,
from the horizontal and where measurements in taking into consideration the facts regarding the
the horizontal direction indicated the minimum local in situ state of stress field. The DSA and
velocity to be reached at a rotation angle of 165~ USWS results are also found to be in reasonable
(i.e. 15~ from the vertical, implying Crl acts at agreement with results from hydraulic fracturing
75 ~ from the vertical. Clearly this is incorrect if and sleeve fracturing. Grain scale heterogeneities
one is to take the results of the DSA to be strongly influence the deviation of stress relief
reliable (Table 3); the real cause of the aniso- microcracks, as reflected by the scatter in
tropy is unclear, although it may be caused by horizontal in situ stress orientations shown by
strong crystal alignment. The evidence of results both techniques. Results for SSA sandstone
for SSA-2 and SSA-5 have shown that bedding samples have shown that, in areas with small
planes do not, in these cases, strongly influence differences in principal stresses, a greater num-
velocity anisotropy for the horizontal direction, ber of samples will be required to overcome the
and hence do not confuse the subsequent influence of grain scale heterogeneities.
interpretation of USWS measurements. Comparisons between individual results ob-
The results obtained from the S-wave splitting tained from the two techniques have shown that
tests do, however, tend to support the existence S-wave splitting is a reliable one for determining
of aligned horizontal microcracks. In the vertical orientations of in situ stresses by virtue of the
direction, results of the acoustic test have shown existence of stress relief microcracks. The study
that it is most likely that vertical aligned has also shown that S-wave splitting analysis can
microcracks cause S-wave velocity splitting, be used independently with reliable results. This
since no other apparent causes are observed. confidence, together with simplicity in sample
The question arises whether the suggested preparation and speed in conducting tests, can
presence of two sets of mutually perpendicular be considered as the major advantage of this
vertically aligned microcracks, as implied by technique compared to other techniques based
DSA, can be justified. For this, the results of S- on stress relief microcracks such as DSA,
wave splitting cannot be used, since they do not differential wave velocity analysis, anelastic
show the existence of the second (i.e. the less strain recovery or differential thermal analysis.
dense) vertical set of microcracks (if it does exist, Despite the indicated advantages, the study
its existence is probably 'overlooked' by the has also revealed some disadvantages in the
transmitted acoustic energy and treated as acoustic technique. Its major limitation is its
merely a background for the first and more inability to provide estimates of in situ stress
dense vertical microcrack set). Charles et al. magnitude. Another less important disadvan-
(1986) outline theories of brittle fracture me- tage is the necessity to perform the test only in
chanics which explain crack opening under vertical and horizontal directions without com-
tensile forces (as might occur in the case of promising the simplicity in sample preparation
stress relaxation). If the existence of two sets of and analysis of results. This requires that the
microcracks (one vertical and the other hor- principal in situ stresses always lie in vertical and
izontal) whose generation is related to principal horizontal planes, which is not necessarily true
in situ stress relaxation can be proven experi- in all cases. Theoretically, however, this dis-
mentally, it is likely that a third set of micro- advantage can be reduced by reducing the
cracks (i.e. the second and less dense set of sampling rotational interval, hence enabling
vertical microcracks) also exists, since the more careful examination of the alignments of
processes leading to it are essentially the same sets of microcracks. The fact that stress relief
as those causing microcracks in the other two microcracks are not the only source of S-wave
principal directions. Comparing results for the splitting is another disadvantage. However, well-
two techniques has demonstrated directly that prepared samples can minimize this significantly.
three sets of mutually perpendicular microcracks When the two techniques are employed
exist in a rock material experiencing a process of together, DSA provides information on in situ
relaxation from three in situ principal stresses, stress orientations and magnitudes, whereas S-
provided the relaxation forces are sufficient to wave splitting provides confirmation of the
generate them. orientations bearing in mind that the USWS
'sees' a larger volume of the sample than DSA.
Conclusions Combined utilization of the two techniques has
also shown the potential for examining rock
A series of investigations of in situ state of stress microfeatures, such as microcrack systems pre-
using DSA and USWS has been conducted sent in the rocks.
IN SITU STRESS PREDICTION 195
We would like to thank British Gas and Chevron for DYKE, C. G. 1988. In-situ stress indicators for rock at
their support in supplying core samples, and the great depth. PhD Thesis, Imperial College of
British Geological Survey and PPPTMGB 'Lemigas' Science and Technology, University of London.
Indonesia for partially funding the research. We also GARBIN, H. D. & KNOPOFF, L. 1975. The shear
wish to thank J. W. Dennis for his support during the modulus of a material permeated by a random
project. distribution of free circular cracks. Quarterly
Applied Mathematics, 33, 296-300.
KING, M. S., CHAUDHRY, N. A. & SHAKEEL, A. 1995.
References Experimental ultrasonic velocities and permeabil-
BROWN, E. T. & HOCK, E. 1978. Trends in relationships ity for sandstones with aligned cracks. Interna-
between measured in-situ stress and depth. Inter- tional Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining
national Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences and Geomechanics Abstracts, 32, 155-
Sciences and Geomechanics Abstracts, 15, 211- 163.
215. KOWALLIS, B. J. & WANG, H. F. 1983. Microcrack
CHARLES, Ph., HAMAMDJIAN,C. • DESPAX, D. 1986. Is study of granite cores from Illinois deep borehole
the microcracking of a rock a memory of its initial UPH3. Journal of Geophysical Research, 88, 7373-
state of stress? Proceedings International Sympo- 7380.
sium on Rock Stress and Rock Stress Measure- OIKAWA, Y., MATSUNAGA, I. & YAMAGUCHI, T. 1993.
ments, Stockholm, 341-349. Differential strain curve analysis to estimate the
CRAMPIN, S. 1978. Seismic wave propagation through a stress state of the Hijiori hot dry rock field.
cracked solid: polarisation as a possible dilatancy International Journal of Rock Mechanics and
diagnostic. Geophysical Journal of the Royal Mining Sciences and Geomechanics Abstracts, 30,
Astronomical Society, 53, 467-496. 1023-1026.
- - & LOVELL,J. H. 1991. A decade of shear-wave STRICKLAND, F. G. & REN, N. K. 1980. Use of
splitting in the earth's crust: what does it mean? differential strain curve analysis in predicting in-
what use can we make of it? and what should we situ stress state for deep wells. Proceedings 21st
do next? Geophysical Journal International, 107, US Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Rolla,
387-407. Missouri, 523-533.
DESROCHES,J., MARSDEN,J. R. & COLLEY, N. M. 1995. TEUFEL, L. W. 1983. Determination of the principal
Wireline open-hole stress tests in a tight gas horizontal in-situ stress directions from anelastic
sandstone. Proceedings International Gas Con- strain recovery measurements of oriented core
ference, Cannes. from deep wells: application to the Cotton Valley
DEY, T. N. & BROWN, D. W. 1986. Stress measure- formation of East Texas. In." NEMAT-NASSER, S.
ments in a deep granite rock mass using hydraulic (ed.) Geomechanics, American Society of Mechan-
fracturing and differential strain curve analysis. ical Engineers, New York, 55-63.
Proceedings International Symposium on Rock YALE, D. P. & SPRUNT, E. S. 1989. Prediction of
Stress and Rock Stress Measurements, Stock- fracture direction using shear acoustic anisotropy.
holm, 351-357. The Log Analyst, 30, 65-70.
Dolomite cement distribution in a sandstone from core and wireline
data: the Triassic fluvial Chaunoy Formation, Paris Basin
R. H. W O R D E N
School of Geosciences, The Queen's University, Belfast, BT7 INN, UK
Abstract:The distribution of mineral cements in oil fields is critical to the spatial variation of
porosity and permeability. The distribution of dolomite cement within fluvial Triassic
Chaunoy sandstones in the Paris Basin was studied using core description, petrography,
core analysis (porosity and permeability), wireline data interpreted to give mineralogy,
porosity and permeability data and geochemical data. Petrographic analysis revealed that
dolomite and quartz cements are the main diagenetic minerals. Using sonic transit time,
density and neutron porosity log, the overall proportions of quartz, dolomite and shale as
well as porosity for each depth interval could be resolved. Petrographic and core analysis
data showed that permeability could be calculated from wireline-derived porosity and
mineralogy data. There is excellent correlation between core analysis porosity and
permeability and their wireline-derived equivalents. There is also excellent correlation
between wireline-derived mineralogy data and quantitative petrographic mineralogy data.
The wireline-derived mineralogy data show that dolomite is preferentially concentrated at
the tops of most sand bodies. Porosity and permeability are consequently lowest at the tops
of individual sand bodies due to the localized dolomite cement. There are a number of
potential causes for this distribution pattern although geochemical and petrographic data
showed that a combination of early pedogenetic dolomite cementation and later
recrystallization, possibly due to an influx of organically-derived CO2, are most likely.
Knowledge of the way in which porosity and One of the key problems involved in describ-
permeability are distributed throughout an oil ing the distribution of diagenetic cement is the
field is an important building block in a reservoir cost (in terms of time and money) of acquiring
model. The key factors which control porosity the data. Petrographic data are usually collected
and permeability in sandstones are depositional at a far lower density than core analysis data (if
characteristics such as grain size and sorting and at all), are harder to quality-control and are
diagenetic features such as cements and second- highly operator-dependent. In this paper, the
ary porosity. Most reservoir simulation models method of assessing carbonate cement distribu-
incorporate sub-units of common primary sedi- tion in sandstones using petrophysical logs
mentary origin. The distribution of reservoir (hereafter known as wireline logs) will be
quality is thus usually defined in terms of the described. This method was used to describe
morphology of the sedimentary architecture. the distribution of dolomite cement in Triassic
However, reservoir rocks seldom retain their fluvial clastic sediments of the Chaunoy Forma-
depositional porosity. Instead, porosity is usual- tion in the Paris Basin, France. The controls on
ly degraded by a variety of diagenetic processes. dolomite cement distribution will be discussed,
The effects of these processes are not necessarily the effects of dolomite cement (and by inference,
confined to the boundaries of depositional quartz cement) on reservoir flow properties,
sedimentary units. Common diagenetic pro- defined, and possible mechanisms that con-
cesses may commonly either transcend sedimen- trolled the carbonate cement distribution pattern
tary architecture or may lead to the subdivision investigated.
of self-contained sedimentary units in terms of
porosity and permeability. There is no frame- Geological setting
work for predicting diagenetic cement distribu-
tion in sandstones on the reservoir scale. It is not The Paris Basin is an intracratonic basin with an
yet generally possible to predict or model aerial extent of approximately 6000km 2 and
reservoir porosity and permeability variations about 3000m of present day sediment infill
over the distribution of the primary sedimentary deposited on Hercynian basement (Fig. 1;
units due to the impact of diagenesis. This is Pommerol 1974, 1978). There are two main
clearly unsatisfactory and may lead to system- permeable, petroleum-bearing reservoir units in
atically incorrect reservoir models. the central part of the Mesozoic of the Paris
WORDEN,R. H. 1998. Dolomite cement distribution in a sandstone from core and wireline data: 197
the Triassic fluvial Chaunoy Formation, Paris Basin. In. HARVEY,P. K. & LOVELL,M. A. (eds)
Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 197-2t 1
198 R.H. WORDEN
Term Definition
proportions using methods outlined by Hearst & depth to solid grain volume (occupied by the
Nelson (1985) and Doveton (1994). three minerals) and the assumption that the sum
The gamma log is commonly used to define of the three minerals fractions plus porosity
the 'shaliness' (where shale in this context equals unity. This also assumes linear relation-
routinely describes the overall clay mineral ships between mineral proportions and their
content of the rock and is not a reference to contribution to the petrophysical signal. Thus,
the grain size or texture of the sedimentary rock) with four equations and four unknowns (pro-
of sandstones although this approach is invalid portions of three minerals plus porosity), the
for simple crystal chemical reasons. Composite following algorithms can be solved simulta-
gamma logs record the total potassium, thorium neously at each depth interval:
and uranium contents of the rock by detecting
the -,/-rays associated with decay of the radio- At = mini. Atminl q- min2.Atmin2 +
active isotopes of these elements and their min3.Atmin3 + &to (1)
daughter products. Spectral gamma logs differ-
entiate the v-radiation from the three elements.
However, using any of the gamma logs for a p = minl .Pminl + min2.Pmin2 + min3.Pmin3 + CrO(2)
shale or total clay mineral estimate is invalid.
Potassium is commonly held in the minerals: K-
feldspar, illite and the mica group of minerals. On = min 1. Onmi n 1 ~- min2. Onmin2 -4-
Most clay minerals apart from illite do not min3.Onmin3 + Ono (3)
contain potassium. Thus the potassium gamma
signal records the relative abundance of K-
feldspar, illite and mica indiscriminately and 1 + min 1 + min2 + min3 + O. (4)
does not record the shale or clay mineral
content. The thorium gamma signal, often The terms used in the equations above are
mistakenly thought to reflect specific clay defined in Table 1. Petrophysical responses of
minerals, records the abundance of thorium- each mineral were taken from Rider (1986).
bearing trace minerals and cannot be used to
estimate volumes of clay minerals (Hurst & Geochemical data
Milodowski 1996). Consequently, a multiple log-
transformation approach was used to derive the Fluid inclusion thermometry was performed
shale content (as well as the dolomite and quartz using a Linkam THM600 heating-cooling stage
contents) and gamma ray logs have not been with 0.1~ precision. Phase transition tempera-
used to derive the shale content. tures were determined by temperature cycling;
The signals from the sonic transit time (At), heating experiments were conducted before
neutron porosity (On) and density logs (p) can freezing to prevent inclusion deformation by
be integrated and resolved for three mineral ice growth that would effect homogenization
types and total porosity using three algorithms temperatures. Fluid inclusion homogenization
relating each separate log signal at any given temperatures were collected from quartz and
200 R.H. WORDEN
Results
Fig. 3. Photomicrographs of (a) microcrystalline non-ferroan dolomite at the very top of a sand body with partial
replacement of detrital silicate grains and (b) grain-rimming quartz cement (Q) and pore-filling rhombic ferroan
dolomite (DOL) enclosing the quartz cement. Remnant porosity (~) is minor and occupies pore centres. Scale
bars are 200 #m.
dolocrete layers and tends to be extremely finely mineralogical data, the petrographic data have
crystalline. The proportion of microcrystalline been coverted into proportions of quartz,
dolomite increases upwards to the top of sand dolomite and shale. In this manipulation, quartz
bodies. A 'floating grain texture' is present at the is the sum of detrital quartz grains, quartz
tops of sand bodies due to mass silicate grain- cement, quartzose lithic fragments and feldspar;
dissolution and replacement by microcrystalline dolomite is the sum of all type of dolomite and
dolomite (Fig. 3a). The sandstone also contains other carbonate minerals; shale is the sum of
localized quartz cement (e.g. minor quartz clay, micas, and micaceous lithic fragments.
cement labelled in Fig. 3b). Textural considera- There is a broad correlation between grain size
tions show that the microcrystalline dolomite and p e t r o g r a p h i c a l l y - d e f i n e d m i n e r a l o g y :
pre-dated the ferroan rhombic dolomite. coarse- grained intervals are mostly quartz-rich,
To facilitate the subsequent comparison be- the finer intervals are relatively shale and
tween petrographic data and wireline-derived dolomite rich (Fig. 2). However, the correlation
202 R.H. WORDEN
Fig. 6. Cross plots of (a) sonic transit time against density and (b) neutron porosity against density. The positions
of the three mineral groups (quartz, dolomite and shale--where shale refers to all clay minerals and not a texture
or fabric) used to define the mineralogy of the formation are marked on both plots. The position of the pore fluid
is off the scale but the general direction is marked.
Fig. 7. Data quality assurance: (a) comparison of wireline-derived porosity and core analysis-derived porosity.
There is a good correlation between the two datasets. The intercept on the x-axis shows that the wireline porosity
data are over-estimating porosity by about 0.024 (note that this over-estimate is subsequently accounted for in all
the following calculations and plots); (b) comparison of petrographically-determined quartz and wireline- derived
quartz; (c) comparison of petrographically-defined dolomite and wireline-derived dolomite. Porosity and
mineralogy from core and petrographic sources is well matched by the values defined from the transformed
wireline logs.
204 R.H. WORDEN
Fig. 8. Combination diagram of grain size data (derived from core description, Fig. 2) and mineral proportions,
porosity and permeability (derived from wireline log analysis). There is excellent agreement between quartz
proportion and reservoir quality. The agreement of these with grain size is complex. The tops of some sand bodies
have a high dolomite content and correspondingly poorer reservoir quality (e.g. 2470-2471 m). Sand bodies are
numbered for reference to Figs 2 and 9. Core analysis porosity and permeability data (dashed and faint) have
been added to the diagram for comparison with the wireline-derived data.
into fractional porosity, and the fractional Shale represents the sum of all clay minerals in
quantities of quartz, dolomite and shale. The the rock, although preliminary quantitative X-
rock was thus assumed to consist of three ray diffraction (XRD) data show that these are
minerals; 'quartz' (all silica minerals and feld- dominated by kaolinite and illite. Water satura-
spar), 'dolomite' (all carbonate minerals) and tion was calculated using resistivity logs, the
'shale' (all clay minerals). Each individual group Archie equation and neutron porosity values
of minerals 'quartz', 'dolomite' and 'shale') was (and the ultimate porosity values computed
assumed to have effectively uniform responses to from the simultaneous solution of the neutron
the three wireline logging tools. Petrographic porosity, density and sonic transit time logs were
analysis shows that the quartz/feldspar ratio is iteratively fed back into the Archie equation
generally much greater than about 4 (Table 2), until convergence was achieved). The average
suggesting that the assumption about the quartz wireline response properties of the mixed water-
component is reasonable. Feldspar and quartz oil fluid were calculated depending on the
have similar wireline responses (at least for specific saturation (Sw) at the depth interval.
sonic, density and neutron porosity logs) so that Fluid type was found to have little effect upon
the arkosic portion of the sandstone is probably the subsequent calculations.
adequately accounted for. The lithic portion of The wireline-derived porosity data compare
the sandstone is probably represented by 'shale' favourably to core analysis porosity data with a
together with quartz. Dolomite dominates the correlation coefficient of 0.74 (Fig. 7). The
carbonate mineral population within the rock. wireline porosity values slightly over-estimate
DOLOMITE AND CEMENT DISTRIBUTION IN A SANDSTONE 205
Fig. 10. Fluid inclusion homogenization data from Fig. 11. Carbon isotope data from rhombic ferroan
quartz and rhombic ferroan dolomite. Whilst there is dolomite with data from the pedogenic dolomite (after
overlap between the temperatures of growth of Sp6tl & Wright 1992; Sp6tl et al. 1993). The rhombic
dolomite and quartz, these data support the late ferroan dolomite represents mixing between the
(maximum burial) growth of rhombic ferroan dolo- indigenous pedogenic carbonate and a source of
mite cement following quartz cement growth in the carbonate characterized by carbon relatively depleted
Chaunoy Formation. in 13C. This must indicate a major organic input into
the system (probably in the form of either aqueous
bicarbonate, or CO2 dissolved in oil or water).
temperatures with a mean of 119~ This is a
considerably higher temperature than the quartz
cement (mean 103~ and confirms the textural used to define the spatial distribution of
evidence (Fig. 3b) that ferroan rhombic dolo- dolomite cements in these sandstones.
mite grew after quartz. The temperature for The derivation of porosity, mineralogy and
dolomite growth corresponds to maximum permeability from wireline data has distinct
burial and the time of oil generation from the advantages over core analysis and petrographic
Liassic source rocks. data. Most importantly, mineralogical data
Stable isotope data from ferroan rhombic from logs can be derived for uncored intervals.
dolomite are given in Fig. 11. These data are Petrographic data are usually sparse (due to cost
compared to carbon isotope data from pedo- and time) and are 'operator'-dependent. In
genic dolomite. The ferroan rhombic dolomite contrast, wireline data are typically available
has considerably lighter carbon isotopes than for most wells in a reservoir and are (in
the pedogenic dolomite. The ferroan rhombic principle) operator-independent. Petrographic
dolomite has a range of 813C values consistent data are rarely collected in such abundance that
with input from recrystallzed pedogenic dolo- cement distribution can be observed within
mite and input from a source depleted in 13C. reservoir units, whereas such data can be derived
from wireline mineralogical analysis.
Discussion
Quantitative mineralogical data have been gen- Amount and distribution of dolomite cement
erated from sonic transit time, density and in the Chaunoy sandstone
neutron porosity wireline logs. Gamma logs
cannot be used for mineral identification due to Petrographic analysis hinted at the heteroge-
the variable site of radiogenic potassium in a neous distribution of dolomite cement in the
variety of minerals and the non-concordance Chaunoy formation sandstones (Fig. 2). With-
between uranium and thorium and specific out a major sampling and petrographic analysis
minerals (Doveton 1994; Hurst & Milodowski programme, it would be difficult to analyse and
1996). The Triassic sandstones and mudstones of describe that heterogeneity. The interpreted
the Paris Basin have been resolved into quartz, wireline data have confirmed that dolomite is
shale and dolomite. Dolomite has a diagenetic not homogeneously distributed throughout the
(i.e. non-primary) origin. Wireline logs can be Chaunoy Formation sandstone (Figs 8 and 9).
DOLOMITE AND CEMENT DISTRIBUTION IN A SANDSTONE 207
Fig. 12. Theoretical dolomite distributions from four potential controlling processes. The model represents a sand
body sandwiched between pedogenic dolocrete layers. (a) Pedogenic dolomite cement; there would be most
dolomite at the top of each sand body. (b) Dolomite cemented, sourced from the dolocrete during burial,
transported by diffusion; cement should be equally abundant at the tops and bases of sand bodies with a
minimum at the centre. (c) Dolomite distribution controlled by high permeability streaks enabling input from
external sources; fluvial sandstones usually fine upwards leading to high permeability bases and thus most
dolomite at sand body bases. (d) Dolomite distribution controlled by the relative buoyancy of oil (which may
have carried dissolved CO2) or a separate CO2 gas phase caused dolomite cementation and thus leading to most
dolomite at the tops of sand bodies.
Dolomite in the Chaunoy has either a pedogenic reflect partial replacement of detrital silicate
(i.e. very early diagenetic) or burial diagenetic mineral grains as well as precipitation of
origin (Fig. 12). Detrital dolomite may be dolomite into pre-existing pore spaces.
discounted as an option because of the relatively
soluble nature of dolomite and the perfect
crystal forms observed in core and thin section Effect of dolomite cement upon the reservoir
(Fig. 3). Wireline data cannot be used to properties of the Chaunoy Formation sand-
discriminate between different dolomite grain stone
morphologies (e.g. microcrystalline or coarse
rhombic) or between dolomites of different The present day porosity of the quartz-rich
mineral chemistry (e.g. non-ferroan or ferroan samples is significantly less than the porosity
dolomite). The wireline data have shown that that would result from compaction alone (with
the tops of most coarse grained sandbodies have no cementation) of quartzose sandstones at
the greatest quantity of dolomite (Figs 8 and 9). these depth of burial. Quartzose sandstones
The dolomite content varies between, as well as should have approximately 25-30% porosity
within sandbodies. Sand bodies 3, 4, 5, 7, 8 and 9 after compaction during maximum burial to
all have significantly more dolomite in the top about 3000m (see, for example, North 1985).
quarter of the sand body than in other quarters. The actual porosities, even in the quartz-rich
However, sand body 1 has much more dolomite intervals, are only as high as about 19%
than sand body 5. Dolomite can occupy more indicating that some of the quartz in the rock
than 50% of the solid portion of a sand body must be quartz cement. The main control on
(e.g. sand body 1). The partially replacive nature porosity and thus permeability in the quartz-rich
of the dolomite within sand bodies has already portions of the rock must be the extent of quartz
been established from petrographic data (Fig. cementation.
3a) so that the high dolomite contents probably Quartz-rich portions of sandbodies have
208 R.H. WORDEN
have an organic origin (e.g. Longstaffe 1989). crete into the sand bodies. This would
The most obvious source of organically-derived influence the top and base of sand bodies
bicarbonate or CO2 in the Paris Basin is the eqpally and result in a minimum dolomite
Liassic shale source rock. pH-buffered rocks cement content at the centre of the sand
undergo carbonate mineral precipitation when bodies. Note that this is not observed (Figs
the partial pressure of CO2 is increased (Lunde- 8 and 9) and that rhombic ferroan dolomite
gaard & Land 1989) suggesting that at least has a carbon isotope signature that is
some of the rhombic ferroan dolomite cement different from the pedogenic dolomite
may be the direct result of bicarbonate or CO2 (Sp6tl & Wright 1992; Worden & Matray
influx increasing the partial pressure of CO2. 1995).
Liassic source rocks may have expelled CO2 (3) Cement distribution could be influenced by
during or before oil generation. The Triassic reservoir quality at the time of cementa-
sandstones in the Paris Basin are presently in tion. High permeability streaks or grada-
equilibrium with CO2 in the reservoir; that is tional permeability may have focussed flow
partitioned between the two liquid phases: oil and input of CO2 into specific portions of
and water (Matray et al. 1993). The equilibrium the rock. Fluvial sandstones usually fine
partitioning of CO2 between formation water upwards resulting in diminishing perme-
and oil suggests that CO2 may have been ability towards sand body tops. This would
brought into the reservoir by the oil in solution. lead to the most extensive dolomite cemen-
Subsequent partitioning of CO2 into the forma- tation occurring at the bases of sand
tion water may then have caused dolomite bodies. However, note that the Chaunoy
supersaturation and precipitation. Alternatively, sandstones do not fine upwards (Fig. 2)
CO2 may have migrated into the Chaunoy sand and do not have dolomite preferentially at
bodies as a separate gas phase resulting from sand body bases.
thermal decarboxylation of organic matter prior (4) Isotope data (Fig. 11) suggest that some of
to the onset of oil generation. Whatever the the carbon in the dolomite has an organic
mechanism, isotopic data dictate that an in- source and might have come from the oil
crease in the partial pressure of CO2 (from an source rock. Oil and CO2 may have
organic source) was most likely responsible for migrated into the rock at about the same
the precipitation of dolomite cement in the time (i.e. as CO2 dissolved in oil, Matray et
sandbodies during diagenesis at close to max- al. 1993). Alternatively, CO2 may have
imum burial. migrated into the rock separately as a free
gas phase. Due to buoyancy, the tops of
Origin o f the dolomite cement distribution each sand body should be the first part of
the sandstone to encounter either oil (laden
pattern with CO2) or free CO2 gas. In summary,
Dolomite cement is generally concentrated at the the tops of each sandbody may have
tops of sand bodies in the Chaunoy Formation received CO2 preferentially and thus
(Figs 7 and 9). There are several potential caused localized dolomite precipitation.
generic controls on dolomite distribution pat- However, it is generally considered that
terns (Fig. 12): oil emplacement hinders diagenetic pro-
cesses so that the opportunity for this
(1) The cement at the tops of sand bodies may process to operate may be limited to a
be a direct result of pedogenesis that window of opportunity between the onset
occurred at the same time as the develop- of oil emplacement and some elevated level
ment of the pedogenic dolocrete in the fine of oil saturation (e.g. Worden et al. 1998).
grained units. This would occur preferen-
tially at the tops of sand bodies adjacent to The absence of dolomite cement at sand body
zones of active dolocrete pedogenesis. This bases and abundance at sand body tops, the
process is probably at least partly respon- reported organic carbon isotope signal in the
sible for the dolomite cement distribution rhombic ferroan dolomite and the mixture of
in the sand bodies. pedogenic dolomite textures and burial diage-
(2) In principle, dolomite distribution in sand netic textures in the sand bodies suggest that
bodies may be due to diffusion from the options 1 and 4 together are probably respon-
pedogenic dolocretes that encase the sand sible for the distribution of dolomite in the
bodies. In this case the dolomite would be Chaunoy sandbodies.
redistributed by diffusion from the dolo- The key implication from this analysis of
dolomite cement distribution is that the dolo-
210 R.H. WORDEN
mite is heterogeneously distributed in the (6) Dolomite cement may be localized at the
reservoir. A reservoir model (e.g. for simulation tops of the sand bodies because of the
purposes) should take account of the fact that, proximity of overlying fine-grained units
despite approximately uniform grain size, por- when they were undergoing pedogenesis
osity and permeability are not uniformly dis- and because the tops were the first part of
tributed due to preferential cementation at the each sand body to receive a charge of CO2.
tops of individual sandbodies. The combination The CO2 influx may have occurred as a
of petrography, geochemistry and petrophysics separate buoyant gas phase or as a gas
was necessary to produce a model of cement dissolved in oil.
distribution in this case. There are no 'off the (7) Reservoir simulation of sandstones should
shelf' models that can presently be fitted to the account for the fact that cement patterns
distribution of cements in reservoir sandstones do not necessarily follow primary sedimen-
in general. In time, generic models may be tary architecture. Cements may typically be
available as more case studies of cement heterogeneously distributed in individual
distribution are performed, but until that time, sand bodies and this may have important
each reservoir should be analysed using a similar consequences for how petroleum is pro-
combination of tools as that used in this study if duced to optimize flow rate and recovery.
reservoir quality heterogeneity is an issue.
I would like to thank Elf-Aquitaine (F. Walgenwitz
and G. Sambet especially) for kindly providing the
Conclusions core analysis and wireline data. Part of the study was
the result of a collaborative research programme
(1) Wireline petrophysical data have been
including BP, BRGM, Elf-Aquitaine, the University
successfully manipulated to give mineral- of Paris V1 and the European Community under
ogy in terms of the amounts of quartz, contract JOUF-0016c. D. C. Herrick and an anon-
shale and dolomite, as well as porosity. ymous reviewer are thanked for identifying key areas
(2) Core analysis data show that dolomite of the manuscript for improvement.
cement has a more detrimental effect upon
permeability than quartz cement. Perme-
ability has thus been calculated from the References
wireline porosity data using algorithms
that account for the variation in mineral- BOURQUIN,S. 8z GUILLOCHEAU,F. 1993. Gbometrie des
ogy as well as porosity. sbquences de d6p6t du Keuper (Ladinien
(3) Petrography and, more importanly, wire- Rh&ian) du Bassin de Paris: implications gbody-
namiques. Comptes Rendus Acad~mie des
line log data, have shown that dolomite
Sciences, Paris. 317, S6rie 2, 1341-1348.
c e m e n t is not u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d , BOEHM, C., CLERMONTE, L, DURAND, M. &
t h r o u g h o u t the sandstones within the SERRA, O. 1993. Analyse facio-sbquentielle du
C h a u n o y Formation. Rather, dolomite Trias du centre-ouest du bassin de Paris fi partir
cement is localized within the top portions des donnbes diagraphiques. Bulletin de la Societe
of individual sandstone units. G~ologique Francais, 164, 177-188.
(4) Reservoir quality in the Chaunoy Forma- BRUNET, M.-F. & LE PICHON,X. 1982. Subsidence of
tion is not just a function of depositional the Paris Basin. Journal of Geophysical Research,
facies but is also a function of localized 87, 8547-8560.
BRYANT, S., CADE, C. • MELLOR, D. 1993. Perme-
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scribe reservoir quality. CADE, C., EVANS,I. J. 8s BRYANT,S. 1994. Analysis of
(5) Sand bodies contain microcrystalline non- permeability controls: a new approach. Clay
ferroan and replacive dolomite as well as Minerals, 29, 491-501.
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that the microcrystalline dolomite probably de Paris: inclusions fluides dans les min6raux
authig~nes. Comptes Rendus Acad~mie des
grew during pedogenesis of the overlying
Sciences, Paris. 319, serie 2, 427-434.
fine-grained facies. Fluid inclusion and DOVETON, J. H. 1994. Geologic log analysis using
isotope data, together with textural evi- computer methods. AAPG computer applications
dence, show that the rhombic ferroan in geology, 2. American Association of Petroleum
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in PCO2. Chemical Geology, 74, 277-287. dolocretes from the Late Triassic of the Paris
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Conjunctive interpretation of core and log data through association of
the effective and total porosity models
P. F. W O R T H I N G T O N
Gaffney, Cline & Associates, Bentley Hall, Blacknest, Alton, Hampshire GU34 4PU, UK
Open-hole petrophysical evaluation of non- evaluate water saturation as per the total
Archie rocks, those that do not satisfy the porosity model can be determined in the
conditions for the application of the laws of laboratory but they cannot be measured directly
Archie (1942), has traditionally drawn upon downhole.
either effective or total porosity concepts as a The constraints imposed by an exclusive
basis for the determination of reservoir porosity porosity model therefore limit the benefit that
and fluid saturations. The difference between the can be derived from the ensuing integrated
two concepts lies in the interpretative treatment analysis of laboratory and downhole data. The
of the electrochemically-bound interstitial water. key to improved core and log interpretation is to
This should not be confused with capillary operate the effective and total porosity models in
bound water, whose volume can be an order 9f parallel, using the cross-linkages between them
magnitude greater (Pallatt & Thornley 1990), to transpose the advantages of one in support of
nor with those dual-porosity waters that are the other, especially where core data can be used
distinguished by pore type. Petrophysicists have to provide quality control on the log interpreta-
usually operated the effective and total porosity tion.
models discretely, selecting one or the other at The purpose of this paper is to develop the
an early stage of the formation evaluation opportunities for improved quality assurance in
process. This exclusive choice has been driven formation evaluation, in accordance with earlier
by company culture, software considerations, projections (Worthington 1991), by considering
statutory requirements, or technical or personal how the effective and total porosity models can
preference. be operated conjunctively to allow inter-model
The practice of selecting a discrete interpreta- validation of petrophysical interpretation. The
tive model constrains the manner in which core primary aim is to demonstrate the numerical
data can be used to support and validate log equivalence of the two models through equalities
interpretation. Thus, for example, effective that contain core-calibrated, log-derived para-
porosity cannot easily be determined in the meters and that honour the principles of the
laboratory, and yet these data are strictly underlying physics. Thus, the objective is an
required by the effective porosity model in order interpretative scheme that brings together tradi-
to control the porosity interpretation of neu- tionally separate areas of petrophysical sys-
tron~lensity log cross plots. In contrast, the temics within a quality-controlled integrated
electrochemical shale parameters needed to framework.
WORTHINGTON,P. F. 1998. Conjunctive interpretation of core and log data through association of 213
the effective and total porosity models. In: HARVEY,P. K. 8s LOVELL,M. A. (eds)
Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 213-223
214 P.F. WORTHINGTON
+
EFFECTIVE
+
I TOTAL
compatible shale indicator. For example, V~h
from the gamma log might not be appropriate to
correcting the density-log response whereas V~h
derived from a neutron-density shale indicator
Sw
"7 Sw
I Sw would be more suitable. In general, the resulting
values of Xcorr become less accurate with
Fig. 2. Scheme of deterministic open-hole petrophysics. increasing Vsh.
After applying equation (1) to the sonic,
density and neutron logs, effective porosity can
physics is illustrated in Fig. 2. Reservoirs with a then be evaluated as for clean sands:
high formation-water salinity and a low clay-
mineral content are usually termed Archie doe=( x .... --Xma)/(X f --Xma ). (2)
reservoirs, wherein the effective and total por-
osities are essentially the same, because there are The results are implemented over net sand
negligible bound-water effects. Otherwise, they intervals, which can be selected subsequently.
are termed non-Archie reservoirs, because there Effective water saturation Swe is the fractional
can be a significant bound-water saturation. water content of the free fluid. It is evaluated
Non-Archie reservoirs can be evaluated in terms using a shaly-sand conductivity algorithm, such
of either effective or total porosity but, which- as the modified Simandoux equation (Bardon &
ever parameter is adopted, the subsequently Pied 1969):
derived water saturations must also be set within
that same porosity system, for consistency. Ct = (Cw/Fe*) awen* + Vshfshawe n*-I (3)
Exceptions to this simplified distinction in-
clude fine silty reservoirs and those where the where Ct is the conductivity of the reservoir
rock matrix exhibits microporosity. In both rock, Cw is the conductivity of the formation
cases, non-Archie behaviour can be caused by water, Csh is the conductivity of the wetted shale,
a low surface charge density integrated over a n* is the intrinsic Archie saturation exponent,
huge pore surface area rather than the conven- and the intrinsic formation factor Fe* is compa-
tional case of a higher surface charge density tible with the effective porosity system in that it
(due to strong cation-exchange characteristics) is calculated from doe as follows:
integrated over a more limited pore surface area.
It is difficult to accommodate such cases of high Fe* = a*/doem* (4)
pore surface area within either the effective or
the total porosity system. where a* and m* are the intrinsic Archie
In the following discussion the context is one porosity coefficient and exponent, respectively.
of dispersed shales within a water-wet reservoir A scheme for deterministic petrophysical
that has no fracture porosity and whose matrix interpretation (with a* = 1) within the effective
comprises sandstone, limestone or dolomite, or porosity system is presented as Fig. 3. The
some mixture thereof. immediate deliverables are dOeand She, where She
216 P.F. WORTHINGTON
Core control
Shale-corrected _I Porosity L in clean zones
Log Response - Oe F HELIUM POROSITY
DENSITY
NEUTRON Core control
SONIC ] ARCHIE'S
[ ~ A=W
FIRST
1F
/ Oee.m INTRINSIC POROSITY
EXPONENT
m*
is the effective hydrocarbon saturation such that as that of Waxman & Smits (1968):
She = 1-Swe.
C t = ( C w / F t * ) S w n• -q- (BQv/Ft*)Swtn*-I (6)
Formation water
r ~176 , 89 sample
WATER
CONDUCTIVITY
Cw
through the expression: It follows from equations (11) and (12) that
grain density can be re-expressed in terms of qbe
Vsh = Vd + ~bw (8) and Vsh as follows:
where Pg = P m a ( 1 - - ~ e - - V s h ) + PclVsh(1 --(~tsh) (13)
~)bw: Vsh ~)tsh (9) 1 -- qbe -- Vsh ~tsh
Equation (13) reduces to Pg-----Prna when Fsh=0.
and ~tsh is the porosity of the wetted shale In the effective porosity system, pg is taken as the
calculated from the expression: matrix density Pma. In the total porosity system,
pg is not necessarily equal to Pma.
~tsh = (Pcl -- Psh)/(Pcl -- Pf) (10)
written: to be.
Equations (4) and (7) can be combined as
~t-- ~be-~ ~t Qv/Qvsh (17) follows:
~)t = ~e nt- ~)t Qv (0.084 Ce~)'5 nt- 0.22) (18) Conductivity o f reservoir rock
where Ce is the concentration (in equiv, litre -1) of By equating the reservoir rock conductivities of
the equilibrium water in the free pore space, net equations (3) and (6) and setting Sw = 1, we
of cation adsorption, and can be expressed as a have:
calculable function of Qv, Swt and saturating (Cw + B Qv)/Ft* = (Cw/Fe*) + VshCsh (21)
water concentration Cs, at a reference tempera-
ture of 25~ Equation (18) has been seen as a and therefore
quantitative link between the effective and total
porosity models (Ruhovets & Fertl 1982), but it
is not a generally applicable equality, although Qv = Ft* (Cw + Vsh CshFe*) - Fe. Cw (22)
Juhasz (1979) did cite evidence that the volume BF~.
of bound water is effectively independent of
temperature over the range 20-200~ Note the Equation (22) describes the relationship be-
complication, to be discussed later, that the tween Qv and Vsh assuming that the water-zone
conventional laboratory measurement of poros- forms of the Waxman-Smits and Simandoux
ity through helium expansion is often carried out equations are valid within their respective
on a humidity-dried sample, and there is a view porosity systems. It is interesting to consider
that the measured porosity is actually a hybrid the boundary conditions on equation (22). When
porosity, being somewhere between the limits of Vsh=0, Fe* = F t* and therefore Qv=0. When
effective and total porosity. Vsh = 1 for a perfect shale in which Cw
approaches the bound-water conductivity Cbw,
Formation res&tivity factor 4~e= 0 and therefore Fe* is infinite. Under these
conditions, equation (22) reduces to:
Laboratory measurements of formation resistiv-
ity factor F fall under the umbrella of special Ftsh* Csh -- Cbw
core analysis and, as such, are usually carried Qvsh = B (23)
out on lithologically cleaner samples, because it
is the practice to preserve the better quality where Ftsh* is the intrinsic formation factor of
reservoir rock. Otherwise multiple-salinity mea- the perfect shale. Significantly, equation (23)
surements of electrical conductivity can furnish might allow the determination of Qv for a
an intrinsic formation factor F* for non-Archie perfect shale by drawing upon the relationship:
reservoirs. The resulting formation factors are
then correlated with their respective porosities ftsh* ~---a*/~)tsh m* (24)
with the object of characterizing the first Archie
equation through the intrinsic porosity coeffi- Equation (23) can be rewritten:
cient a* and exponent m* so that:
Cbw ~- BQvsh
(25)
F* =a*/q~ m* (19)
Ftsh*
This equation is applied in both the effective and or, alternatively:
the total porosity systems, in the form of
equations (4) and (7), respectively, according to Ftsh*= Ftsh (1 + (BQvsh/Cbw)) (26)
the nature of the log-derived porosity. There are
no separate relationships for the two systems where
even though the earlier comments about poros-
ity measurement might suggest that there ought Fts h = Cbw/Csh. (27)
EFFECTIVE AND TOTAL POROSITY 219
be evaluated at each level. This requirement reference value of Vsh available from the
would, in turn, necessitate a reversion to the laboratory: there might be values of Qv, which
relationship between V~h and Vcl. Because of this can be taken as definitive if these are determined
potential complexity, which many regard as meaningfully from multiple-salinity measure-
prohibitive, the effective porosity model is seen ments of rock conductivity. Therefore, such a
as the stronger in terms of the opportunities for Qv database becomes the definitive core refer-
utilizing and validating the density of reservoir ence. The relationship of the equivalent con-
rock. Note, however, that this contention is ductance of (sodium) clay exchange cations B to
dependent upon the measurement of a mean- the conductivity of saturating electrolyte Cw
ingful effective porosity. remains a weak link in the total porosity system,
The tying back to core of log-derived porosity because several different relationships have been
values is fraught with potential difficulty. It has proposed. This weakness is not removed by the
been argued, but not universally, that the oven use of multiple-salinity conductivity data, which
drying of core plugs at temperatures of around require a value of B before Qv can be quantified.
105-110~ removes chemically-adsorbed waters Tying back log-derived water saturations to
without altering, chemically, the solid clay- core is usually founded on the extraction of
mineral fabric. Therefore, it has been claimed interstitial waters from vertical plugs cut from
that helium porosities measured subsequently on the inner parts of whole core pieces that have
these plugs are likely to be total porosities. On been drilled using a low-invasion coring bit with
the other hand, the humidity drying of core an oil-base mud. The procedure is established
plugs at temperatures of about 60~ is claimed but not yet standard practice. The plug-ex-
by some to retain the bound waters, while tracted water saturations are notionally values
expelling the free water, so that porosities of Swt. They can be used as a reference for the
measured subsequently are effective porosities. effective porosity system through the equiva-
This contention is at variance with the data of lence of hydrocarbon-filled porosity. In particu-
Hill et al. (1979), which suggest that some bound lar, the comparison serves as a validation of the
waters are expelled despite the humidifying feeder relationships, especially that of Qv vs ~bt,
process and that the measured helium porosities which is often highly tenuous.
are intermediate relative to the effective and
total porosities (Juhasz 1988). The effect may Q u a l i t y assurance s c h e m e
not be serious in reservoir rocks, for Pallatt &
Thornley (1990) note that electrochemically- A quality assurance scheme for deterministic
bound water accounts for less than 2.5% of open-hole formation evaluation is shown in Fig.
the pore volume: for a rock with 20 porosity 5. The purpose of this simplistic scheme is to
units, the estimated bound-water volume is illustrate how the effective and total porosity
therefore less than 0.5 porosity units, a figure models can be operated conjunctively to increase
which is equivalent to the uncertainty associated confidence in the resulting petrophysical inter-
with core porosity measurement. Nevertheless, pretation. It is not intended to constitute the
the only uncontentious way of groundtruthing ultimate framework for quality control but
log-derived porosity to conventionally-measured rather to indicate how greater confidence in
core porosity is to confine such comparisons to petrophysical interpretation can be secured
essentially clean zones. Under these conditions, through an integrated use of the two models.
both the effective and the total porosity models The first element of Fig. 5 is concerned with
are equivalent. tying back Vsh to core-derived Vcl through ~tsh,
A comparison of Fe* and Ft* offers an the determination of which requires a knowledge
intrinsic measure of the effect of pore geometry of pcl. A satisfactory tie-back would reconcile
on electrical conduction, subject to the assump- wetted shale and dry clay-mineral fractions in
tions of equal porosity coefficients and equal the two porosity systems. Failure to secure
porosity exponents for the two systems. Because agreement over net sand intervals could be
the definitive multiple-salinity procedures fur- attributed to an inappropriate log-derived shale
nish Ft*, the total porosity model provides the indicator, to an unrepresentative dry clay
sounder physical basis. Laboratory-measured density, or to subjectiveness in the interpretation
values of Ft* therefore serve as the definitive of core data. As in all cases of tying log data to
reference. core, the scale disparity might render the
In a user setting, values of Qv are obtained datasets irreconcilable, especially in markedly
from a dubious relationship to porosity and heterogeneous reservoir zones. Further, an un-
estimates of gsh are made from one or more of satisfactory outcome at the subsequent (second)
several tenuous shale indicators. There is no key stage might suggest an iteration through the
EFFECTIVE AND TOTAL POROSITY 221
derived Vsh values to be reconciled with log- exceeds our ability to interpret, especially in the
derived Qv data through a comparison of Qv three-dimensional settings of extended reach and
values calculated from Vsh with those inferred multilateral wells. Ongoing advances in the
directly from porosity and already validated three-dimensional modelling of tool responses
through reference to core data. Failure to will shortly allow meaningful environmental
reconcile the data at this key stage would most corrections in a way that opens the door to
likely be attributable to uncertainties in B and enhanced 3D interpretation of open-hole well
Csh. logs. If the community is to draw the greatest
The sixth and final element reconciles log- benefits from that projected situation, a quality-
derived effective water saturation with log- assured interpretation scheme will be required
derived total water saturation through a com- for open-hole petrophysics. This paper has
parison of Swt indirectly calculated from Swe emphasized the nature of the technical position-
with that interpreted directly within the total ing that will be needed to secure those benefits as
porosity system over net pay intervals. The sixth we approach the millennium.
element also allows both the log-derived water
saturations to be referred to core-derived water Nomenclature
saturation. Failure to reconcile the data at this
stage would imply possible errors in 4)e, ~t, B, B equivalent conductance of (sodium) clay-
Csh, Cw, a* or m*, and it would require iterating exchange cations (S m 1 equiv. 1 litre)
perhaps as far back as the third key stage. Cbw conductivity of bound water ( S m ')
The quantification of the inter-model compar- Csh conductivity of wetted shale fraction (S m -1)
isons should take the form of acceptable Ct bulk conductivity of reservoir rock (S m -1)
tolerances in the agreement between directly Cw conductivity of free water ( S m -1)
and indirectly inferred values of the relational F* intrinsic formation (resistivity) factor in
parameters and in their validation against core generic form
data. The development of these tolerances would Fe* intrinsic formation (resistivity) factor in the
be an immediate sequel to broad adoption of effective porosity system
this proposed conjunctive interpretation scheme. Ft* intrinsic formation (resistivity) factor in the
total porosity system
Conclusions Ftsh formation (resistivity) factor of a perfect
shale in the total porosity system
A comparison of open-hole petrophysical inter- Ftsh* intrinsic formation (resistivity) factor of a
pretation practices for non-Archie reservoirs perfect shale in the total porosity system
that are set exclusively within either the effective Qv cation exchange capacity per unit pore
or the total porosity system has identified a set volume (equiv. litre-1)
of relational algorithms through which these Qvsh cation exchange capacity per unit pore
interpretative models can be associated. This volume of shale (equiv. litre -1)
identified numerical equivalence allows inter- She fractional hydrocarbon saturation in the
model assessments of the consistency and effective porosity system
validity of the interpreted data at key stages of Sht fractional hydrocarbon saturation in the
the petrophysical evaluation process, so that total porosity system
some measure of reliability may be established. Swb fractional bound-water saturation
The assessments involve comparisons of inter- Swe fractional water saturation in the effective
pretations made by separately using the two porosity system
porosity models as well as the tying of these Swt fractional water saturation in the total
interpretations back to core. The key stages porosity system
form the basis for a quality assurance scheme Vd volumetric fraction of dry clay minerals
that draws upon the integration of traditionally Vmavolumetric fraction of clean rock matrix
separate areas of petrophysical systemics. The Vsh volumetric fraction of wetted shale
development of such a scheme in the form of X generic log response
quantitative measures of inter-model agreement Xcorr generic log response corrected for shaliness
would constitute a logical extension of the Xma generic log response to clean rock matrix
demonstrated association of the effective and Xsh generic log response to shale
total porosity models. a* Archie intrinsic porosity coefficient
This initiative forms part of an essential thrust Ce concentration of equilibrium free water
to complement the excellent quality control that (equiv. litre 1)
currently exists in well-log data acquisition. At c~ concentration of saturating water (equiv.
present, our ability to acquire petrophysical data litre-1)
EFFECTIVE AND TOTAL POROSITY 223
m* Archie intrinsic porosity exponent JOHNSON, W. L. & LINKE, W. A. 1977. Some practical
n* Archie intrinsic saturation exponent applications to improve formation evaluation
Pb log-derived bulk density ( g c m -3) of sandstones in the Mackenzie Delta. Trans.
pc~ density of dry clay-mineral fraction (g cm -3) CWLS 6th Formation Evaluation Symposium,
R1-32, Canadian Well Logging Society, Calgary,
pf density of interstitial fluids (g cm -3)
Alberta.
pg grain density over net sand intervals ~g cm 3) JUHASZ, I. 1979. The central role of Qv and formation-
Pma density of clean rock matrix ( g c m -~) water salinity in the evaluation of shaly forma-
psh density of wetted shale fraction (g cm -3) tions. Trans SPWLA 20th Ann. Logging Syrup.,
Obw bound-water porosity fraction AA1-26, Society of Professional Well Log Ana-
Oe effective porosity fraction lysts, Houston, Texas.
Ot total porosity fraction - - 1981. Normalised Qv--the key to shaly sand
~tsh total porosity fraction of shale evaluation using the Waxman-Smits equation in
the absence of core data. Trans. SPWLA 22nd
Ann. Logging Syrup., Z1-36, Society of Profes-
References sional Well Log Analysts, Houston, Texas.
MAYER, C. t~ SIBBIT, A. 1980. GLOBAL, a new
ARCHIE, G. E. 1942. The electrical resistivity log as an approach to computer-processed log interpreta-
aid in determining some reservoir characteristics. tion. SPE Paper 9341, Society of Petroleum
Trans. AIME 146, 54-62. Engineers, Richardson, Texas.
BARDON, C. 8z PIED, B. 1969. Formation water PALLATT, N. & THORNLEY,D. 1990. The role of bound
saturation in shaly sands. Trans. SPWLA lOth water and capillary water in the evaluation of
Ann. Logging Syrup., Zl-19, Society of Profes- porosity in reservoir rocks. In: WORTHINGTON,P.
sional Well Log Analysts, Houston, Texas. F. (ed.) Advances in Core Evaluation, Gordon and
BUSH, D. C. & JENKINS, R. E. 1970. Proper hydration Breach, Reading, 223-237.
of clays for rock property determinations. Journal RAIGA-CLEMENCEAU, J., FRAISSE, C. • GROSJEAN, Y.
of Petroleum Technology, 22, 800-804. 1984. The dual-porosity model, a newly developed
CLAVIER, C., COATES, G & DUMANOIR, J. 1984. interpretation method for shaly sands. Trans.
Theoretical and experimental bases for the dual- SPWLA 25th Ann. Logging Syrup., F1-16, Society
water model for interpretation of shaly sands. of Professional Well Log Analysts, Houston,
Society of Petroleum Engineers Journal, 24, 153- Texas.
167. RUHOVETS,N. & FERTL, W. H. 1982. Digital shaly-sand
HILL, H. J., SHIRLEY,O. J. & KLEIN, G. E. 1979. Bound analysis based on Waxman-Smits model and log-
water in shaly sands--its relation to Qv and other derived clay typing. The Log Analyst 23(3), 7-23.
formation properties. The Log Analyst 20(3), WAXMAN, M. H. & SMITS, L. J. M. 1968. Electrical
3-19. conductivities in oil-bearing shaly sands. Society
HURST, A. & NADEAU, P. 1994. Estimation of water of Petroleum Engineers Journal, 8, 107-122.
saturation from clay microporosity data. SPE WORTHINGTON,P. F. 1991. The direction of petrophy-
Paper 28850, Society of Petroleum Engineers, sics: a five-year perspective. The Log Analyst
Richardson, Texas. 32(2), 57-62.
Permeability prediction in anisotropic shaly formations
S. X U & R. W H I T E
Exploration Geophysics Group, Research School of Geological & Geophysical Sciences,
Birkbeck College & University College London, Malet Place, London WC1E 6BT, UK
Abstract: We present a unified model for simulating the permeability and electrical
conductivity of anisotropic shaly formations. The model is based on Willis' formulae and
the concept of a host medium, the selection of which is crucial in predicting these transport
properties. Different rock components, including shales and mudrocks, are characterized by
parameters typifying their pore geometry, namely the aspect ratio, size and orientation
distribution of the pores. In this regard the model is an extension of the elastic model of Xu
& White for predicting P- and S-wave velocities in siliciclastic rocks. The electrochemical
effect of clay minerals on electrical conductivity is simulated by Waxman & Smits' model. A
novel feature of the permeability model is that its percolation factor is estimated by a non-
linear transformation of the percolation factor found from conductivity measurements.
The model was tested on the laboratory measurements published by Waxman & Smits.
Comparison of the results with those from the Waxman & Smits, Dual-Water, and K o z e n ~
Carman models, and with multilinear and non-linear regression techniques, demonstrated
that the unified model predicted conductivity and permeability more accurately than any of
these models from the same number or fewer parameters. The improved prediction was most
noticeable in samples containing a significant clay mineral fraction. Apart from Waxman &
Smits' data, we have found no published dataset that is comprehensive enough to test
physical predictions of both conductivity and permeability.
Permeability is one of three key rock parameters reasonably accurately from well logs but there
in reservoir simulation and the provision of are no direct measurements of pore size, shape
detailed estimates of permeability is a prime and connectivity. Consequently, permeability
objective of applied petrophysics. Since perme- prediction has to rely on indirect measures of
ability cannot be measured directly by logging these parameters. The danger of resorting to
tools, it is usually estimated indirectly from well purely ad hoc empirical relationships is that they
logs with calibration from cores. A common can end up eclectically tuned to a particular
practice is to use core measurements to establish dataset.
an empirical relationship between permeability The effect of clay content on permeability has
and properties such as porosity and formation long been recognized. Thompson & Callanan
factor and then to apply that relationship to well (1981) measured porosity and permeability of
logs to construct permeability logs. Permeability synthetic clay samples at pressures in the range 0
is a complex property to predict empirically and to 10000 psi. Although the measured porosities
it is not easy to obtain detailed information on were high (in the range of 20% to 50%), the
the parameters that control the flow of fluids permeabilities are 3 to 4 orders of magnitudes
through rocks. Needless to say, the prediction of lower than those measured from artificial sand
permeability is problematic. packs by Beard & Weyl (1973). The low
It is well understood that permeability is permeabilities were explained as a result of the
controlled by five key factors: porosity, the size, remarkable sealing power of clay particles.
shape, orientation and connectivity (percolation Thomson (1978) observed a progressive decrease
or tortuosity) of pores. Both laboratory mea- in permeability with clay content from rock
surements (e.g. Beard & Weyl 1973) and samples with clay content in the range of 5% to
theoretical analysis (e.g. Carman 1956) indicate 15%. A number of authors observed a linear
that permeability is more sensitive to pore size trend between log(k), the logarithm of perme-
than porosity. Pressure, cementation, grain size, ability, and porosity 4) which was later explained
clay content, sorting and irreducible water as a result of a systematic reduction in both k
saturation affect permeability indirectly by and 4 by dispersed clays (Bos 1982). From
modifying or controlling the five key parameters laboratory measurements on over 100 shaley
mentioned above. Porosity can be determined sand samples, Goode & Sen (1988) found a good
correlation between log(k) and log(qSm/Qv), shales than sands. The elastic anisotropy of
where m is the cementation factor and Qv the shaly formations is modelled through a pre-
exchange cation molarity. Sen et al. (1990) ferred orientation for clay-related pores.
measured Qv , the inverse surface-to-volume Here we extend the model to predict the
ratio (Vp/S), proton N M R decay time T1 and conductivity and permeability of shaly forma-
permeability k of some 100 sandstone core tions. Each pore is assigned an idealized
samples and found good correlations between ellipsoidal shape and embedded in a porous
k and log(q~mVp/S), log(q~m/Qv) and log(~bmT1). medium. We use Willis' (1977) formulae to
This is understandable since Vp/S, Qv and T1 are compute its contribution to the overall conduc-
three different measures of clay content. The tivity and permeability. The interaction between
authors concluded that clay affects the perme- this pore and other pores is modelled via the
ability more in rocks where it adheres in pore concept of a host medium. The properties of the
throats than in those where it adheres in the pore host medium are then tuned to model the
pockets. observed conductivity and permeability.
Although considerable understanding of how The concept of the host medium was origin-
clay affects permeability has been gained from ally proposed by de Kuijper et al. (1995). In Xu
laboratory measurements, little theoretical work & White (1996b) we show that alternatives such
has been done to model the effect. The majority as the self-consistent scheme (SC) and the
of the models that relate permeability to clay differential effective medium scheme (DEM)
content combine empirical and simple logical cannot model with Archie's law for clean sands
considerations (e.g. permeability must be dimen- whereas modelling with a host medium hunting
sionally length squared). Starting with the technique reproduced Archie's Law when the
Kozeny-Carman equation (Carman 1956), de fluid percolation factor was selected as 0.04q~.
Lima (1995) obtained some relationships be- The next section describes the model which is
tween k, 49, Vp/S and Qv similar to those then tested using published laboratory measure-
obtained empirically by Sen et al. (1990). ments. The results show that the transport
We have developed a model for elastic wave properties of anisotropic shaly formations can
velocities (Xu & White 1995a,b,c, 1996a) which be modelled by assigning a characteristic pore
can accurately simulate the combined effects of size, shape and orientation to their clay fraction.
porosity, clay content, fluid content and fre- The model provides a permeability predictor
quency on elastic wave velocities in clastic that estimates a percolation factor from resistiv-
silicate rocks. The model is founded on physical ity measurements, if available, and then applies
concepts and has demonstrated its practical it to permeability prediction.
utility in a number of case studies involving
reservoir geophysics (formation evaluation, seis- The unified model for shaley formations
mic modelling and interpretation). In addition
to validation on published laboratory measure- As in the elastic model of Xu & White (1995a,b,
ments, the model has been successfully tested on 1996a), we assume that the total pore space can
numerous wells, including four blind tests (Xu et be divided into sand-related pores and clay-
al. 1997). related pores. The pore space is partitioned
The key feature of the model is its ability to proportionately:
predict the effect of clay content on wave
velocities, including the two distinct porosity-
velocity trends observed in the laboratory: one
for shaly sands and the other for sandy shales where
(Marion et al. 1992). Empirical models that treat Vc
clay content purely as a lithological factor ~bc = _---~b
1 (2)
cannot explain this. Laboratory measurements
and well logs indicate that two factors need to be and
considered; lithology and the influence of clays
on pore compliance. Not only are clay particles 4,s = 4 - 4~c. (3)
more compliant than sand grains, their sheet-
like nature tends to make the pore space more Vc is fractional clay content. The sand-related
compliant. This greater compliance can be pores are characterized by a pore aspect ratio
modelled by introducing an additional pore (ratio of short semi-axis to long semi-axis) C~s
space characterized by a smaller aspect ratio and pore size (long semi-axis) as and the clay-
than that of clean sand grains. Thus the model related pores are similarly assigned a character-
predicts the higher Vp/Vs values observed for istic pore aspect ratio O~c and pore size ac. We
PERMEABILITY PREDICTION 227
In simulating electrical conductivity special where Cn, Cwe and Cm denote the conductivity
consideration must be given to the electroche- tensors of the host medium, formation water
mical behaviour of clays. Waxman & Smits and matrix (mixture of the sand grains and clay
(1968) demonstrated that shaley sands behave as particles). Fc describes the degree to which the
perm-selective cation exchange membranes and fluid paths accord with a parallel tube model; it
their electrochemical efficiencies increase with decreases with increasing tortuosity of the fluid
increasing clay content. They modelled this by paths. There is no information as to the value of
supplementing water conductivity Cw with a Fc and we estimate it from the measurements.
conductivity Ce from the clay counter-ions Fc can be correlated with other measured
within the ionic double layers: parameters, such as q~ and Qv, to see what
factors control it.
Ce = BQv (4)
Permeability
where Qv is the molar volume concentration of
clay exchange cations per unit pore volume (meq In simulating permeability, there is a problem in
cm 3). Qv is a function of the cation exchange defining the intrinsic permeabilities of the inclu-
capacity (CEC) of clay minerals, clay content, sions. One approach is to start from the intrinsic
porosity and the density of dry clays. B is the permeability of two parallel plates:
equivalent conductance of clay exchange cations
be
(in ohm cm 2 meq 1) which is a function of the k = -- (9)
conductance of formation water Cw. At 25 ~ 12
where b is the separation between the two plates.
B = [1 - b e x p ( - Cw/~/)]0.0 l AeNa (5) For a spheroidal inclusion defined by xZ/a~2+ y2/
a2+ z2/c 2= 1, equating the hydraulic aperture bh
where /~eNa is the maximum (sodium) cation parallel to its long axis with the mean square
exchange ion mobility (in cm 2 Volt 1 s), b and 7 value of the separation 2z gives:
are empirically determined constants. Waxman
& Smits (1968) found from their laboratory bh2 = 1 .fjs (2z)2dS = -~o~2a 2 = 2C2 (10)
measurements that
B = 1 - 0 . 6 e x p ( - Cw/0.013)]0.046 (6)
where A=Tr a 2 is the area of the domain S
where Cw is in ohm m q. The effective con- defined by x 2 + y 2 = a 2 and a is the aspect ratio
ductivity of the formation water Cwe is simply of the inclusion (c/a). For the intrinsic perme-
the sum of Cw and Ce. ability of the inclusion parallel to its long axis we
use
Cwe = Cw + Ce (7) k = 1__a2a2 = ~1c - ,~. (11)
6
In order to apply the modified Willis' for-
mulae (equations A5-A11) to the conductivity Strictly this should be a tensor property. A
of shaly sands, we subdivide the formation into similar equation, but with an undetermined
228 S. XU & R. WHITE
numerical constant, is obtained from simple and in porosity from 5% to 31%, making it an
dimensional arguments. Since in practice a best- ideal dataset for testing the model.
fit characteristic value is assigned to c, the
numerical constant of 1/6 has no real signifi- Electrical conductivity
cance. Unlike conductivity, the permeability of a
porous rock does depend on pore sizes, espe- Applying the model to conductivity measure-
cially pore throat diameters. ments has two aims:
The intrinsic permeabilities for sand- and
clay-related pores are taken from equation 11 (1) to test its capability of predicting electrical
conductivity, and
1 2 9
ks = gO~s as- (12) (2) to estimate a percolation factor for each
sample for use in permeability prediction.
and
The Waxman-Smits (WS) and the D u a l -
kc = ~1 ac 2ac2. (13) Water (DW) models (Clavier et al. 1984) were
also tested on the dataset for comparison.
We introduce a separate percolation factor Fp To simulate electrical resistivity, all three
for permeability since the relative weighting of models require porosity, clay content and brine
permeability is not necessarily the same as that conductivity (Cw) as input parameters. As there
for conductivity. For example, a clay particle in were no direct measurements of clay content, we
a pore throat still conducts electricity but estimated it from Qv using a relation given by
seriously impedes fuid flow. By employing a Juhasz (1979):
modified Voigt-Ruess-Hill average scheme, we
V~l(drv) = Qvq~t (15)
define Fe for permeability as follows:
9 Pcl (dry) C E C c l
kH = 0.2kll + 0.8k~, kll = Fpks + (1 - Fe)kc, where Vcl(dry) denotes the dry clay content as a
k ~ -1 = Fpks < + (1 - Fp)kc q (14) fraction of bulk volume, Pcl(dry) denotes the
average density of the mixture of dry clay
where kH, ks and kc are permeabilities of the host minerals (in gcm 3), 4t is the total (fractional)
medium, sand-related pores, and clay-related porosity and CECd is the averaged cation-
pores. The equation signifies that when the sand- exchange capacity of the clay minerals present
related pores are selected as the host medium, in the formation (meq gq dry clay).
the system is most percolating and when the When applying the WS and D W models, the
clay-related pores are selected, the system is least formation factor FF in both models was tuned to
percolating. get the best fit. It is well recognized that FF is
To apply Willis' formulae to permeability, the controlled by porosity and cementation factor
composite is assumed to consist of three phases: which is, in turn, a function of pore geometry
and tortuosity of the electrical current flow
1. an impermeable matrix phase of sand paths. Hence FF is expected to vary from sample
grains and clay particles; to sample. When applying our model to the
2. a sand-related pore phase with a random dataset, the percolation factor Fc was tuned by
pore orientation; fitting the predictions with the conductivity
3. a clay-related pore phase with a preferred measurements.
pore orientation. Figure 1 compares sample measured electrical
conductivities with predictions from the three
Application to laboratory measurements models. All three work well for clean sandstone
(upper figure). Our model worked slightly better
than the WS and D W models for shaley
The dataset sandstone (lower). The normalized mean square
errors of fit (termed incoherence by de Kuijper et
The model was tested on the laboratory mea- al. 1995) for all 49 samples is shown in Fig. 2.
surements published by W a x m a n & Smits Our model (lower) fits the data slightly better
(1968). The dataset provides the porosity, brine than the D W (upper) and WS (middle) models.
permeability, Qv and conductivities at four or Figures 3 and 4 show the cross plots of the
more brine salinities of 49 sandstone samples estimated percolation factor Fc as a function of
(table 2 in Waxman & Smits 1968). The samples porosity and shale volume. There are two well-
range in clay content from clean to very shaly, defined trends on the Fc-q~ cross plot: one for
PERMEABILITY PREDICTION 229
25
~E20
v
[ 1
"! 15 0 %,
1; 1; 2'0 25 3; 35 40 4'5 50 55
10 Sample Number
5
lid
7
0
0 50 100 150 200
(mS/cm)
Conductivity of brine
250
0 _AA A
/o ,; 2o 25 3; 3'5 20 ~5 5; 5;
Sample Number
A
57
"64
0
o /o t'5 2'0 2'5A3'o 35 4'0 ; 5; 5;
.~ 2 Sample Number
nl
0 Fig. 2. Normalized mean square error of fit (termed
0 50 100 150 200 250
Conductivity of brine (mS/cm) incoherence by de Kuijper et al. 1995) for the DW
(upper), WS (middle) and unified (lower) models 9
Fig. 1. Comparisons between the measured electrical
conductivities (solid squares) and those predicted using FC versus porosity
-10 a
the WS (dash<lotted line), DW (dashed line) and 100-
unified (solid line) models. Upper: clean sandstone;
.~ 60-
lower: very shaley sandstone. 4',, 9
~ 3o- ,mmI "
9 9 mt m
1
Permeability 0.0 oi, o12 o13 o14
Figures 5 to 7 show cross plots of permeability Porosity (fractional)
versus porosity, Qv and formation factor. Fig. 3. Cross plot of the estimated percolation factor
Permeability is clearly affected by all three Fc as a function of porosity.
factors. There are two distinct trends on the k-
4~ and k - F F plots but apparently just one on the
assumed to be twisted with tortuosity 7-= La/L,
k-Qv plot.
where La is the assigned length of a tube and L is
Of the many models in the literature for
the length of the sample. Under these condi-
predicting permeability, the most popular are
tions, the Kozeny-Carman equation becomes
the Kozeny-Carman equation and multilinear
and non-linear regression techniques. k- ~bRh2 (16)
The K o z e n y - C a r m a n e q u a t i o n ( C a r m a n fT-
1956) is based on a tube-like model of the pore
paths in a rock. Flow through a porous medium where R h is the mean hydraulic radius a n d f i s a
is represented by a bundle of tubes of different dimensionless shape factor between 1.7 and 3. If
radii. Within each tube, the flow is laminar R h is related to the specific surface area S,
rather than turbulent. The tubes are also defined as the ratio of pore surface area to grain
230 S. XU & R. WHITE
Fc versus Qv P e r m e a b i l i t y versus F F
- 1 0 -3
100- 9 &
6o- ~"..~ . ..
102 -
9 ii m 9 = ~ ' ~ 1 /n ~ 9 9 9
9 me
~9 30-
9 ====
.~ 10 ~
10- "'% 9
9 o==
6-
~. "
10_2 -
3-
1 I I l O -4 r '
006 0; o16 ,o io 10 4'O 0 100 200
Qv (meq/ml ) Fotenation F a c t o r
Fig. 4. Cross plot of the estimated percolation factor Fig. 7. Cross plot of the measured permeability as a
Fc as a function of shale volume. function of formation factor.
9 el 9
102
.-~ 10 ~
,-.,.,
mi 1 0 : .................................................................................................. 10 2
10'
I 0 I
0.06 91 013 0'.6 l'.0 3.0
10 10 ~
Qv (meq/ml) 10" 10 2 10 ~ 10:
i 10"
----.
"~ 10"-
10 -6 I I I
10" 3 6 lO 30 60 100
10 -4 10 .2 10 ~ 10 2 )~0"~ - 1 0 -~
Measured permeability (mD) F a c t 9 f r o m conductivity data
Fig. 9. Cross plot of the measured permeability and Fig. 10. Cross plot of Fc the percolation factor
that predicted from a mixed multilinear/non-linear estimated from the conductivity data and Fp the
regression. percolation factor estimated from the permeability
data.
particles affect electrical conductivity and per- low concentrations, clay particles tend to
meability. As we discussed earlier, clay particles be dispersed in the sand pores and their
adhering in a pore throat may block the fluid orientation and that of their micro pores is
flow path, whereas for electrical current flow, mainly controlled by the orientation and
wet clay particles are effectively conductive. In geometry of the original sand pores. As a
other words, conductivity and permeability result, there is initially no obvious increase
respond differently to clay content. in anisotropy with increasing clay content.
Equation 20 was applied to the permeability Once the sand pores are filled by clay
prediction. The results are shown in Fig. 11, particles to the extent that the sand grains
which should be compared with Figs 8 and 9. become separated, the clay particles be-
The unified model predicts permeability better come load-bearing and they and their
than the KC model and multiple regression. It micro-pores are aligned by overburden
benefits from predicting the permeability perco- pressure due to their sheet-like nature. This
lation factor Fp from the percolation factor Fc results in a dramatic increase in anisotropy.
determined from conductivity measurements.
Application of the model to another dataset The importance of the effect of clay on
(Sen et al. 1990) for which no conductivity permeability can be seen from the strong
measurements were available showed only a correlation between permeability and clay con-
slight improvement over the empirical models tent. More accurate prediction of permeability
given by Sen et al. calls for:
(1) a thorough understanding of the major
factors controlling permeability;
(2) developing models of its relationships with
Discussion these factors;
(3) a strategy for estimating the key para-
It is well known that clay content has a major meters in practical applications.
influence on the elastic and transport properties
of sedimentary rocks but its effects are often The following show our concerns on these
complicated. The following are possible mechan- issues.
isms.
(1) It is well known that permeability is
(1) Its effect on porosity. Because of their small sensitive to many factors ranging from
size, clay particles tend to fill the pore space major, through moderate to minor but
between sand grains as they are progres- these factors are rarely linked to one
sively introduced into the system. This another in a physical way--for example,
reduces porosity. Once the sand pore space linking porosity and clay content, grain size
is filled by clay particles and their micro- and pore size. To predict permeability
porosity, the sand grains will be suspended accurately, it is essential to identify the
in clay particles. Porosity then starts to key factors controlling fluid flow and, if
increase with increasing clay content (Mar- possible, then relate other factors to the key
ion et al. 1992). ones. Published laboratory measurements
(2) Its effect on pore geometry. The introduc- and theoretical studies both suggest that
tion of clay particles reduces pore sizes and, permeability can be modelled in terms of
at the same time, creates micro-pore spaces the following five key factors: the sizes,
between clay particles. This reduction in shapes, orientation and interconnectivity of
pore size affects permeability significantly the gaps, cavities or pore space, and the
more than conductivity. porosity. There is scope to include other
(3) Its effect on tortuosity. Pore throats are known factors, such as clay content, con-
likely to be bridged or blocked by clay solidation, cementation, pressure, and so
particles. This increases the tortuosity (or on, indirectly through the way they modify
percolation threshold) of the fluid flow the key five factors.
paths. Again this affects conductivity to a The model described in this paper is a
lesser degree than permeability since wet first attempt at this approach but we have
clay particles are effectively conductive. found no published datasets other than
(4) Its effect on pore orientation and anisotropy. that of Waxman & Smits on which to test
P- and S-wave velocity anisotropies in our model. Further progress in predicting
sedimentary rocks are strongly correlated permeability requires more comprehensive
with clay content (Shams et al. 1993). At experiments on representative suites of
PERMEABILITY PREDICTION 233
rock samples in order to compare and its determination is crucial. Currently there
calibrate models. Measurements are needed is no log that provides pore size informa-
of conductivity, permeability and elastic tion on a regular basis although in the
wave velocities, and their anisotropies from laboratory something closely related can be
the same set of samples. obtained by mercury injection or image
(2) There is the question of what kind of model processing techniques. However, recent
is best suited to predicting permeability. studies relating the N M R relaxation time
Our approach is to look for a physical basis and pore size may change this situation and
for the prediction rather than the dubious it appears that N M R logs can improve
practice of playing with variables and permeability prediction considerably (e.g.
functions in the melting pot of multiple Sen et al. 1990). The tortuosity or percola-
regression. The Kozeny-Carman model tion of the fluid flow paths is normally
appears to be the most widely used physical estimated from resistivity measurements
model of permeability and, when adapted provided porosity is known. As we men-
to use with N M R logs, this can predict tioned above, the tortuosity for electrical
permeability in clean sands very well conductivity and that for permeability can
(Fletcher et al. 1996). A major assumption be very different in magnitude. Conse-
of this model is that the total fluid flow is quently, tortuosity estimated from conduc-
the sum of flows in individual tubes. Since tivity measurements should not be applied
this model, or any parallel flow model, is to permeability prediction without calibra-
dominated by large tubes, it does not tion.
appear to be well suited to modelling We use shale volume, a measurable
permeability in clay-rich rocks. A model parameter, as an indicator of pore geome-
based on inclusions may also be more try parameters and as an indicator of
capable of accounting for the well-docu- anisotropy. This use of shale volume is
mented rapid decrease in permeability with only a first order approximation in the
an initial rise in differential pressure than a absence of better measures from logs.
tube-based model. This phenomenon is Similarly, discussion of adapting the pore
commonly considered to be due to the space specification to take account of
closure of microcracks or flat gaps that act variations from sedimentary environment,
as channels between big pores. sorting, and cementation is premature until
Our model is an inclusion-based model sufficient calibrating information becomes
which embeds pores into a permeable host available to provide permeability predic-
medium and, with the aid of Willis' tion with a sound footing.
formulae, relates permeability to pore Although the application of pore shape
shapes, sizes and orientation distribution. parameters (aspect ratios) estimated from
It tries to integrate permeability and con- velocity measurements to the prediction of
ductivity measurements. Its use of pore transport properties is questionable, the
aspect ratios connects the transport proper- model does highlight the potential of a
ties model to one employed in modelling unified physical model to integrate different
elastic wave propagation. In the elastic measurements and it does simulate the
wave modelling, pore aspect ratios provide effect of clay on permeability better than
a way of specifying pore compressibility commonly used alternatives. This is im-
but it is far from certain how relevant they portant in view of the abundance of clay
are to modelling transport properties. minerals in sedimentary rocks and their
Although one can postulate a connection strong influence on permeability.
with pore throat parameters, the connec-
tion is admittedly tenuous. However, there Another advantage of the unified model over
is a benefit in seeking an integrated model the commonly used conductivity and perme-
since fitting different measurements helps ability models is the capability of predicting
constrain its parameters better. anisotropic rock properties. Anisotropy due to
(3) More accurate prediction of permeability both aligned minerals and aligned pores can be
needs detailed information about the pore modelled using Willis' formulae. The capability
space. Porosity itself is not a problem since has been demonstrated (Xu & White 1995c) on a
it can be measured directly in the labora- dataset containing porosity, clay content, P- and
tory and estimated with a reasonable S-wave velocities measured at directions parallel
accuracy from logs. Since permeability is and perpendicular to bedding of 68 sandstone
sensitive to the second power of pore size, samples (Shams et aL 1993).
234 S. XU & R. WHITE
function for phase r such that connectivity or percolation. Other phases have
no inherent connectivity or percolation and are
f f ~Wr(0,/3)sin(O)dOd/3 =1. (All) embedded in the host phase (de Kuijper et al.
1995). When brine (the most conductive phase)
is selected as the host phase, Willis' approach
gives a parallel-resistor model whereas it gives a
In our case the resulting effective medium is series-resistor model when sand (the least con-
transversely isotropic. Thus w r is independent of ductive phase) is the host phase. Really the
azimuth/3 and equations (A6) and (A7) can be conducting phases are neither purely parallel nor
integrated explicitly over /3. This considerably purely series but somewhere between the two
speeds up the calculations. extremes. SC uses the effective medium itself as
the host medium and consequently introduces
Appendix B: The host medium and the too high a percolation threshold (de Kuijper et
percolation factor al. 1995).
For clean sands, we assume that the property
Xu & White (1996b) simulated the electrical tensor of the host medium LH is a function of
conductivity of clean sands (two-phase medium) the property tensors of the two phases and a
using various effective medium approaches and percolation factor F,
the results were compared with the lower and
upper bounds from the generalized Hashin- L H = F LF+(I.O--F) Ls (B1)
Shtrikman formulae. In the numerical simula-
tion, pores and sand grains were assumed to be where LF and Ls denote the conductivity or
randomly oriented so that the effective proper- permeability tensors of the fluid phase and solid
ties are isotropic. It was found that both the self- phase, respectively. The percolation factor F
consistent and differential effective medium describes the degree to which the fluid paths
schemes provided results within the bounds but accord with the parallel model. It is therefore
departed significantly from Archie's law for reasonable to call it a connectivity or tortuosity
resistivity. This indicates serious problems in factor. F must be in the range of 0.0 to 1.0.
applying these schemes to simulate the effective When F is 0.0, the sand is the host phase and
properties of a composite with large conductiv- when F is 1.0, the fluid is the host phase. Willis'
ity or permeability contrasts among the phases. formulae apply at these upper and lower
The problems with these effective medium bounds; we apply them in between by selecting
models can be avoided by using the concept of a a host medium that matches observations. The
host medium. A host medium is a starting phase formulae approach Archie's law when F=0.04
with no volume, representing a background ~b, where 4 is porosity.
The integration of electrical image logs with core data for improved
sedimentological interpretation
T. M . G O O D A L L 1, N. K. M O L L E R 2 & T. M . R O N N I N G S L A N D 2
1Rider-French Consulting Cambridge Ltd, at Production Geoscience, North Deeside Road,
Banchory, Kincardineshire AB31 3YR, UK (Present address: Production Geoscience Ltd,
North Deeside Rd, Banchory, Kircardineshire AB31 5YR, UK)
2 Norsk Hydro ASA, P. O. Box 200, N-1321 Stabekk, Norway
Abstract: Electrical borehole images allow the direct integration of sub-surface well-log data
with core data on a detailed visual level. For sedimentary interpretation, electrical borehole
images are primarily used to obtain bedding orientations and to confirm core-derived
sedimentology.
The aims of this paper are two-fold: firstly, to discuss how the sedimentological
information provided by electrical borehole image logs is integrated with that obtained from
other wireline logs and from cores; and secondly, to show that despite the need to integrate
these data electrical borehole images can provide the geologist with unique sedimentological
information which can not be obtained from either the cores or the other wireline logs. In a
case study from the Oseberg Syd oil and gas field, a Fullbore Formation MicroImager (FMI
Mark of Schlumberger) log through a complex interval of shallow marine sediments has
been investigated. The interpretation of the FMI log led to the acquisition of very detailed
orientation data related to the attitudes of sedimentary bedding surfaces. When these data
were integrated with the sedimentary facies, identified from core description, they proved
fundamental for understanding the activity of different shallow marine palaeocurrents
during sediment deposition.
GOODALL,T. M., MOLLER, N. K. & RONNINGSLAND,T. M. 1998. The integration of electrical image logs 237
with core data for improved sedimentological interpretation In. HARVEY,P. K. & LOVELL,M. A. (eds)
Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 237-248
238 T. M. GOODALL ET AL.
Spatial position
In a 21.59cm diameter borehole the F M I tool
samples the formation from a circumferential
surface area of 67.8cm, whilst in a 31.12cm
diameter borehole the F M I tool samples the
formation from a circumferential surface area of
97.8cm. Whole core in both 21.59cm and
3 1 . 1 2 c m d i a m e t e r b o r e h o l e s is t y p i c a l l y
10.16 cm in diameter, making the circumference
of the core 32 cm (12.6"). Therefore, when direct
visual comparisons are made between electrical
image logs and whole or slabbed core it is
important to appreciate that they are from
different parts of the wellbore (Figs 1 and 2).
Geophysical differences of electrical borehole Fig. 3. The principle of static and dynamic normal-
images and core photographs isation. Static normalization can be used to compare
images over an entire well. Dynamic normalization is
As a consequence of the spatial differences used to bring out local detail. A full colour scale is used
described above, problems can arise when for limited data range or 'window' which can be from
comparing core data, particularly core photo- any chosen interval such as a bed of interest, or a pre-
graphs, with electrical borehole images. Spatial set small depth range. Note that for the purposes of
differences between these two sets of data are this figure the colour scale is represented as black-
often not obvious over intervals with planar grey-white scale (from Rider 1996).
surfaces dipping at low angles relative to the
borehole. Over intervals which have planar up to 1.8 m due to the differences in sampling
surfaces bisecting the borehole at high angles diameter between the two techniques (Adams et
(Fig. 2), however, there can be depth offsets of al. 1990).
DATA INTEGRATION FOR IMPROVED SEDIMENTOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION 239
The comparison between core photographs other wireline logs. This may be particularly
and electrical borehole images is inevitable and useful to check if computer generated lithologi-
often very important. However, it is necessary to cal reconstructions from wireline logs for entire
appreciate not only the spatial differences but logged sections are at least accurate within the
also that electrical borehole images are computer cored intervals.
generated, based on measurements of electrical
resistivity from around the borehole wall and
therefore not directly comparable to core Sedimentary orientation data from cores and
photographs. electrical images
Electrical images can be displayed using two
types of colour designation, one where the In reservoir rocks which contain important
colour range covers the entire resistivity (or palaeotransport (palaeocurrent/palaeowind) in-
conductivity) population for the logged interval formation (e.g. cross-bed orientations) it is
(static normalization) and the other where the critical that these orientation data are measured
sampled population is limited to the resistivity accurately. In order for core material to provide
values over a specified depth interval (dynamic such information it needs to be correctly
normalization) (Fig. 3). The two types of image oriented relative to true North. Core orienta-
display are complimentary for comparison with tion, however, can be prone to error (Nelson et
core data: dynamic normalization is used for al. 1987), particularly in highly deviated or
detailed comparisons of sedimentary structures, horizontal wells (Skopek et al. 1992). If electrical
whilst static normalisation is preferred for image logs are available then their orientation
correlating lithological or facies changes at information can be vastly superior and effec-
compressed vertical scales (e.g. 1:100 or greater). tively replaces the need to reorient the core.
The process of drilling a borehole through a
cross-bedded, sedimentary formation exposes
Reasons for integrating core and electrical these structures in 3-dimensions. The orientation
image data of such features can be recorded from borehole
image logs and subsequently the image-derived
Feature recognition from image logs dip data provide a unique record of internal
bedform geometries. Although the principle of
deriving the orientation of sedimentary struc-
Core provides an indispensable tool for the tures using image logs is well-known (Serra
calibration (mainly qualitative) of image logs. 1989) the quality and quantity of dip data that
Core calibration can be applied in two ways: can be obtained from these logs is not always
firstly, to establish the identity of poorly fully appreciated. Where there is a sufficient
resolved, individual features on the image log resistivity contrast between cross-bed foresets,
(e.g. ripple laminae, different grain-size textures accurate dip measurements can be taken on a
and bioturbation); and secondly, to determine if bed-by-bed scale (ca every 5-10cm) and the
characteristic changes in image texture (on metre bounding surfaces can also be identified. This
or decimetre scales) correspond to changes in may allow the interpreter to identify complex
lithological type or characteristic sedimentary bounding surface hierarchies in order to recon-
facies (e.g. ripple-bedded sands or vuggy carbo- struct cross-bed architecture. The level of detail
nates). Once calibrated to core these same that image log-derived dip data provide, can
features and image textures, when identified allow interpretations to be made of the deposi-
outside the cored interval, may be interpreted tional processes and subsequently the determi-
with added confidence. nation of local palaeocurrent directions and
more regional palaeotransport trends.
Depth matching cores with other well data On an unwrapped FMI image (from a vertical
well) horizontal sedimentary laminae appear as
The image log provides a continuous record of flat surfaces, whilst dipping foreset structures
the cored interval with respect to depth. This appear as sine waves (Fig. 4). The sine wave
means that the image log can be used to amplitude indicates the dip magnitude, and the
accurately match the core to log depth and to low point of the wave describes the dip direction
identify if there are any intervals where core (or azimuth). An interpreter can interactively
material may have been lost or damaged during match a sine wave to the sedimentary structure
the coring process. Once the core has been shown on the image to derive a very accurate dip
corrected to log depth then not only can the core and azimuth value (Adams et al. 1990). Once the
be used to calibrate the image log but also the interactively picked dip data have been collected
240 T.M. GOODALL E T AL.
Fig. 4. Representation of borehole wall images on a fiat surface (from a vertical well). The images derived from
the cylindrical borehole (a) are presented on a flat surface (computer screen or hard copy log plot) by
'unwrapping' onto a vertical depth grid and horizontal grid of compass bearings. (b) In this format, horizontal
and vertical surfaces are unchanged but dipping surfaces become represented by a sinusoid. (c) Such dip and
azimuth may be represented on a dipmeter tadpole plot (from Rider 1996).
it is possible to classify each dip according to the for these data to be interpretable the dips
sedimentary feature that it represents. After the need to be filtered, identified and classified.
dips have been classified the dip types can be These steps cannot be achieved without
interrogated separately using statistical analyses integration of the dipmeter log with core
(i.e. eigenvector methods) or they can be sedimentology and standard log data.
displayed on stereograms or rose azimuth plots.
Interactively picked image log orientation
data are often superior to dip data that can be Case study: electrical image log-derived
derived by any other conventional method:
outcrop measurements, core goniometry and sedimentary orientations from the Middle
dipmeter logs (i.e. the Schlumberger Strati- Jurassic Tarbert Formation, Oseberg Syd oil
graphic High Resolution Dipmeter Tool or and gas field (Norwegian North Sea)
SHDT log). The reasons are outlined below:
Introduction
(1) Palaeocurrent data from outcrop analogue
studies tends to be limited to a few The Oseberg Syd oil and gas field lies within
orientations where the geologist has con- Block 30/9 on the Norwegian Continental Shelf,
fidence in his/her measurements. The char- around 120 km west of Bergen (Fig. 5). Structu-
acter of natural exposures is such that most rally, the region is characterized by elongate
sedimentary structures can only be ob- fault blocks which form a series of terraces
served, at best, in 2-dimensions. Subse- between the Horda Platform and the Viking
quently it is usually difficult to take a high Graben. The main fault-planes strike N / N N W -
number of dip measurements on a density S/SSE. The reservoir sands are Middle Jurassic
comparable to image log-derived dip data. in age and comprise shallow marine sand bodies
(2) Core goniometry is a technique which from the upper part of the Brent Group (Tarbert
measures the dip magnitude and dip direc- Formation) and fluvio<leltaic, channel sands
tion of continuous, planar surfaces identi- from the Upper and Lower Ness Formations
fied on the outside surface of whole, (Fig. 6). For the purposes of this paper, only the
oriented core. Although the principle is reservoir sands of the Tarbert Formation will be
sound it is dependant on whether the core considered. The distribution of the various
can be correctly oriented and depth cor- sedimentary facies during the deposition of the
rected. It is also necessary for the outer- reservoir sands was intimately linked with
surface of the core to be smooth and clean localized subsidence associated with tectonic
enough to reveal any of its internal movement along the regional faults (Fig. 7).
structures. It also has to be sufficiently This syn-sedimentary tectonism appears to have
coherent to allow measurements to be controlled sedimentation during most of the
taken. Middle Jurassic (RavnSs et al. 1997).
(3) Dipmeter tools record a large amount of The standard open hole logs (gamma ray,
dip data. However, the geological or neutron and density logs) and the interpreted
sedimentary origin of these recorded dips core sedimentology indicate that within the
cannot be determined in isolation. In order Oseberg Syd field the Tarbert Formation con-
DATA INTEGRATION FOR IMPROVED SEDIMENTOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION 241
Fig. 5. Location map for the Oseberg Syd oil and gas field (from Fristad et al. 1997).
sists of a number of cleaning-upward successions it would have had a significant control over the
(Fig. 8). The changes in shallow marine facies resulting sand body architecture. The core
types suggest that during the deposition of each sedimentology suggested that the Tarbert sands
succession the water became progressively shal- were deposited in a shallow marine, shoreface
lower until there was an abrupt change to deeper environment but the evidence was equivocal
water marking the base of the next, overlying regarding which depositional processes were
succession. The sedimentary facies at the base of dominant (Fig. 8). Subsequently, palaeotran-
each succession are characterized by outer sport orientation data from electrical image and
through inner shelf muds and silts, passing into dipmeter logs from six wells were studied in
sand-dominated shoreface and beach/coastal order to assist with the Tarbert sand body
plain sediments. These gradationally-based suc- characterization. For the purposes of this paper,
cessions are diagnostic of prograding shorefaces, FMI (in 4-pad mode) image-derived orientation
produced by either wave and storm-dominated data from only one well will be considered in
shoreface processes (Fig. 9a), tidally-dominated detail. In Well 30/9-16 (Figs 5 & 7) the Tarbert
shoreface processes (Fig. 9b) or a combination Formation has been cored throughout, allowing
of both storm and tidally-dominated processes. full integration of the FMI image log with the
Identifying which processes were dominant sedimentary facies and corresponding sedimen-
during sediment deposition is important because tary structures seen in the core.
242 T.M. GOODALL ET AL.
~ ~ --floo~i,,9 v
' ~ I ~ Swamp
Tidal
: : Lower
,~ l ~ ~'~
9 ..
_.7,0_ T..
9 Inlet
, . / j / / f '
g
'
:: ::--------YJr~/'~
O~176 f
Shoreface
9 J . - / / i o.)
. 2760 - ~ I m
ii Lower
Shoreface
2770 - i:::~
SEDIMENTARYSTRUCTURES LITHOLOGY
Cross- ~ Bioturbation I Coal ~ Sandstone
stratification
~ : ~ Horizontal ~ Rootlets Silt ~ Conglomerate
lamination
[~] Ripple [ ~ - ] Pebbles ~ Mud [ ~ ] Cemented
lamination horizons
-~ Waveripple ~ Hummockycross-
lamination stratification
Fig. 8. The wireline log responses of the gamma ray and density-neutron combination through part of the Tarbert
Formation in well 30/9-16, Oseberg Syd field. The integration of the core sedimentology demonstrates that the
cleaning-up gamma trends correspond to upward coarsening and upward shallowing of the facies.
10~ to 20 ~ dip angles with unimodal azimuth and shows pervasive, fine lamination. Some
variations. The designated image log colour HCS intervals show low dips with random
ranges show little variation within sets but there orientation, whilst others show low dips with a
are marked colour changes at set boundaries definite preferred azimuth (Fig. 11). Within the
(Fig. 10a). intervals of HCS, two d o m i n a n t types of
stratification can be distinguished from the
image logs. Firstly, there are the less abundant
Hummocky cross-stratification (HCS) and low higher-angle erosion surfaces within HCS co-sets
angle foresets. The core reveals that in the and secondly, there are the individual laminae
Tarbert Formation, low angle foresets and which usually drape these erosion surfaces (Figs
HCS are the most common sedimentary struc- 11 & 12). The erosion surfaces are described as
tures. The image log of both structures is similar second-order bounding surfaces whilst the in-
244 T.M. GOODALL ET AL.
A B
Outer shelf muds Outer shelf muds
oOoOQOoOo Oo o o
Breaker zone -
ridge and runnel/ Tidal channel /
rip channels Tidal inlet
9 . ".'.',.-,.~
bar complex
. . . . .
~.~ . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . Lower shoreface-
u /~ inner shelf
transition
Tidal shoal
U~ , ~ Mid-shelf -
bioturbated
sandy
Mid-shelf -
siltstone
bioturbated
sandy siltstone
Outer-shelf - 5m Outer-shelf -
bioturbated bioturbated
mudstone mudstone
dividual laminae are separated by third-order mation and part of the Middle Tarbert Forma-
bounding surfaces (Cheel & Leckie 1993). tion are shown in Fig. 8. Cross-stratified
intervals are associated with the upper half of
Sedimentary facies interpretation from the the coarsening-up sand and silty sand succes-
core sions. Foreset angles tend to be low (10~ ~
and channelization is rare. The lower part of the
The standard open hole logs (gamma ray, coarsening-up sand and silty sand successions
neutron and density logs) and the interpreted usually contain ripple laminae and HCS.
core sedimentology, linked to the electrical
images in Well 30/9-16, were used to identify Lower Tarbert Formation. (2799.5-2819.0m) -
the sedimentary facies relationships within the the Lower Tarbert Formation in Well 30/9-16
Tarbert Formation (Figs 8 & 13). In Well 30/9- consists of a gradationally based wave-domi-
16 the Tarbert F o r m a t i o n comprises three nated shoreface succession passing from lower
cleaning-upward successions, which have been shoreface silts into the wave-rippled, silty sands
divided into the Upper, Middle and Lower of the shoreface and beach sediments. HCS are
Tarbert Formations. The Upper Tarbert For- absent.
DATA INTEGRATION FOR IMPROVED SEDIMENTOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION 245
~ o,,...~
.,..a
~Z
Q
. ,...~
O
246 T.M. GOODALL ET AL.
Fig. 11. Dynamically-normalized4-pad FMI image log with interpreted sedimentary orientation data through an
interval of hummocky cross-stratification (HCS). The integration of the schematic core photograph and image
derived sedimentary orientation data demonstrates that second-order surfaces (shown in red) and third-order
surfaces (shown in blue) within HCS can be discerned.
Fig. 13. The 4-pad FMI image log with interpreted sedimentary orientation data through the Upper Tarbert
Formation in well 30/9-16, Oseberg Syd field. The integration of the core and image derived sedimentology
demonstrates that the prograding shoreface succession was produced by a combination of both storm- and
tidally-dominated processes. For key to sedimentology see Fig. 8.
(Fig. 13). Although HCS would not be expected tion within a tidal inlet, which formed part of a
to have preferred orientations recent work has mesotidal shoreface (Fig. 7).
suggested that some hummocky cross-stratified
sands may indicate preferred orientations related Conclusions
to unidirectional flow elements being dominant
over the more usual, oscillatory flow during (1) Although the integration of core data with
deposition of these shoreface sediments (Nott- electrical image logs does lead to improved
vedt & Kreisa 1987; Johnson & Baldwin 1996). sedimentological interpretations of sub-
The dip and azimuth of both erosion surfaces surface reservoirs it should be appreciated
(first and second order surfaces) and laminae that there is not only a distinct difference in
(third order surfaces) within the HCS can be the amount of formation that is sampled by
accurately derived from electrical image logs the imaging tools compared to the core, the
(Fig. 11). These dip data from HCS are unique direct comparison of the two sets of data
and cannot be obtained from surface exposures involves coping with marked physical
where the apparent hummocky nature of the differences of depth and spatial position.
laminae precludes the manual measurement of (2) In a case study from Oseberg Syd, electrical
dip and azimuth by the geologist. image log-derived orientation data from
The Upper Tarbert, shoreface sands in Well the Tarbert reservoir sands were integrated
30/9-16 contain cross-bedding (Fig. 13). The with core data. Some of the sedimentary
cross-bedding in core did not contain tidally- facies were difficult to characterize when
related sedimentary structures. However, image- they were first studied in core. The sub-
derived orientation data from this interval sequent palaeocurrent interpretations de-
indicate a bimodal dip azimuth oriented N W - rived from the electrical image logs
SE. The opposing palaeocurrent directions are provided unequivocal evidence for the
interpreted to be from cross-stratification pro- correct identification of these sedimentary
duced by both onshore flood (SE) and offshore facies.
ebb (NW) directed currents indicating deposi- (3) Electrical image-derived dip data cannot
248 T.M. GOODALL ET AL.
only assist in the interpretation of sub- CAMERON,G. I. F., COLLINSON,J. D., RIDER, M. H. &
surface sediments, they are arguably of Xu, L. 1993. Analogue dipmeter logs through a
superior quality to orientation data that prograding deltaic sandbody. In: ASHTON,M. (ed.)
Advances in Reservoir Geology. Geological So-
can be obtained by any other method. It is
ciety, London, Special Publications, 69, 195-217.
suggested that image-derived dip data may CHEEL, R. J. & LECKIE,D. A. 1993. Hummocky cross-
be used in future studies to provide stratification. In: WRIGHT,V. P. (ed.) Sedimentary
important information regarding sedimen- Review, 1, 103-122.
tary bedform architecture. For example, FJELLANGER, E., OLSEN, T. R. & RUBINO,J. t . 1996.
the analysis of these orientation data Sequence stratigraphy and palaeogeography of
obtained from cross-stratified units com- the Middle Jurassic Brent and Vestland deltaic
pared to their internal bounding surface systems, Northern North Sea. Norsk Geologisk
(set boundaries) orientations can provide Tidsskrift, 76, 75-106.
FRISTAD, T., GROTH, A., YIELDING,G. & FREEMAN,B.
important clues for determining the domi-
1997. Quantative fault seal prediction--a case
nant processes that were present during study from Oseberg Syd. Hydrocarbon seals -
deposition. importance for exploration and production. Nor-
(4) In order to assist with the sub-surface wegian Petroleum Society (NPF) Special Publica-
sedimentological interpretation of electrical tion, 7, 107-124.
image-derived dip data, it is recommended JOHNSON,H. D. & BALDWIN,C. T. 1996. Shallow clastic
that detailed, sedimentary orientation data seas. In: READING, H. G. (ed) Sedimentary
should be collected from both well exposed Environments: Processes, Facies and Stratigraphy.
rocks and from cores of modern sediments. Third Edition, Blackwell Science, 265-266.
These analogue, orientation datasets would LECKIE,D. A. & WALKER,R. G. 1982. Storm- and tide-
dominated shorelines in Late Cretaceous Moose-
provide models to help identify distinctive bar-Lower Gates interval--outcrop equivalents
dip relationships, which might prove to be of deep basin gas trap in western Canada. Bulletin
diagnostic of certain sedimentary facies or of the American Association of Petroleum Geolo-
depositional processes. gists, 66, 138-157.
NELSON,R. A., LENOX,L. C. & WARD, B. J., Jr 1987.
Oriented core: its use, error and uncertainity.
The authors gratefully acknowledge Norsk Hydro Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum
ASA and their partners in Oseberg Syd: Conoco Geologists, 71, 357-367.
(Norway) Inc., Mobil Exploration Norway Inc., Saga NflTTVEDT, A. & KREISA, R. D. 1987. Model for the
Petroleum A/S and Statoil Oil Co. for permission to combined-flow origin of hummocky cross-strati-
use data from well 30/9-16. M. H. Rider offered many fication. Geology, 15, 357-361.
useful discussions in the development of ideas during RAvNAs, R., BONDEVIK, K., HELLAND-HANSEN,W.,
the writing of this manuscript. The software PC LOMO, L., RYSETH, A & STEEL, R. J. 1997.
ImagePro (BPB Wireline Technologies Ltd) was used Sedimentation history as an indicator of rift
to produce the borehole images in Figs 10, 11 & 13. initiation and development: the late Bajocian -
Bathonian evolution of the Oseberg - Brage area,
Northern North Sea. Norsk Geologisk Tidsskrift,
77, 205-232.
References RIDER, M. H. 1996. Image logs. The Geological
Interpretation of Well Logs. 2nd Edition, Whittles
ADAMS, J. T., BOURKE, L. T. & BUCK, S. G. 1990. Publishing, 199-225.
Integrating formation images and cores. Sclum- SCHLUMBERGER, 1994. FMI Fullbore Formation Micro-
berger Oilfield Review, 2, 52-65. Imager. Schlumberger Educational Services.
BOURKE,L. T. 1989. Recognizing artifact images of the SELLEr, R. C. 1985. Ancient Sedimentary Environ-
Formation MicroScanner. Society of Professional ments. 3rd Edition, Chapman & Hall, London.
Well Log Analyists 30 th Annual Logging Syposium, SERRA. O. 1989. Formation MicroScanner Image
Denver, Transactions, Paper WW. Interpretation. Schlumberger Educational Ser-
- - 1992. Sedimentological borehole image analy- vices.
sis in clastic rocks: a systematic approach to SKOPEK,R. A., MANN,M. M., JEFFERS, D. & GRIER,S.
interpretation. In: HURST, A, GRIFFITHS, C. M. & P. 1992. Horizontal core acquisition and orienta-
WORTHINGTON, P. F. (eds). Geological Applica- tion for formation evaluation. Drilling Engineer-
tions of Wireline Logs II. Geological Society, ing, Society of Petroleum Engineers, March, 47-
London, Special Publications, 65, 31-42. 54.
BOWEN,J. M. 1992. Exploration of the Brent Province. WALKER, R. G. & PLINT, A. G. 1992. Wave- and
In: Morton, A. C., HAZELDINE,R. S., GILES,M. R. storm-dominated shallow marine systems. In:
& BROWN, S. (eds) Geology of the Brent Group. WALKER, R. G. & JAMES, N. P. (eds) Facies
Geological Society, London, Special Publications, models: response to sea level change. Geological
61, 3-14. Assocation of Canada.
How to characterize fractures in reservoirs using borehole and core
images: case studies
D. H A L L E R 1 & F. P O R T U R A S 2
1Elf Petroleum Norge as, P.O. Box 168, N-4001 Stavanger, Norway
2 Western Atlas Logging Services, P.O. Box 953, N-4040 Hafrsfjord, Norway
Abstract: Microconductivity array and acoustic imaging of the borehole wall provide
valuable multidatasets which are used to characterize the geological strata and especially the
reservoirs in exploration activities and during development of producing zones. This paper
presents a tutorial of the main applications and a methodology to follow when performing
fracture interpretation. Borehole image interpretation should not be a routine work
referring to 'a cook book'. It must rely on our geological and structural knowledge and
experience, on basic notions about tool principles and image processing, and on geometrical
calibrations to cores. Vatious examples will be given, showing:
(a) natural fractures; how to distinguish them from drilling-induced fractures;
(b) typical drilling-induced fractures and borehole breakouts; how to identify them;
(c) a tricky case where cemented fractures might be confused with open ones.
The match between interpretation of borehole images and production data appears now
to be the most efficient way to manage fractures in reservoirs.
Fractures may affect reservoir behaviour in a the logging tool. In other words, this discipline is
drastic way. When open, they act as pathways not a simple exercise based on cookery books; it
for hydrocarbon production and may even belongs to the world of geological interpreta-
transform a very low permeability reservoir into tion, which can always provide tricky cases,
a highly productive zone. When cemented, they where a quick-look interpretation seems so
act as barriers to hydrocarbon flow, hindering obvious but which may be proven to be
the motion of hydrocarbons toward the well. In definitely wrong.
the case of a fault being sealed, either due to clay This will be elaborated on, based on several
smearing, cementation or cataclasis, it can lead case study interpretations of high resolution
to compartmentalization of the reservoir with borehole images dealing with fractures. All of
different pressure regimes, water tables or even them are taken from wells drilled in the
fluid types in each individual panel. Norwegian Continental Shelf.
Therefore, identification and characterization Not all the presented cases display phenom-
of fractures have been always a major concern ena of prime importance for the considered case
for reservoir geologists. study, but they all deal with problems which
All the information about fractures comes might be fundamental in other circumstances.
from wells. Fractures can be either observed
directly on cores or inferred from wireline or Fracture characterization using well data
production logs. Fracture detection from wire-
line logs has always been something speculative,
through the past
until the middle of the eighties, when high Fracture identification and characterization was
resolution borehole images broke through on first conducted on cores, because cores are an
the market. They opened a new perspective for ideal medium to observe fractures, where one
fracture characterization in reservoirs and gave can easely see if they are open or healed with
birth to a new geological discipline: the ability to diagenetic minerals or alternatively smeared or
identify fractures and to characterize them, injected with sedimentary material. It is possible
especially with regard to their influence on the to measure the open width of the fractures and
reservoir behaviour. This requires both experi- sometimes to observe slickenslides on their
ence with fractures, based on field work and planes, which can indicate direction of tectonic
rock mechanics, and good understanding of the motion. One can try to define fracturation
physical principles governing the functioning of frequency, based on simple mathematical means.
HALLER,D. & PORTURAS,F. 1998. How to characterize fractures in reservoirs using borehole and 249
core images: case studies In: HARVEY,P. K. 8z LOVELL,M. A. (eds) Core-Log Integration,
Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 249-259
250 D. HALLER & F. PORTURAS
But what remains more difficult to define is resolution is most of the time above one
their orientation, since the orientation of the centimetre. Besides the array acoustic tools
core itself is not preserved when bringing the whose processing of Stonely waves allows
corebarrel to the surface. In the past, a specific location of fracture zones but not the orientation
technique has been implemented in order to of the fractures, it is obvious that only high-
determine orientations of the fractures. For each resolution tools can really identify the elemen-
segment of core pieces which could be matched tary fractures. Therefore, the first attempts to
together, all geological elements, both bedding identify fractures were made using conventional,
and fractures, were oriented. This was achieved four, six or eight electrode dipmeter recordings.
by 'unrolling' the core surface and plotting this Erratic peaks observed on one track with no
elements on a stereonet. The re-orientation of lithological continuity on the other tracks were
the fractures was obtained by two consecutive considered to correspond to fracture intersection
rotations on stereonet, the criteria being to fit and it was tempting to identify them automati-
the bedding measured on cores with the bedding cally, the aim being the definition of fracture
attitude deduced from dipmeter log. This intensity. This approach was considered to be
technique was laborious, rather inaccurate, and unreliable and anyway did not provide any
it had its own limitations, when bedding could orientation.
not be observed (e.g. massive limestones) or So, when the borehole images appeared on the
when bedding is perpendicular to the borehole axis. market, it was as if the geologist had gained the
In a more general way, studies on cores have capacity for 'seeing' the fractures inside the
their own limitations too. Most of the time the reservoirs. These tools blended the characteris-
reservoir is not cored entirely and by no means tics required: high resolution retative to fracture
all wells are cored. Moreover, in the case of the size and high sampling density in giving an
well intersecting a fracture corridor, the core image of the borehole wall which allows the
recovery might be drastically affected by lack of orientation of the fractures to be determined.
coherence of the rock. It therefore ends up with
the situation where the zone of highest interest Description of the new imaging tools
for fracture analysis is lost for observation.
Besides cores, indirect means have also been There are two main types of tool for acquisition
used to identify fractures acting significantly in of images, one based on microconductivity
the drainage of a reservoir, such as identification arrays and the other on acoustic imaging
of mud losses, open-hole injectivity tests with methods, both providing imagery of high
flow-meter and temperature surveys, pressure resolution in the order of millimetres. Both
transient analysis, all three of which allow types of tool currently operate on single passes
definition of the producing fractures, in the case and are equipped with similar orientation units,
of a low permeability matrix ( H a l l e r & Hamon such as accelerometers and magnetometers
1993). which give navigation data for proper fracture
However, it has always been evident that some geometrical orientation.
specific tools were needed to achieve proper The microconductivity array tools can carry
observation of fractures in reservoirs. But between 16 and 32 buttons which are mounted
fracture intersection by a borehole being most on pad carriers, with 4, 6 or 8 arms. The amount
of the time less than a centimetre thick, is really of data acquired is huge and has influenced
a tough challenge for logging tools, whose further development of new telemetry and data
Fig. 1. Example of natural open fractures developing in a brittle carbonate cemented layer (example 1). The FMI image
(left-hand) shows mainly two steeply dipping conductive fractures (in black), whose extent stops sharply at the edge of
the carbonate layer. This is typical of a fracture developing in a brittle layer interbedded with less porous brittle rocks.
Interpretation of these fractures as natural open ones is sensible. Unrolled core photograph (right-hand) zoomed on this
carbonate layer proves that this interpretation is correct. One large natural open fracture is observed; in the fracture
plane, calcite crystals have been seen and strong hydrocarbon shows have been reported, indicating that this fractures
acted as hydrocarbon pathways through this tight level.
Fig. 2. Example of natural open fractures developing in a brittle carbonate rock (example 2). The CBIL amplitude image
(left-hand) and core-like display (right-hand) show a dark sinusoidal feature at xx83.4 m (a). The minimum of the
sinusoid shows an easterly dip. The fracture was interpreted as an open one and fits well with drilling losses. Note also a
low reflective (black) fracture (b) subparallel to borehole axis, trending NNE-SSW, interpreted as a drilling-induced one.
The well is deviated and the lowside of the borehole is revealed by the marks of the previous logging tools (c). The CBIL
image was acquired in an oil-based mud.
250 D. HALLER & F. PORTURAS
But what remains more difficult to define is resolution is most of the time above one
their orientation, since the orientation of the centimetre. Besides the array acoustic tools
core itself is not preserved when bringing the whose processing of Stonely waves allows
corebarrel to the surface. In the past, a specific location of fracture zones but not the orientation
technique has been implemented in order to of the fractures, it is obvious that only high-
determine orientations of the fractures. For each resolution tools can really identify the elemen-
segment of core pieces which could be matched tary fractures. Therefore, the first attempts to
together, all geological elements, both bedding identify fractures were made using conventional,
and fractures, were oriented. This was achieved four, six or eight electrode dipmeter recordings.
by 'unrolling' the core surface and plotting this Erratic peaks observed on one track with no
elements on a stereonet. The re-orientation of lithological continuity on the other tracks were
the fractures was obtained by two consecutive considered to correspond to fracture intersection
rotations on stereonet, the criteria being to fit and it was tempting to identify them automati-
the bedding measured on cores with the bedding cally, the aim being the definition of fracture
attitude deduced from dipmeter log. This intensity. This approach was considered to be
technique was laborious, rather inaccurate, and unreliable and anyway did not provide any
it had its own limitations, when bedding could orientation.
not be observed (e.g. massive limestones) or So, when the borehole images appeared on the
when bedding is perpendicular to the borehole axis. market, it was as if the geologist had gained the
In a more general way, studies on cores have capacity for 'seeing' the fractures inside the
their own limitations too. Most of the time the reservoirs. These tools blended the characteris-
reservoir is not cored entirely and by no means tics required: high resolution retative to fracture
all wells are cored. Moreover, in the case of the size and high sampling density in giving an
well intersecting a fracture corridor, the core image of the borehole wall which allows the
recovery might be drastically affected by lack of orientation of the fractures to be determined.
coherence of the rock. It therefore ends up with
the situation where the zone of highest interest Description of the new imaging tools
for fracture analysis is lost for observation.
Besides cores, indirect means have also been There are two main types of tool for acquisition
used to identify fractures acting significantly in of images, one based on microconductivity
the drainage of a reservoir, such as identification arrays and the other on acoustic imaging
of mud losses, open-hole injectivity tests with methods, both providing imagery of high
flow-meter and temperature surveys, pressure resolution in the order of millimetres. Both
transient analysis, all three of which allow types of tool currently operate on single passes
definition of the producing fractures, in the case and are equipped with similar orientation units,
of a low permeability matrix ( H a l l e r & Hamon such as accelerometers and magnetometers
1993). which give navigation data for proper fracture
However, it has always been evident that some geometrical orientation.
specific tools were needed to achieve proper The microconductivity array tools can carry
observation of fractures in reservoirs. But between 16 and 32 buttons which are mounted
fracture intersection by a borehole being most on pad carriers, with 4, 6 or 8 arms. The amount
of the time less than a centimetre thick, is really of data acquired is huge and has influenced
a tough challenge for logging tools, whose further development of new telemetry and data
Fig. 1. Example of natural open fractures developing in a brittle carbonate cemented layer (example 1). The FMI image
(left-hand) shows mainly two steeply dipping conductive fractures (in black), whose extent stops sharply at the edge of
the carbonate layer. This is typical of a fracture developing in a brittle layer interbedded with less porous brittle rocks.
Interpretation of these fractures as natural open ones is sensible. Unrolled core photograph (right-hand) zoomed on this
carbonate layer proves that this interpretation is correct. One large natural open fracture is observed; in the fracture
plane, calcite crystals have been seen and strong hydrocarbon shows have been reported, indicating that this fractures
acted as hydrocarbon pathways through this tight level.
Fig. 2. Example of natural open fractures developing in a brittle carbonate rock (example 2). The CBIL amplitude image
(left-hand) and core-like display (right-hand) show a dark sinusoidal feature at xx83.4 m (a). The minimum of the
sinusoid shows an easterly dip. The fracture was interpreted as an open one and fits well with drilling losses. Note also a
low reflective (black) fracture (b) subparallel to borehole axis, trending NNE-SSW, interpreted as a drilling-induced one.
The well is deviated and the lowside of the borehole is revealed by the marks of the previous logging tools (c). The CBIL
image was acquired in an oil-based mud.
252 D. HALLER & F. PORTURAS
Fig. 3. Drilling-induced features observed on FMI (a, b; example 3) and CBIL (c, d; example 4). Conductive en-bchelon
fractures, observed on FMI in the upper part of 3a, are developed rather extensively along the whole logged reservoir
with a very constant E-W orientation. They are similar to the drilling-induced fractures illustrated on Fig. 4a. A more
continuous vertical fracture, branching at bed boundaries, observed on CBIL 3c, can be interpreted in the same way. The
large conductive (black) bands observed in the lower part of 3a and b, with small scale rock chips, recall breakouts due to
the present-day stress regime, as illustrated on Fig. 4b. They are oriented N-S. On the CBIL image (3d), breakouts
appear as dark bands, due to the borehole ovalization, the ultrasonic tool working as an ultra sensitive caliper.
~ m
9, ~ -
~ ~
254 D. HALLER & F. PORTURAS
eous limestones). Here a CBIL imager was been shown that these features develop along the
logged, because this well was drilled with oil- direction of minimum normal stress.
based mud. Hydrocarbon shows were recorded So the orientations of drilling-induced frac-
in a 20m thick interval and since no core had tures and borehole breakouts are directly con-
been cut, borehole imaging was the only way for trolled by the in situ stress regime, with an
investigating the origin of the shows. orthogonal relationship (Fig. 4c).
The picture presented on Fig. 2 displays a
natural fracture revealed by a dark sinusoidal Example 4. Evidence of drilling-induced
feature, due to low acoustic impedance along the features on a CBIL image
fracture. This open fracture fits well with drilling
losses, recorded at this depth. Therefore it is This example is from the same geographical area
believed that the hydrocarbon flows through as example 3. Both drilling-induced fractures
open fractures, the matrix being almost tight. (Fig. 3c) and borehole breakouts (Fig. 3d) are
observed. Drilling-induced fractures here pre-
sent a continuous shape, which is more classic,
Example 3. Evidences of drilling-induced and their orientation is consistent with the one
features on FMI image observed in the previous example. Borehole
breakouts appear as dark bands, due to borehole
The emergence of high resolution borehole ovalization, the tool working as an ultra
imagers has led to the awareness of the effects sensitive caliper.
of drilling on the borehole wall integrity, which
previously were either ignored or poorly de- Example 5. Example of fracture identifica-
scribed. Identification of drilling-induced frac- tion on a FMI Image
tures is a vital challenge, because they can be
mistaken for natural fractures and lead to a The following example illustrates the problems
completely false estimation of the reservoir that an interpreter can face. It is taken from a
potential. deep exploration well drilled in the Viking
The given example is taken from a wildcat Graben with the Brent Middle Jurassic sand-
drilled in the Viking Graben, with the Brent stones as target.
Middle Jurassic sandstone as a primary objec- First, the left hand image displays large
tive. An F M I image was acquired in this fractures subparallel to the borehole axis (Fig.
interval. 5). Their interpretation as natural cemented
O n t h e FMI picture, conductive fractures are fractures is unambiguous, since these fractures
extensively developed, with a constant orienta- display resistive (white) traces. More equivocal is
tion. They often show a typical en-&helon the conductive (black) halo observed at each top
pattern (Fig. 3a), which recalls drilling-induced and bottom of the sine wave defining the
fractures described as 'petal fractures'. This type fracture plane, but this feature is in fact typical
of fracture has been reported in cores taken in of cemented fractures.
quartzites of Alberta, Canada (Fig. 4a), where Secondly, the right-hand side image deals with
fractures seen at the surface of the core do not conductive fractures, whose interpretation is
fully penetrate it, demonstrating that they are more difficult. These fractures could have been
induced by coring. It is commonly considered considered as natural open ones, which may
that these drilling-induced fractures develop represent a major challenge for enhanced
when the hydrostatic pressure within the well- production, since the gas-bearing reservoir was
bore exceeds the hoop stresses around the hole found tight. Nevertheless they were interpreted
and that they occur in the direction of the as drilling-induced fractures, relying on their
maximum normal stress (Lehne & Aadnoy morphology and on the fact that they present a
1992). constant orientation, parallel to the direction of
Another type of drilling-induced features is the maximum normal stress, as deduced from
also present in this example. On Fig. 3a below other wells in the same area.
xxl0 and on Fig. 3b, borehole breakouts are A drill-stem test was conducted in front of this
clearly observed. They are revealed by reciprocal interval, but did not flow, which tends to prove
(180 degrees) conductive stripes, due to the that the interpretation is correct.
accumulation of drilling mud in the extremities
of the ovalized borehole. Example 6. Clay smear&g associated with a
This phenomenon of breakouts has been normal fault observed on a CBIL image
studied by rock mechanics experiments under
anisotropic stress conditions (Fig. 4b), and it has This example is taken from an exploration well
HOW TO CHARACTERIZE FRACTURES IN RESERVOIRS 255
Fig. 5. Example of fracture interpretation based on FMI image (example 5). The left-hand picture reveals natural
cemented fractures. They appear as resistive (white) features, with a typical conductive halo at the tops and
bottoms of the sine wave figuring the fracture plane. The right-hand picture exhibits conductive (black) fractures.
They are interpreted as drilling-induced ones since they have a consistent orientation, parallel to the direction of
maximal normal stress, which is deduced from other wells of the same area (like the one shown in Fig. 3a,b).
drilled offshore Mid-Norway, with a water- sediments show a fault drag pattern.
based mud of moderate density. Notice that the edge enhanced CBIL image
On the CBIL image (Fig. 6), is a low acoustic (righ-hand) shows all events as dark sinusoids
impedance (dark) feature with high dip at , regardless of their nature. Edge enhancement is
xx33.5m, cutting through the sandstone. This currently used as a complementary interpreta-
is interpreted as a normal fault. Note the 25 cm tion technique.
thick dark infill of the fault, which is believed to
be the clay smearing, a heterogeneity which
might control transmissibility of the fault. The Example 7. Equivocal resistive response of
enhanced CBIL image (right-hand) assists in cemented fractures on a F M I image
highlighting the fault plane. The arrow-plot
(left-hand track) shows the results of the CBIL This example is taken from a production well of
interpretation, where the fault plane and asso- a field located in the Viking Graben, with gas
ciated fractures have a consistent direction. reservoir in the Brent Middle Jurassic sand-
Furthermore, the tadpoles in the overlying stones. The selected image is a dynamic normal-
256 D. H A L L E R & F. PORTURAS
Fig. 6. Example of clay smearing associated with a normal fault (example 6). The CBIL image shows a steep
dipping fault at xx33.5 m cutting through the sandstones. The fault appears to be wide and of low acoustic
impedance (dark) due to a 25 cm thick clay smear of the fault plane. The edge enhanced image (right-hand side)
highlights this fault plane. The arrow plot (left-hand track) resulting from the interpretation shows the orientation
of the fault and associated fractures and displays a drag-fault geometry within the above-lying series.
~ ~ '4 "~4
i 0 r~ r
~ ~...~ ~ ~ . ~
: ~:~ ..~
.g~'n~o~o
~ I~ ~ "~n'~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~ 0 ~.'~ 0
~ o ~- ~o ~
;~ ~-'~ ,.~1 ~" ~ ~ ~ .~
258 D. HALLER & F. PORTURAS
Fig. 9. Example of a CBIL image showing the benefits of having fullbore coverage available as opposed to
conventional dipmeter logs (example 9). The arrow plot alone shows an apparent drag which might be interpreted
as being associated with a fault. Both dynamic normalized and edge enhanced images instead show a sedimentary
structure. Furthermore, notice truncation surfaces at xx42.5 m, and very thin laminated beds. Vertical light stripes
are due to marks produced during previous logging operations and also by the metallic blades from the upper
centralizer of the dipmeter tool, which were scraping the mudcake.
HOW TO CHARACTERIZE FRACTURES IN RESERVOIRS 259
ized display and shows fractures in the reservoir arrow plot (Fig. 9, left-hand track), the tadpoles
a r o u n d the g a s - w a t e r c o n t a c t located at with decreasing dip at xx43 m could be inter-
xx00.2m (Fig. 7). In the gas-bearing section, preted as drag fold associated with a normal
fractures appear conductive and might be fault. Full coverage CBIL image (Fig. 9, center)
mistaken for open fractures. In the water-wet refutes this, showing clearly that the dip pattern
section, they show a resistive facies indicative of reflects a sedimentary structure. Interpretation is
cemented fractures. One core taken in the gas- made easier by the use of the edge enhancement
bearing zone revealed silica cemented fractures. display. The reliability of a dipmeter interpreta-
So the apparently conductive fractures ob- tion is greatly enhanced by the use of borehole
served in the gas zone are in fact cemented images.
fractures. Their misleading conductive facies is
due to the fact that the image is dynamically Conclusions
normalized; the fractures are in fact resistive, but
the matrix is even more resistive due to the very The use of high resolution borehole imagers has
high gas content. Conversely, on a static led to a revolution for reservoir geologists, who
normalized image, the whole gas-bearing zone now have an insight into the reservoir. It is now
appears blank. possible for them to discriminate between
This example argues for a combined use of natural open fractures, cemented ones, and
dynamic normalized images, where the best drilling-induced features. The main improve-
contrast is present, and static normalized ment is that it is now easy to orientate all these
images, where the exact resistivity of the geological features. As a matter of fact, match-
geological features can be ascertained. ing borehole image interpretations with produc-
tion data appears to be the most efficient way to
Example 8. Example o f a fault identified on manage fractures in reservoirs.
a F M I image
It is a pleasure to thank Elf Petroleum Norge and
This example is taken from the same production Statoil for allowing the borehole images to be used.
well as example 7. This well crosses a fault, The use of * throughout denotes a Mark of
cutting away about 80 m of the uppermost Schlumberger and ** denotes a Mark of Western
reservoir section. The FMI image was utilized in Atlas Logging Services.
order to identify and orientate this fault.
On the dynamic normalized image (Fig. 8,
left-hand), the identification of the fault is
ambiguous. It is crystal clear on the static References
normalized image (Fig. 8, right-hand), which
allows definition of the strike and dip of the fault HALLER, D. & HAMON,G. 1993. Meillon-Saint Faust
plane. This is due to the fact that the static gas field, Aquitaine basin: structural re-evaluation
normalized display captures the strong resistivity aids understanding of water invasion. In: PARKER,
J. R. (ed.) Petroleum Geology of NW Europe,
contrasts between the conductive shales and the
Proceedings of the 4'h Conference. Geological
very resistive gas-bearing sandstones. Society, London, 1519-1526.
The well was sidetracked as a consequence of LEHNE, K. A. & AADNOY, B. S. 1992. Quantitative
this interpretation, avoiding this fault, and it analysis of stress regimes and fractures from logs
found a complete reservoir section. and drilling records of the North Sea Chalk Field.
The Log Analyst, 33, 351-361.
SAFINYA, K. A. LE LAN, P., VILLEGAS,M. • CHEUNG,
Example 9. Benefits of having images with P. S. 1991. Improved formation imaging with
fullbore coverage extended micro electrical arrays. Society of
Petroleum Engineers, Special Paper 22726.
Conventional dipmeter analysis alone can be SERRA, 0. 1989. Formation MicroScanner image
rather ambiguous especially when based only on interpretation. Schlumberger Educational Ser-
computed tadpoles. If interpreting only the vices, Houston Texas.
Measurement scale and formation heterogeneity: effects on the
integration of resistivity data
P. D. J A C K S O N l, P. K. H A R V E Y 2, M. A. L O V E L L 2, D. A. G U N N 1, C. G.
W I L L I A M S 2 & R. C. F L I N T 1
1British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottingham NG12, UK 5GG
2 University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK
Abstract: Core and downhole logging resistivity data gathered during Leg 133 of the Ocean
Drilling Program are used to illustrate the wide range of scales of resistivity data available
for reservoir characterization. The differences in scale and sampling interval between
quantitative log resistivity data and conventional core plug data is shown to be central to
reconciling these two datasets. Resistivity images of fine scale sedimentary structures taken
on half-round cores are presented (at the same resolution as the downhole borehole wall
imaging tools) and these fine structures are shown to be 'lost' if investigated using
conventional core plugs and downhole resistivity logging tools. The limitations of
conventional measurements on core plugs are presented and contrasted with the benefits
of logging all of the core in the laboratory at a resolution comparable to the borehole wall
imaging tools. An example of integrating different scales of resistivity data using a modelling
approach is presented and is shown to be applicable to both core and log data. Visualizing
and comparing the scale content of different resistivity datasets has been achieved in an
intuitive way using a spectral method which illustrates the 'data gap' in quantitative
resistivities which exists between core and log data.
Fine scale sedimentary structure is now accepted borehole logging tools having various resolu-
to be an important control when considering tions.
hydrocarbon reservoir modelling. Furthermore, In addition to the degree of oil-saturation,
the difficulty of quantifying heterogeneity over electrical resistivity is sensitive to the total
scales from mm to km is well known. While amount of fluids in the rock, how the fluids are
geological processes occur seamlessly over scales distributed, the resistivities of the fluid phases
ranging from pores to sedimentary basins, and the rock matrix. Thus electrical resistivity is
difficulty is experienced in reconciling log and sensitive to sedimentological structures, lithol-
core data over the mm to m scales. ogy and pore-fluid composition (Archie 1942).
This paper presents real data over a range of The vertical resolution and depth of investiga-
scales and highlights some problems encoun- tion of a suite of standard downhole logging
tered when moving from one scale to another, tools is shown in Fig. 1. The act of drilling a
with particular reference to reconciling tradi- borehole disturbs the electrical resistivity of the
tional core-plug resistivity measurements with formation and the well-bore, and historically,
higher resolution, similar data available both in different logging tools have been developed to
the laboratory and downhole. assess different radial zones around the bore-
In the direct current approximation, electrical hole. Ideally, constant resolution at different
resistivity measurements are scale independent depths of investigation is required to assess
and are increasingly being used as the method of radial changes in resistivity, due to invasion by
choice for identifying different scales of hetero- fluids from the borehole.
geneity. The development of the vast majority of A general trend can be seen in Fig. 1, which is
downhole resistivity measuring technology has common to resistivity measurements in general;
been in response to the needs of the oil industry, that increasing depth of investigation is asso-
driven by the knowledge that electrical resistivity ciated with decreasing power of resolution. For
can be used as a primary estimator of the oil- example, in Fig. 1 the Formation MicroScanner
saturation of reservoir rocks. Consequently, a (FMS) has the greatest resolving power (vertical
wide range of resistivity logging tools which are resolution of 0.5 cm) at a depth of investigation
sensitive to a wide range of scales of hetero- of 2 cm, while the deep induction tool (ILD) has
geneity already exists. Resistivity variations are the least resolving power (vertical resolution of
identified routinely over differing distances from 1.5 m) at a depth of investigation ranging from
the borehole, into the formation, using suites of 1.25 to 3.75 cm. Therefore it is clear that these
JACKSON,P. D., HARVEY,P. K., LOVELL,M. A., GUNN,D. A., WILLIAMS,C. G. & FLINT,R. C. 1998. 261
Measurement scale and formation heterogeneity: effects on the integration of resistivity data
In. HARVEY,P. K. ~z LOVELL,M. A. (eds) Core-LogIntegration, Geological Society, London,
Special Publications, 136, 261-272
262 P. D. JACKSON ET AL.
Resistivity L o g g i n g tools
lOO
ii|i
iIIiipll.,lm!
.E gr=llglll~L.Z~-.'_ I SFL
|~||-';:,~----I
0 I I r
dlg-]r 82 Dual Laterolog
~---- LLD
~ lO IIMIIKil
LLS
ARI (azimuthal LLS)
MSFL (low:high Rxo)
> 1
Microlaterolog
~ Core plug (38 x 80 mm)
o.1
0.1 1 1000~ ' ' - ~ Microlog
Depth of investigation, in
FMS
(after Schlumberger 1989)
Fig. 1. A wide range of resolutions and depths of investigations are available for routine resistivity logging.
Plan/Isometric.
c, I S : c2
! Multi-electrode (64)
' ~ " ~
t
k..VJ ;
I
1 1
c1,1-51 !c ,i-5 Electrode pad.
-> : <:
r ~ r J ~
Multiplexor. I ;:' To computer.
lililliillillil
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of technology used for micro-resistivity imaging of core (after Jackson et al. 1990).
two extreme cases (FMS and ILD) 'sample' very different (e.g. anisotropy resulting from thin
different portions of a reservoir, making quanti- layers having alternating, contrasting resistiv-
tative comparisons unsafe if 3-D heterogeneity is ities). These downhole logs are 2-D and l-D,
suspected, or if radial invasion processes cannot respectively, and 'visually-suggest' erroneous
be allowed for. In addition, the 'style' of current radial continuity.
flow between the two tools is diverse, making Core from the borehole itself samples a
their responses to the same heterogeneity very volume comparable to that of the pad-tool
MEASUREMENT SCALE AND FORMATION HETEROGENEITY 263
Fig. 3. Map of Northeast Australian margin showing Leg 133 drill sites (after Davies et al. 1991).
'micrologs' (Microlog, Microlaterolog, Micro the FMS does not require empirical calibration.
Spherically Focused Log); however, these pad- The technique has a resolution of 5 mm, unlike
tool measurements sample outwards from the standard core plug measurements which are
borehole wall, while the core samples some 'averaged' over volumes that can be larger than
distance 'inside' the borehole wall. In Fig. 1, the important small scale sedimentary structures
FMS can be seen to 'sample' an even smaller (i.e. contravening statistical sampling practice).
volume of the formation. Thus, with downhole The aim of this paper is to study examples of
pad-tools that sample a volume of the formation heterogeneity at a variety of scales, using core
comparable to that of the borehole, there is still and log data, to demonstrate how data may be
room for discrepancy between core and log data presented in order to preserve the scale informa-
even when measured at identical scales and tion.
resolutions. For example in Fig. 1, while the
'Microlaterolog' and a 'core-plug' measurements
have comparable resolutions and depths of Core and downhole logging data from the
investigations, they cannot sample the same Ocean Drilling Program
piece of the formation.
Laboratory measuring techniques have been The Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) offers
developed which have a resolution similar to the scientists the opportunity to study geological
borehole wall imaging tools (e.g. FMS in Fig. 1); processes through access to both core and
one such technique is outlined in Fig. 2. This downhole measurements. Continuous core is
technique enables the electrical resistivity of fine collected for laboratory analysis and these
scale geological structures to be assessed (for the measurements are complemented by an exten-
first time) on core in a way which enables direct sive suite of logs, which have been selected to
comparison with downhole images. This techni- suit the widest range of geological environments.
que assesses resistivity quantitatively and unlike The suite of resistivity logs available to ODP are
264 P. D. JACKSON E T AL.
Site 823
Fig. 6. Microresistivity data corresponding to the core in Fig. 5 in image and log format. The log illustrates the
rapid changes in resistivity that can occur within the volume of a conventional core plug.
nent features in the micro-resistivity image. Such features are consistent with known
There is a general trend of increasing resistivity turbidite facies and the trends seen in resistivity
with depth within the turbidite, which is core image can be mapped to the classic 'Bouma
consistent with 'fining upward' which is typical sequence' used in the classification of turbidites
of these deposits. The laminae in the uppermost (Bouma 1962; Lingen 1969). The micro-resistiv-
half of the turbidite are less well pronounced and ity core data provide substantial additional
show evidence of bioturbation. The lower information regarding small scale laminae that
portion of the turbidite appears to be strongly are invisible to the naked eye. As these data are
laminated (25 and 110 mm) while the remaining quantitative they could be used in petrophysical
upper part (110 to 190mm) could be described calculation schemes (e.g. construct permeability
as being more disturbed, having poor lateral predictors applicable to each lamina).
continuity at constant depth. The extent of a standard core plug is shown in
266 P. D. JACKSON E T AL.
Fig. 7. Photograph of a 0.5m of clayey nanno ooze core obtained from Site 815.
Fig. 6, and illustrates that a multitude of unlithified mixed sediments. The section of the
separate individual lamina may be contained hole within a deeper sub-unit (liB) extending
within a single core plug. Consequently, stan- fi'om 111 to 280 mbsf, characterized by partial
dard core plugs provide 'averages' of fine scale lithification, was the first section in which the
structures which are unrepresentative because no hole conditions were stable enough to allow
sediment exists with these 'average' properties logging. Repetitive colour changes were seen in
and simple volume averaging is unsafe because it the core of this sub-unit associated with rates of
is not consistent with the physics of the deposition as high as 38.5 cm ka 1. Davies et al.
measurement. (1991) suggest this cyclic colour change was
controlled by variations in both grain size and
Site 815 carbonate content, the latter varying between
10% and 60%.
Sites such as 815 were chosen in pure carbonates Micro-resistivity core imaging (Jackson et al.
in order to sample sediments where the climatic 1990) was undertaken on two 0.25 11"1sections of
and oceanographic signatures are likely to have core from a depth of 201 mbsf. As this interval
the best chance of preservation. Site 815 is had been logged downhole by the SFL/induction
situated at the southern margin of the Towns- suite of resistivity logs operated by ODP, we
ville Trough, as shown in Figs 3 and 4. Hole have datasets covering core and downhole over
815A was drilled and sampled to a depth of scales from 5mm to 2m. The two sections of
474m below sea floor (mbsf) through a 416 m core used for micro-resistivity imaging are
thick package of hemipelagic carbonate sedi- shown in Fig. 7; the marks made by the
ments of Miocene-Pleistocene age which overlie electrodes are clearly visible, as is the general
Miocene (Lower to Middle) shelf carbonates. lack of visual sedimentary features, which is
A sedimentary unit (II) was identified, extend- typical of this sub-unit.
ing from 72 to 280 mbsf, which is described by The results of micro-resistivity measurements
Davies et al. (1991) as an expanded section of on core in the interval 201.7 to 202.3 mbsf can be
greenish-grey to grey nanno-fossil sediments, seen in Figs 8 and 9. The single-trace log plot is a
ranging from slightly bioturbated oozes to single average of core micro-resistivity values at
MEASUREMENT SCALE AND FORMATION HETEROGENEITY 267
Fig. 8. Microresistivity data corresponding to the core in Fig. 7 in image and log format, showing marked vertical
and lateral variability.
Fig. 9. Microresistivity data corresponding to the core in Fig. 7 in image and log format, showing similar
variability to Fig. 8 but different 'average' value.
separate independent potential measuring elec- extent of the micro-resistivity images, and huge
trodes). compared to the volume sampled by the
The corresponding downhole resistivity logs standard core plug (a single SFL measurement
(SFL & ILD) are shown in Fig. 10 (Jackson & 'samples' 10000 times more formation than a
Jarrard 1993) where the SFL log can be seen to core plug). Thus, while the sampling intervals of
contain far more small scale features than the the downhole logs are far smaller than their
corresponding ILD log. The 'Rt' log in Fig. 10, resolution (i.e. overlap and sample all the
uses a modelling approach (Jackson & Jarrard formation adjacent to the borehole), those of
1993) to combine the resolution of the SFL with standard core plugs can be seen to be so sparse
the deeper penetration of the ILD. This log has as to be unrepresentative, and contravene
been used as the basis of the 'SFL Formation sampling practice (e.g. sampling at twice the
Factor' shown in Fig. 11. max. 'frequency' is required). In addition, on the
Figure 11 displays the micro-resistivity core other hand, the micro-resistivity core data shows
data along side the downhole log data, and the core plug data to be unrepresentative of mm
illustrates the wide range of scales of resistivity scale heterogeneity such as the fine scale laminae
measurements that are characteristic of one described above. These points are further illu-
sedimentological unit. The resolution of the strated in Fig. 12 where the micro-resistivity core
SFL & ILD are superimposed (from Fig. 1) data, the SFL and the ILD are displayed at the
and can be seen to be greater than the total same scale.
MEASUREMENT SCALE AND FORMATION HETEROGENEITY 269
Fig. 10. Site 815 downhole resistivity logs showing the corrections and errors associated with the calculation of
SFL core (after Jackson & Jarrard 1993).
Fig. 11. Comparison of electrical resistivity data from Site 815 (ODP): micro-log (core image) and the integrated
SFL/ILD downhole log, from core to whole borehole.
Fig. 13. Visualization of disparate scales of resistivity data: micro-log (core image), FMS and integrated S F L /
ILD downhole log
272 P . D . JACKSON ET AL.
(LAMBDA). The core imaging technique was devel- Electrical resistivity imaging of core samples.
oped under a Natural Environmental Research Coun- Advances in core evaluation, accuracy and preci-
cil Special Topic initiative (ODP). The LAMBDA sion in reserves estimation. In: WORTHINGTON,P.
Project aims to improve our understanding of elec- F. (ed.) Proceedings of the European Core Analysis
trical and fluid flows in reservoir rocks through the Symposium (Eurocas I), Society of Core Analysts,
study of pore morphology and utilizes the imaging Gordon & Breach Science Publishers.
system in its research. LAMBDA is currently funded - - & Shipboard Party of Leg 133 of the Ocean
by Shell UK and Mobil North Sea Ltd. This paper is Drilling Program 1991. Electrical resistivity core
published with the permission of the Director of BGS scanning: as new aid to the evaluation of fine scale
(NERC). sedimentary structure in sedimentary cores. Scien-
tific Drilling, 2, 41-54.
- - & JARRARD, R. D. 1993. Integration of SFL
R e f e r e n c e s
and ILD electrical resistivity logs during leg 133
ARCHIE, G. E. 1942. The electrical resistivity log as an of ODP: an automatic modelling approach.
aid in determining some reservoir characteristics, Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program,
Journal of Petroleum Technology, 5, 1-8; Transac- Results, 133. College Station, TX (Ocean Drilling
tions of AIME, 146, 54-62. Program), 687-694
BOtrMA, A. H. 1962. Sedimentology of some flysch LINGEN, G. J. VAN DER 1969. The turbidite problem.
deposits. Elsevier, Amsterdam. New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics,
DAVIES, P. J., MCKENZlE,J. A., PALMER-JULsON,A., et 12, 7-50.
al. 1991. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling LOVELL,M. A., HARVEY,P. K., JACKSON,P. D. BALL,J.
Program, Initial Reports, 133: College Station, K. ASHU, A. P. FLINT, R. F. & GUNN, D. A. 1994.
TX (Ocean Drilling Program). Electrical resistivity core imaging : towards a 3-
JACKSON,P. D., LOVELL,M. A., PITCHER,C. GREEN, C. dimensional solution, SPWLA 35th Annual Log-
A. EVANS, C. J. FLINT, R. 8~ FORSTER, A. 1990. ging Symposium, Tulsa, OK. II: Paper JJ.
Aspects of core-log integration: an approach using high resolution
images
J C. L O F T S 1 & J. F. B R I S T O W 2
1Z & S Geoscience, Kettock Lodge, Aberdeen Science & Technology Park, Balgownie Drive,
Bridge of Don, Aberdeen, AB22 8GU, UK
2 Schlumberger GeoQuest, Gatwick, R H 6 0 N Z , UK
Abstract: Core-log comparisons are often not considered routinely enough within the
exploration environment. This may be for a number of reasons, such as problems with
depth-matching the core and log datasets, the environment of acquisition of both datasets,
the lack of understanding of log and core acquisition or a lack of confidence in laboratory or
log measurements. These problems are discussed as a preliminary step to the development of
a strategy aimed at improving core-log integration.
Using recent technological advances in the side-by-side presentation of core and high
resolution image data from logging tools, a strategy is presented with the aim of making
core-log integration more rigid and routine. Features in both core and images are correlated
interactively--thus ensuring the best possible integration. This is a two stage process
involving core-to-image matching, and then image-to-log matching. This strategy has the
potential to make core-log integration more accurate and as a result enable the interpreter
to realize the most from sub-surface data.
LOFTS, J. C. & BRISTOW,J. F. 1998. Aspects of core-log integration: an approach using high resolution 273
images In. HARVEY,P. K. & LOVELL,M. A. (eds) Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London,
Special Publications, 136, 273-283
274 J.C. LOFTS & J. F. BRISTOW
Sampling disparities
Volume and heterogeneity. Of major importance
when comparing core and log datasets is the
sample size/volume difference between core and
log data. Core plugs taken in laboratory analysis
generally have a volume of the order of 10 mm 3
while logging measurements represent a volume
in excess of 100mm 3, or many hundred times
larger. The geochemical logging tool (GLT;
Mark of Schlumberger) measurement, as an Fig. 1. Figure showing the artefacts of the bed
example, acquires data from a volume of boundao' effect. Averaged estimates of matrix density
approximately 0.3-1m 3 (Hertzog et al. 1989; appear on the boundary of a cemented 'calcite dogger'.
Pelling 1992), whilst deep induction (resistivity) The shaded area represents the difference between
tools have a depth of investigation of greater averaged log data (black line) and the actual core
than 1.5 m, with a vertical resolution in the order matrix density estimates (dots). The worst areas are
of 2m (Allen et al. 1988). Both measurements bordering the cemented 'calcite dogger' boundary.
Adapted from Lofts 1993.
cover a large volume which will include any
lateral or vertical heterogeneities. A core plug
effectively measures the formation at one point result will be incorrect depth assignment of the
and heterogeneities greater than the core plug data (depth mismatching) and ultimately erro-
are not considered. This leads to the problem of neous correlations. Types of sampling are
the core samples not being representative of the explicit sampling (at discrete depths) and im-
formation or rather, being incompatible with the plicit sampling (following on at a constant
log data. In addition, logging tools measure the sample rate from the previous value). Generally,
formation in a dynamic sense, i.e., the fluids and the former is used for core data and the latter for
matrix alike. While some indication of the fluids log data.
may be gained from laboratory measurements, The way that data are manipulated during
they are not intrinsic to the direct measurement. and after acquisition must also be considered.
Viewed statistically, these different datasets With logging measurements, it is common for
represent two different systems of geostatistical one or two processes of vertical averaging to be
support (Clarke 1984), where volume and performed. One is performed during acquisition
heterogeneity are most likely to be different because of the intrinsic physics and the method
between systems. of acquisition of the measurement (especially
Consideration of such a volume disparity is when using nuclear devices where an element of
important especially when the lithology being randomness is present) and also because of the
measured is heterogeneous on a fine pore// accumulation of data over a time interval as a
lamination scale (Worthington 1989). device is moving upwards (data are collected and
Implementing techniques such as slabbed core integrated over a vertical distance). A second
sampling can reduce this problem. Slabbed core vertical averaging is performed to reduce noise
samples are samples taken along the axis of the and to increase the precision of the measure-
core over a length of up to 0.5 m. The core is ment. Failing to consider the sampling density of
then homogenized into a bulk sample and the both core and logging techniques (and vertical
laboratory measurement is made on this sample. averaging of the logging data) will lead to core-
This procedure helps to minimize the disparity in log depth mismatch, as samples of a relatively
the volume and vertical resolution of core and low frequency are matched with abundant, high-
log data and makes them more suitable for frequency log data. An example is demonstrated
integration. It is not a valid technique however, in Fig. 1. This shows the averaging effect on log
for volumetric measurements such as porosity derived matrix grain density (produced from
and permeability. measurements made by the geochemical logging
tool) over the boundary of a cemented 'calcite
Sample density and averaging. The regularity and dogger' horizon. The shaded area represents the
density of sampling of each dataset is a crucial difference between the actual core-derived data
consideration. Commonly, if not considered, the and the log data. The discrepancy is caused by
ASPECTS OF CORE-LOG INTEGRATION 275
the averaging of the log data up to the cemented between separate logging runs that seems to
horizon and reflects the different inherent have been largely overlooked in the available
resolution of each measurement. In this exam- literature until recently is the application of
ple, most samples over thick and consistent datum shifts in the temporal rather than the
lithological units (most samples above '2802 m') depth domain.
have accurate estimates of matrix density. Core The depth shifts, as calculated from the
measurements on the calcite cement boundary comparison of a gamma ray curve against a
indicate a sharp dro~ to more typical sandstone reference gamma ray curve, are subsequently
densities (2.65gcm-). The log derived matrix applied to all measurements from all the logging
density values for sandstone samples surround- tools deployed on the tool-string during a
ing the 'dogger' on the boundary, however, show particular run. A problem however, occurs when
a smooth drop in calculated matrix density; over the depth shifts are events that have occurred at
1-2 m, before a more typical sandstone density is discrete points in time, as opposed to discrete
recorded. depths. Single logging tools screwed end-to-end
(commonly referred to as tool strings) are
typically many tens of metres in length, (up to
Incorrect depth assignment 30 m). Traditionally, logging data from the each
tool measurement point on the tool string are
Well log data are identified by wireline depths; recorded as a function of time and stored by the
core data by drillers depths. The two are usually up-hole computer in a buffer. In turn, these were
different but must be integrated. This process of written to disk as a function of depth. If an event
depth matching is more complicated where there such as tool-sticking occurs, where the tool
is incomplete core recovery, which is often the becomes stuck in the borehole for a few seconds
case. Before this is considered, log data from then jumps up, the jump in the log record will
different logging runs must be free from depth occur as a function of time, not depth. There-
mismatch. fore, if a depth shift calculated from comparison
of gamma-ray curves is subsequently applied to
Depth shifting--log data. One way to reduce the other tools on the tool string, the depth
depth mismatch is by 'depth shifting'. This is disparity caused by the tool sticking event will be
standard practice when comparing different applied at the wrong depth. In a long tool string
logging tool 'runs', whereby log data curves such as the one mentioned, the depth disparity
are compared to a reference logging curve and of the applied shift could be 30m. For minor
shifted upwards or downwards accordingly. This depth shifts caused by effects such as cable
involves establishing a reliable reference curve of stretch this is not normally a problem. Figure 2
good quality, considering this 'on depth', and A and B illustrate the time~lepth disparity.
comparing and shifting other curves to this The causes of such a disparity that occur
reference curve by matching spikes and identifi- commonly with shipboard logging are yoyo-ing,
able curve patterns. It is common practice to caused by ships heave, and tool sticking.
correlate the total natural gamma ray curve Inevitably, ships heave must be taken into
from the natural gamma ray tool with the account if logging is performed in rough
equivalent gamma ray curve from the other conditions. If ships heave is considerable, the
logging runs. The reference run is usually chosen up-going log will be compressed and stretched
on the basis of the speed of the logging run and (yoyo-ed) by the effect of the ships heave on the
the degree of tool motion, notably caused by logging tool. Any fine-scale gamma ray log
tool sticking. The speed of the logging run is of comparison may take into account the expan-
greater significance in shipboard logging opera- sion and compression of the log caused by ship
tions where there is the additional problem of heave; the subsequent application of these depth
the ships motion ('heave'). Faster logging runs shifts to the other tools on that tool string would
are usually chosen as they are less degraded by induce errors.
heave. Subsequent correlation of gamma ray One approach is to consider curve shifting in
curves between logging runs is accomplished by the temporal domain. The fine-scale depth
broad-scale visual correlation and 'manual' compression and expansion caused by the ships
shifts, and/or by automatic correlation--to heave can be calculated using an auto-correla-
satisfy the log analyst that all log data are on tive program and then applied to the other tools
depth. on the string. This is accomplished by shifting
the individual tools up to the measure point of
Depth mismatch--shifting log data in the tempor- the gamma ray recording window, applying the
al domain. One aspect of depth matching calculated depth shifts and then depth shifting
276 J.C. LOFTS & J. F. BRISTOW
Fig. 2. Example of the problem faced with depth shifting. (A) 'Ladder diagram', no tool stick and depth
increments are on depth with time increments. Tension increases to the right. (B) Situation with tool sticking.
Two time increments are recorded in one depth increment as indicated by the tension. This will lead to inaccurate
shifting of tools below the gamma ray (GR) tool. (C) Tool diagram showing the simplest depth shift of 1 m for all
tools on a string. (D) If there is a tool stick for a length of time GR will be shifted correctly in the depth domain
but tools A and B will not be on correct depth. (E) Shifting in the temporal domain. All tools bought to GR
reference and depth shifted then returned to their respective depths.
ASPECTS OF CORE-LOG INTEGRATION 277
the tools back down to their relative measure and temperature, although scientifically desir-
points (Fig. 2 C-E). able, are technically and financially prohibitive
This has recently been achieved by real-time in most circumstances. Integration of incompa-
speed correction using a high resolution accel- tible parametric systems is possible when exam-
erometer in the tool (Barber et al. 1996). ining total and effective porosity. For example,
Subsequently, post processing and shifting can core porosities measured by helium expansion
be completed more successfully and is less reliant (effective porosity) are often reported in the total
on cable depth measurements. porosity system with porosities from neutron-
density log combinations. Figure 3 shows the
Depth shifts between core and log data. Once all comparison of log and core resistivities that
log data are 'on depth' they must be matched to belong to different parametric systems; namely
core depths. To achieve an ideal depth match ones that involve 'dynamic' (logging data) and
between core and log data we require a core 'static' temperature and pressures (core data).
measurement that is compatible with log data Because the sampling frequencies of both
(and ideally of a similar sample frequency). A measurements are not dissimilar, the single most
natural gamma-ray sampling measurement is important correction needed to make these two
now routinely used on core to allow a direct, datasets compatible is to correct the core data
although qualitative, comparison to be made for effects of temperature. In the case of a sonic
between core and log depths. Jarrard & Lyle velocity measurement there is a difference in
(1991) show how high-resolution sampling of measurement scale, this being largely due to
core can significantly reduce the depth mismatch measurement frequency. A velocity measure-
problem. ment in the laboratory will typically be at a
As an alternative to the gamma ray core frequency of MHz whilst in the borehole it will
measurement, Bristow & deMenocal (1992) use be over several metres and in the range of KHz.
a 'proxy' terrugineous curve produced from core
data to match to the logged gamma ray curve Problems relating to core acquisition
(SGR). This terrugineous curve is calculated as
the residual opal content (100% minus opal Incomplete core recovery (vertical). Depth mis-
wt% content). Equally, a measure of organic match is perhaps the most common and largest
carbon and carbonate can be used for such a source of error. Besides the problems mentioned,
curve. These are compared to the concentration mismatch can be caused by incomplete core
of the naturally occurring elements K, U, and recovery. More often than not, core recovery is
Th, derived from the spectral gamma-ray tool less than 100%, and when a core barrel is
(Schlumberger 1989), all of which are primarily incomplete, it is usually impossible to determine
terrestrially derived. Such techniques allow a re- where the section of core is located along the
alignment of core depths to the more contin- length of cored formation. Standard policy is
uous, regular sampling of the log data. often, to locate the uppermost core piece at the
top of the core barrel. This assumes (arbitrarily)
Parametric systems that the material was lost from the base, which is
not necessarily the case and leads to depth
Another aspect relevant to successful data mismatches that can span over the length of the
integration is the consideration of the para- core barrel.
metric system of each measurement. The ideal
parametric system would be one where a Preferential core recovery and induced lithologi-
parameter is measured in the laboratory under cal bias. Another contribution to depth mis-
the exact measurement conditions that exist match is the problem of preferential core
downhole. Such conditions include pressure, recovery. This occurs when the recovery is
temperature and acquisition frequency. Both dependent on the lithology being drilled. Some
core and log measurements would then belong formations are more competent than others and
to the same parametric system and we would be resist break-up and washout during drilling and
confident enough to integrate these measure- coring. If they surround less competent units
ments. This point may seem obvious, but, (shale layers, for example), they will tend to be
resistivity measurements on core samples, for preferentially recovered in the core barrel,
example, should be made at similar frequencies ultimately leading to an incomplete recovery.
to those used by the downhole tools, as for some Drilling parameters tend to be set to maximize
lithologies, resistivity is frequency dependent. the recovery of the dominant lithology in any
Measurement of the same parameters under the one section, although the drilling process may be
same measurement conditions such as pressure dictated by the most indurated lithology in the
278
Additional considerations
section. Simply 'hanging' the core from the top Ships heave and drill-pipe and logging-cable
of the barrel will lead to gross inaccuracies in stretch. Ships heave must be taken into account
core-log integration. if logging is performed in rough conditions,
although most logging is performed with a
Biscuiting. This can also be an additional wireline heave compensator. Wireline heave
problem not totally unrelated to the competency compensators were introduced to reduce the
of a unit. This occurs when the volume of a ships natural heave caused by sea state, during
ASPECTS OF CORE-LOG INTEGRATION 279
logging operations. A simple modification to the 1987, Boyeldieu & Jeffreys 1988, Bourke et al.
wireline pulley set-up is made by the addition of 1989, Harker et al. 1990, and Lofts et al. 1997,
a floating wheel. This floating wheel is then for further acquisition and interpretation details.
allowed to pitch-and-yaw forwards and back-
wards to compensate for the ships heave. It has A strategy f o r accurate integration
been shown however, that this may be only 50%
successful (Goldberg 1990) and compensation Conventionally, matching log curves from dif-
tends to be most successful in shallow, slight sea ferent logging runs has been performed by
conditions. correlating the gamma ray curve from each tool
Stretch of the drill pipe, and more commonly run and re-aligning to one common depth. The
noticeable, stretch of the logging cable also gamma ray measurement however, has a rela-
produce a depth mismatch especially if a new tively low vertical resolution (of the order of
logging cable is used. A report from the logging 200-300 mm) in contrast to the extremely high
engineer will generally indicate this. vertical resolution of microresistivity images.
Tools such as the FMI (Mark of Schlumberger)
True integration of core and log data and its predecessor, the Formation MicroScan-
ner, FMS (Mark of Schlumberger) have a
It has been demonstrated that there are many vertical resolution on the order of 5mm.
potential problems associated with the integra- Features seen in the images of these tools will
tion of core and log data. Arguably, so long as not necessarily be detected by the gamma ray
the potential pitfalls are understood and con- device, especially when statistical and averaging
sidered, a meaningful integration is possible. filters are applied. As a result, there could be
Recent developments in software allow or- discrepancies when trying to depth match
iented core images to be presented side-by-side gamma-ray to the core at a fine scale although
with conventional log and image data (high visible on microresistivity images.
resolution microresistivity or ultrasonic images). One method of integration of core and log
This in itself has the potential to produce a more data therefore is to match core to high resolution
accurate 'tie' between core and log data. images in one step and then match that image to
Features in the core can be directly correlated log data in a second independent step. Thus, we
to features seen in images. This can be achieved have a core-to-image, image-to-log integration
because there is a platform to ensure that the where image data can be thought of as the link
right piece of core is matched with the right between datasets (Fig. 4).
section of log, most importantly, at the correct
scale. Core to image matching. Core to image matching
With this technique, cores can also be oriented is achieved by projecting a photo-scanned, 360 ~
on a routine basis by comparison with oriented digital image of a core (or a digitized slabbed
image data. The direct result of this is that core photo or a hand drawn goniometry sleeve)
stratigraphic, sedimentary, and structural fea- in a fashion similar to that of borehole micro-
tures in cores, once oriented, can be used to resistivity image data.
calculate dip azimuth and magnitudes. In fact, Once scanned, the core image is placed next to
all the reasons for core-log integration, namely the borehole image representing the same inter-
log calibration, enhanced geological interpreta- val. The core gamma ray and log gamma ray
tion, and predicting lithological bias, can be curves can then be used to put the datasets
better addressed. approximately on depth. Viewed at an expanded
Borehole resistivity imaging is a well estab- scale, features common to both image and core
lished technique for the study of sedimentary can then be identified and, where necessary, the
features down to a scale of less than 20mm core can be shifted to match the image precisely.
(Schlumberger 1989). Having followed a rapid In our experience, a scale of between 1:4 and
evolution from a 2 pad tool--where 56 small 1 : 10 is most useful. If core recovery is less than
electrical buttons (of 5 - 6 m m diameter) pro- 100%, patches of core can be moved and
duced a high resolution image covering roughly matched to the appropriate log depth. Orienta-
20% of the borehole by measuring microresis- tion missfits of individual features will suggest
tivity changes in a formation--there is now a 4 where the core is not properly matched. Because
pad, 4 flap device, boasting 196 electrode a 360 ~ (or 180 ~ picture of the core has been
buttons, which obtains a microresistivity image acquired, the core image can easily be manipu-
with almost 100% coverage in a 15.6cm bore- lated and oriented with respect to the logged
hole. Whilst beyond the remit of this contribu- image. The microresistivity image is itself
tion, the reader is directed to Ekstrom et al. oriented during acquisition by an inclinometry
280 J.C. LOFTS & J. F. BRISTOW
Fig. 4. Flow diagram summary of the strategy for improved core-log integration.
sensor within the logging tool. and maximize the interpretation potential of the
An example of a core image that has been available data.
scanned and displayed alongside an FMI bore-
hole image is shown in Fig. 5. Here, the core has Image to log matching. In a concurrent step, it is
been oriented with respect to the image, and dip necessary to match the rest of the logging tool
sinusoids representing sedimentary features have data (from different logging runs) to the bore-
been computed. A comparison of the sinusoids hole microresistivity image. Logging tools on the
computed from the images and the core confirms same string can be shifted appropriately to that
the correct match of the two datasets. Two of the tool strings reference depth point and will
tadpole plots representing two features, are therefore be on depth.
displayed one with an azimuth of approximately Again, it is convention to match gamma ray
110~ SE with a magnitude of dip of 16~ the logs from each separate string of tools to achieve
second has an azimuth of 090~ and a high a depth match but in order to obtain the best
magnitude of dip of 52 ~. Log data are displayed possible image-to-log depth match, a curve with
opposite in the right track. The low-frequency, as close a resolution to the borehole micro-
almost flat curve is the gamma ray (displaying its resistivity image resolution is required. This can
poor vertical resolution) and the higher fre- be achieved by matching an average button
quency curve is the core gamma ray measure- intensity from the imaging device to one of the
ment, with a much more appropriate resolution. new generation of shallow resistivity log curves
The successful match and integration of core, which has a similar depth of investigation.
log, and image data complement one another Examples are high resolution azimuthal resistiv-
ASPECTS OF CORE-LOG INTEGRATION 281
Fig. 5. Example of a core image that has been scanned and displayed alongside an FMI borehole i~tage. The core
is orientated with respect to the borehole image and features in the core have been picked (see text for
description).
ity measurements such as the LLHR 6' curve and open-hole log data are accurately on depth.
(Fig. 6) from the Azimuthal Resistivity Imager Standard resistivity curves in general, do not
(ARI; Mark of Schlumberger) or a similar have the resolution to allow an accurate depth
measurement from the High Resolution Later- match (Fig 6).
olog Sonde (HALS; Mark of Schlumberger).
One curve possible for correlation on conven- Summary and conclusions
tional tools is the MSFL (Mark of Schlumber-
ger) (with 50-100 mm vertical resolution). Once Careful consideration and understanding of the
an image has been correctly matched with the problems that are faced when combining data
appropriate shallow resistivity, all the other logs from the borehole and laboratory will contribute
on the string can be depth shifted. Therefore a to the successful integration of core and log
higher resolution depth match is possible by data. These problems have been highlighted but
matching a resistivity device from each logging perhaps the most important problems to con-
run to the resistivity of the imaging device. Care sider are depth mismatches, sampling differ-
must be taken however, when there is a long ences, and core acquisition problems.
period of time between logging runs as resistivity Implementation of a correct strategy such as
profiles do change. the core-to-image-to-log strategy will limit some
The final result is that oriented images, cores of the problems in the apparent 'mine-field' of
282 J.C. LOFTS & J. F. BRISTOW
Fig. 6. Comparison of the vertical resolution of the FMI (0.2") and the current generation Azimuthal Resistivity
Imager tool (LLHR, ~6") and the traditional LLS and LLD curves. Curves such as the LLHR are suitable for
the high resolution match of the micro-resistivity image (right hand image) to log data. A high resolution match
will ensure that tools from different logging runs are accurately depth matched for comparison to core. The ARI
image (centre and left image) is generated from 12 azimuthal laterolog resistivity readings and can be seen to
match the resistivity profile of the FMI image.
core-log integration. Although demonstrated high resolution resistivity device (such as an ARI
with micro-resistivity images here, it can also or a HALS) on each separate logging run to
be applied to ultrasonic images. Such a strategy, ensure good image-log depth match.
aided by a software platform to compare the Besides an accurate depth core-log match, the
datasets will allow integration to become both virtues of such a strategy would include a
more accurate and ultimately, routine. routine facility to orientate the core. With an
A f u l l implementation of this strategy (to oriented core, we can begin to perform studies
exploit the core orientation benefits) would have with the objectives of a geographic or directional
to adopt the acquisition of core photos which nature which are often left to the realms of
require the photo-scanning of the rounded side goniometry, based on identification of sedimen-
of the core or hand drawn goniometry sleeves. tological, crystalline, or structural features seen
Flat core photos can however, be used in a non- in the core. These studies can then be tied or 'up-
oriented qualitative fashion, but the full advan- scaled' to large-scale seismic and tectonic fea-
tages of such a strategy will be achieved with tures. They will also be able to help with
rounded core photos. palaeomagnetic fabric orientation, which for
In addition, it would be desirable to run a example, forms increasingly important core-
ASPECTS OF CORE-LOG INTEGRATION 283
C. O. M A J O R , C. P I R M E Z , D. G O L D B E R G , & L E G 166 S C I E N T I F I C P A R T Y
L a m o n t - D o h e r t y Earth Observatory, Palisades, N Y 10964, U S A
Abstract: Cores offer the ability to describe lithological, physical, and chemical properties of
rocks at the millimetre and smaller scale. However, continuous coring is expensive and only
occasionally recovers 100% of the drilled interval. Microresistivity images of the borehole
wall depict features down to the centimetre and smaller scale and can complement, or in
some cases substitute for, core description as a means of geologic interpretation. This paper
describes two techniques of integrating core data with borehole image and log data. Two
case studies in carbonate rocks recovered during Ocean Drilling Program Legs 160 and 166
are presented.
Microresistivity log images, grey-scale reflectivity from core photographs, and gamma ray
logs are correlated at the centimetre scale over up to 300-metre cored intervals. Direct visual
correlation of core photographs with borehole images and correlation of gamma ray
measurements on core with downhole logs are shown to be complementary techniques.
High-resolution core-log depth matching may be best achieved by correlating multiple
datasets to reduce the error inherent in each and more precisely constrain depth matching.
Depth matching of individual features allows a more accurate and consistent depth scale for
use in quantitative stratigraphic analysis.
The advent of visual core-log integration soft- measurements, and improvement of vertical
ware has opened the door to new possibilities for resolution in log data (Goldberg, 1997).
calibration and interpretation of borehole data. With the development of logging tools cap-
Accurate, high-resolution core-log integration able of making high resolution measurements,
allows the maximum information to be gleaned particularly resistivity image logs such as the
in cases where boreholes are both logged and F o r m a t i o n M i c r o s c a n n e r (FMS; M a r k of
cored. The comparison of cores to log images Schlumberger) (Ekstrom et al. 1987), correlation
has been previously recognized as a valuable on the scale of centimetres rather than metres or
tool in stratigraphic analysis (Luthi 1990; tens of metres has become possible. In addition
Salimullah & Stow 1992). However, it has to high-resolution measurements, imaging tools
proven difficult and time consuming to system- also provide a three-dimensional view of the
atically integrate and compare multiple datasets borehole. This is essential for the identification
such as wireline logs, image logs, core images, and orientation of structural features such as
and point measurements over long stratigraphic fractures, dipping beds, and cross-beds. If these
sections. A systematic analysis of these inte- same features are recovered in cores, the log data
grated data is highly desirable because it can can be interpreted in geological terms to
provide a better understanding of a drill hole determine sedimentary facies, regional stress
than is possible from the separate analysis of patterns, and fluid migration paths.
each of the individual datasets. In lithified sediment, crystalline, igneous, and
Previous attempts at detailed core-log inte- metamorphic rocks, core recovery is often
gration demonstrate the potential of integrated incomplete. This is especially true in hetero-
analysis of complementary core and log facies geneous lithologies and in intervals where there
descriptions in intervals of incomplete core is faulting or fracturing. In addition, deforma-
recovery (e.g. Hiscott et al. 1992; MacLeod et tion of core samples due to drilling (e.g. core
al. 1996; Pirmez et al. 1997). The potential discing and biscuit formation, drilling breccias)
benefits of such work also extend far beyond the can result in incorrect interpretation of geologi-
scope of the present study, and includes orienta- cal features if it is not properly identified (Kidd
tion of core pieces for structural (Mathis et al. 1978). In such cases, image logs can be used to
1995), palaeomagnetic and palaeocurrent analy- pinpoint the true depth and nature of bedding
sis (MacLeod et al. 1992), up-scaling of core contacts and sedimentary structures while using
MAJOR, C. O., PIRMEZ,C., GOLDBERG,D. & LEG 166 SCIENTIFICPARTY 1998. High-resolution 285
core-log integration techniques: examples from the Ocean Drilling Program In: HARVEY,P. K. &
LOVELL,M. A. (eds) Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 285-295
286 C.O. MAJOR E T AL.
Table 1. Logging runs and base logs used in processing for ODP Holes lO03D and 966F
Tool string and log acronyms are as follows: DIT (dual induction tool), FMS (Formation MicroScanner), IPLT
(Integrated Porosity Logging Tool), GLT (Geochemical Logging Tool), WST (Well Seismic Tool), GHMT
(Geological Hi-resolution Magnetometer Tool), HNGS (Hostile-environment Natural Gamma Sonde), APS
(Accelerator Porosity Sonde), HLDS (Hostile-environment Lithodensity Sonde), NGT (Natural Gamma Tool),
SDT (Array Sonic Tool), LSS (Long-spaced Sonic Tool), HLDT (Hostile-environment Lithodensity Tool), CNT
(Compensated Neutron Tool).
core samples to constrain lithology. Indeed, one ness of visual core-log integration techniques in
of the most important applications of detailed a range of situations which are likely to be
core-log integration is the ability to define a encountered in ODP drilling. We found that we
reliable, unified depth scale for all borehole data. could match features to the centimetre scale, and
This is particularly important for quantitative that with such detailed correlation, we could
stratigraphic analysis and determining true event provide a much improved depth scale for core
sequences. data.
The purpose of this study is to explore the
uses and limitations of visual core-log integra- Data and methods
tion for the Ocean Drilling Program (ODP),
addressing the critical issues of core versus log The data used in this paper were collected in
resolution and depth constraints for poorly Hole 966F (ODP Leg 160) and in Hole 1003D
recovered lithologies. Logs and non-destructive (ODP Leg 166). Standard logs have undergone
physical property measurements on core samples processing to remove borehole environmental
provide high-resolution data which can be used and fluid effects. Corrections for varying tool
to calibrate all datasets,~ High resolution data speed have been applied to the FMS images. All
may also be used in conjunction with core logs, including images, have been depth-shifted
photographs and visual descriptions to improve to align manually picked correlation points
the geological characterization of a site. The between the gamma ray logs measured on
examples discussed in this paper are from ODP different tool runs. Table 1 lists the tools
Leg 160 in the eastern Mediterranean (Emeis et deployed in each hole and the log chosen as
al. 1996) and ODP Leg 166 on the Bahama Bank the base log for depth matching between tool
(Eberli et al. 1997). Both examples comprise runs. All logs were depth-shifted by a constant
relatively undeformed carbonate lithologies in amount to the ODP reference datum (sea floor).
which core recovery ranged from zero to over This shift was determined from the gamma ray
80%. Both sites display bedding on the centi- log deflection at the sea floor at Site 966F and by
metre to decimetre scale, which approaches the comparing core and log gamma ray values just
limit of the vertical resolution achievable with beneath the sea floor at Site 1003D. Further
standard logs, but is well within the resolution of details of preliminary log processing are dis-
image logs. Unconformable surfaces, such as the cussed in Emeis et al. (1996) and Eberli et al.
one described at Site 966, are commonly (1997).
characterized by dramatic changes in borehole Core images were scanned from black and
properties within a few millimetres. These white core photographs (split core) at 300 dpi
boundaries provide an important constraint on (dots per inch) using 8 bits (grey scale). The
the depth of the recovered core. digital image resolution corresponds to approxi-
Although the lithologies from these two sites mately 9x 10- 3 cm per pixel on the photograph
are similar, core recovery and log quality vary (1:6 scale), or 5x10- 2 cm of actual core. This
quite widely, allowing us to explore the useful- resolution proved adequate for the scale nor-
HIGH-RESOLUTION CORE-LOG INTEGRATION 287
mally displayed on the computer monitor, as scientific objectives for drilling the Bahama
well as creating a manageable file size. Cores Bank were to establish a detailed carbonate
were assigned ODP drilling depths for the stratigraphy and to study the effects of sea-level
purposes of loading into the software. Standard change in this slope environment. Hole 1003D
ODP archiving procedure assigns the top of the was drilled to a depth of 1300 m, with moderate
core to the top of the interval advanced during recovery over most of the section (average
coring, as measured by the length of the drill 44.7%) and excellent log quality. A 150m
pipe. As the recovered core is generally assumed interval of cyclically-bedded Miocene pelagic
to be continuous, broken pieces are typically carbonates 750-900 mbsf (metres below sea
joined together and gaps are eliminated. Inter- floor) was selected for use in this study on the
vals of overlap (common in soft gassy sediments basis of its fair-to-good core recovery and
due to core expansion) are left uncorrected. The significant variations in physical properties on
implications of this somewhat arbitrary depth a fine ( < 1 m) scale (Fig. 1). Coring and logging
assignment will be discussed later. results from Leg 166 are discussed in detail in
After establishing a basis for visual correla- Eberli et al. (1997).
tion (explained in detail below), core sections Gamma ray measurements in core indicated
were depth-shifted to attain the best visual that darker, more bioturbated layers generally
match with FMS images in each cored interval. had a higher natural radioactivity, due almost
In addition to the log and image data, shipboard exclusively to uranium, than the paler interbeds.
physical properties data, including natural gam- Comparison of the FMS images with the gamma
ma ray, G R A P E (Gamma ray Attenuation ray log showed a similar relationship in the logs:
Porosity Evaluator) density, and plug porosity less resistive layers (dark in FMS image)
were used to compare with the wireline logs as correspond with relatively high gamma ray
an independent depth match. Uranium measure- values, whereas more resistive layers (light in
ments (ppm) made by inductively coupled FMS image) correspond with relatively low
plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) were also gamma ray values (Fig. 2). The lower resistivity
included for one sample per 1.5 m section of the in the dark layers is likely related to the
cores from Hole 966F (Leg 160). In order to development of mouldic porosities by dissolu-
shift the physical property data with respect to tion, possibly linked to degradation of organic
the log data we treated physical and chemical carbon (Eberli, et al. 1997). To confirm the
property profiles in the same manner as core relationship of gamma ray to resistivity, we also
images, capturing the data into digital image compare the resistivity (SFL) and gamma ray
format and assigning depths according to (SGR) logs and find them to be anticorrelated.
standard ODP conventions. The results from An increase in thorium in the less resistive
these two independent processes were then intervals also indicates a higher clay content.
compared to evaluate the relative offset resulting These observations are consistent with less
from the two methods. cemented, porous, clay- and organic-rich beds
All correlation and depth-shifting was done alternating with more cemented, less porous,
using the core-log integration software Diamage and pale carbonate layers. Shipboard core
(trademark of Elf Aquitaine), which allows descriptions indicated that burrows in the dark
display of all core and log data, including layers were commonly flattened, while those in
images, at any scale, as well as differential the pale intervals were often well-cemented.
depth-shifting of cores and logs for optimal Cementation in the pale layers was likely the
correlation of geological features. Diamage also result of early diagenesis that indurated this
offers the ability to adjust image contrast in a sediment and prevented further compaction
dynamic fashion to highlight subtle lithologic (Eberli et al. 1997).
changes. Details of the capabilities and methods Because core recovery was less than 100% in
of the Diamage software may be found in all cores, correlation between cores and log
Mathis et al. (1995). images requires depth shifting of core sections,
each less than or equal to 1.5 m in length,
downward within each 10m interval. In a few
Results cases, a slight upward shift achieves the best fit;
this may be explained either by debris filling in
Hole lO03D, L e g 166, B a h a m a s Carbonate the borehole between successive cores or by
errors in calculation of the depth. In cases where
Bank
there is little apparent drilling disturbance, we
Hole 1003D is located in 483 m water depth on keep adjacent core pieces together, assuming
the slope of the Great Bahama Bank. The little to no loss of material between sections. In
288 C.O. MAJOR E T A L .
Fig. 1. Summary of lithostratigraphy for Hole 1003D (ODP Leg 166) showing core recovery, major rock types,
stratigraphic sequences, and logs (caliper, gamma ray, shallow resistivity, and sonic velocity). Estimated ages of
the sequence boundaries are: M-- 15.1 Ma, L-- 12.7 Ma). (Figure adapted from Eberli et al. 1997)
HIGH-RESOLUTION CORE-LOG INTEGRATION 289
Fig. 2. Best fit position for core 166-1003D-32R, showing the relationship of core grey-scale reflectance with FMS
resistivity. Core colour corresponds well with the electrical resistivity as illustrated by the white-brown tones on
the FMS image and by the shallow spherically-focused resistivity log (yellow curve). The best fit is confirmed by a
good match of the core gamma ray with the downhole gamma ray (HSGR). Darker layers in the core and FMS
have higher gamma ray counts. Note that best fit of core with log data requires splitting both the core and core
gamma ray curves mid-section (between core biscuits), indicating that material was lost during drilling. 'X' marks
in the core image columns indicate intervals with no corresponding core.
cases where there is obvious drilling disturbance gamma ray logs with the FMS, it is clear that
and biscuiting, we allow a greater amount of not all gamma ray peaks are associated with
space between adjacent sections, assuming that dark layers, and that not all dark layers have
some volume of material was likely to have been associated gamma ray peaks. We find that
lost during the drilling process. In some cases, independent depth matching of visual character-
the best match requires that spaces be left istics in the core photos and FMS images (e.g.
between adjacent core sections (Fig. 2). The bed thickness, degree of cementation) is the
gradational nature of the contacts between same (within a few centimetres) as shifting the
cemented and porous beds introduces some logs based on gamma ray correlations alone,
uncertainty because the sediment colour is not even in cases where core sections must be
linearly related to the change in resistivity separated to correct for lost material. It is
between different layers. important to note that gamma ray measure-
Where there is no clear visual correlation ments made near the core section edges and in
between FMS and core images, we rely on the fragmented intervals give unrealistically low
core and log gamma ray comparisons to further readings because of their smaller sampling
constrain depth matches. By depth matching volume (Lyle et al. 1996). This may explain
290 C. O. MAJOR ET AL.
Fig. 3. Summary of the lithostratigraphy for Hole 966F (ODP Leg 160), including core recovery, major rock
units, biostratigraphically determined ages, and logs (caliper, gamma ray, shallow resistivity, and sonic velocity).
some mismatch between gamma-ray amplitudes the crest of the Eratosthenes Seamount. a
from the core and logs. prominent bathymetric high south of Cyprus in
the eastern Mediterranean (Emeis et al. 1996).
Hole 966F, Leg 160, Eratosthenes Seamount The Eratosthenes Seamount is currently in the
process of entering the subduction zone beneath
Hole 966F was drilled in 923 m water depth on Cyprus. The primary scientific objective for this
HIGH-RESOLUTION CORE-LOG INTEGRATION 291
Fig. 4. Best fit position of core 160-966F-26R (shifted core) compared with unshifted core (drilled depth), FMS,
and logs (porosity (NPHI) resistivity (SFLU), and spectral and computed gamma ray (SGR and CGR)). 'A'
indicates a substantial peak in the resistivity log which correlates with the white area in the FMS immediately
above the unconformity; 'B' indicates a substantial peak in natural gamma ray which corresponds with the
bituminous limestone immediately underneath the unconformity (see text). Uranium measurements on core (blue
bars in unshifted core column) indicate that the highest gamma radiation occurs within the bituminous
limestones. 'X' marks in the core image columns indicate intervals with no corresponding core.
site was to determine the origin and geologic with FMS images in a manner similar to that
history of the seamount. Coring rocks as old as used for 1003D allows us to determine the
middle Eocene, Hole 966F penetrated a wide nature of the transitions between various litho-
variety of depositional and diagenetic carbonate stratigraphic units. We are able to pinpoint the
facies from Miocene shallow coralgal limestones exact depth of the major unconformities and
to middle Eocene foraminiferal chalks (Fig. 3). lithostratigraphic boundaries where core recov-
Core recovery was quite poor over large inter- ery is incomplete (Fig. 3). Visual integration
vals, averaging only about 23% for the interval proves most useful in pinpointing the depth of
over which FMS logs were run (77-356 mbsf), an unconformity that appears in the core as an
and often consisting of only a few pieces per abrupt change from a clean, Miocene biosparite
core. In the latter case, cores provided only a to a middle-Eocene bituminous calcilutite. Fig-
general indication of the lithology with little or ure 4 shows core 160-966F-26R placed next to
no information about sedimentary structure or an FMS image at the position of best fit visual
tectonic fabric. correlation, placing the unconformity at 300.9
Correlation of the recovered core material mbsf. The drilled depth for this core is nearly
292 C.O. MAJOR E T AL.
Fig. 5. Fractured core intervals from Hole 966F. Areas of more intense fracturing correlate with lighter coloured
patches in the FMS image. These features are interpreted as cherts.
2 m above the level of this match, indicating that we are able to confidently match other features
the recovered material can not be assumed to deeper in the hole. Below the unconformity,
come from the upper part of the cored interval. resistive layers and halos apparent in the FMS
The correct characterization of the unconfor- images are interpreted as lenses and nodules of
mity requires identification of its depth, the chert. Although chert was only rarely recovered,
nature of the change in physical and chemical the depths where it does appear correspond well
properties (based on the core), and the hiatus with bright patches in the FMS images (Fig. 5).
represented by microfossil assemblages. It is In addition, intervals with abundant bright
important to note the lack of correlation patches in the FMS images correspond to highly
between the uranium measured in core samples disturbed and fractured intervals in the cores.
and the uranium log at this best fit position. The This may be interpreted as the result of drilling
peaks in the resistivity log and the neutron disturbance caused by the large contrast between
porosity log occur 0.5m above a resistive hard chert and soft micritic limestone.
(cemented) layer in the FMS. If these logs are
shifted down 0.5 m, the large (8 ppm) peak in the
gamma ray log correlates well with the darkest Discussion
(most organic-rich) interval in the bituminous
limestone just below the unconformity. In order to establish a depth match between core
By tying the top of the Eocene section to this and log data it is necessary to be aware of several
unconformity and achieving a good match in the methodological limitations. Visual core-log in-
uppermost section of the bituminous limestones, tegration is limited by the quality and percentage
HIGH-RESOLUTION CORE-LOG INTEGRATION 293
Table 2. Table showing the amount of core offset from drilled depth required to achieve the best correlation with the
F M S images and the gamma ray log for Hole IO03D. Note that the drilled depth is a rather poor estimate of the true
depth in this hole
of core recovery, which varies widely between that the offset between the drilled and log-
different lithologies, and in the worst case results correlated depth is likely to vary in a manner
in sparse or indeterminate data. The highest core which is not predicted by the probabilistic
recovery, in typical ODP drilling environments, models nor consistent with the current default
is generally in soft cohesive sediments such as assumptions. Table 2 shows the amount of offset
calcareous ooze. Logging, however, and parti- from the drilled depth that is required to attain
cularly FMS logging, achieves maximum per- the best visual correlation with the FMS for
formance in more consolidated materials where Hole 1003D; in poorly recovered sections, the
borehole conditions tend to be better and drilled depth is a rather poor estimate of the log-
resistivity contrasts higher. Low recovery can correlated depth. Such depth shifts may also be
severely hamper depth correlation. Recovery of applied to core physical properties data, which
10% of the cored interval will result in 90% (or can then be used for the calibration of log
up to -t-4.3 m) error in the assigned depth of the responses.
core. The default assumptions that the recovered Routine log processing for the Ocean Drilling
rocks come from the upper part of this interval Program involves the creation of a single depth
and that there is negligible loss of material scale for different tool passes, usually by
between or within (disturbed) core sections must comparison of gamma ray logs among different
be considered carefully before depths are as- tool strings. These gamma ray logs are aligned
signed. Based on our observations, these as- by means of peak matching with linear stretch-
sumptions are often invalid. ing or squeezing of the depth scale applied
Any error associated with incorrect depth between tie points. The use of a linear operator
assignment in sedimentary environments has may result in imprecise correlation between
large implications for quantitative stratigraphy. gamma ray peaks from different tools, particu-
The sedimentation rate and stratigraphy in holes larly if tie points are widely spaced, because the
with poor recovery, particularly in marine tools travel at non-constant speeds due to stick-
pelagic sediments, may be miscalculated by slip motion and incomplete ship heave compen-
several hundred thousand years, due only to sation. The FMS data are initially depth
depth error. Agrinier & Agrinier (1994) devel- corrected using accelerometer and image-corre-
oped a probabilistic approach to assign depth to lation algorithms (Serra 1989); these data are
cores and suggest that core material is most then treated the same as the other logs, i.e., they
likely to come from the middle of a cored are shifted and resampled according to gamma
interval, contradicting the assumption that it ray tie-points.
comes from the upper part. Our results indicate This peak matching method can result in an
294 C.O. MAJOR E T AL.
offset between logs and images, because the and electrical resistivity for FMS images) are
same depth corrections are not applied to each more difficult to compare on a quantitative
log. The maximum offset between peaks due to basis. Visual core-log correlation, therefore,
imprecise gamma ray correlations is on the order must be undertaken carefully to provide unequi-
of a few tens of centimetres, which for most vocal results.
applications using low-resolution log measure- Nevertheless, visual core-log integration is
ments is negligible. For high-resolution core-log potentially the best means available for orienting
integration, however, it is important that all data cores and providing information about in situ
have a consistent depth scale and that minor stress. Split core image interpretation is limited
offsets due to processing not be taken to be because the true dips of sedimentary and
geologically significant. In Hole 966F, for structural features in unoriented cores, such as
example, the 0.5m offset between the gamma cross-bedding, faults, and fractures, cannot be
ray log and the FMS suggests incorrectly that a calculated in two dimensions. Core orientation
gamma ray peak occurs above rather than below requires 3-D, circumferential scans of the outer
a major unconformity. This is probably the core surface to be compared to borehole images
result of depth-shifting procedures during pro- (e.g. Mathis et al. 1995). Unfortunately, in
cessing. The correct depth placement of the unlithified or poorly lithified sediments it is
unconformity is constrained by core data (ICP- difficult to image the outer surface of the core,
MS) and comparison with the resistivity log. A and the majority of ODP sites encounter such
processing procedure which consistently uses the unlithified materials in the upper few hundred
gamma ray log from the FMS tool as the base metres below the sea floor. The high probability
log will help to minimize such processing-related of disturbing sedimentary features while coring,
offsets. as well as the coating of drilling mud and
We found that it is very useful to use standard smeared sediment which cakes the outer surface
logs to constrain depth matches in the cases of of these cores, makes 3-D core imaging im-
ambiguous visual correlations. The two sedi- possible. In competent rock, large open or
mentary rock examples presented in this paper cemented fractures can be seen using image logs,
illustrate that the gamma ray log is most closely although cores drilled in such environments are
correlated with changes at the macroscopic scale commonly highly disturbed and fragmented. As
in the core (e.g. colour and bedding). Dark a result, core orientation can only be achieved
colour in the core is often related to high on a piece by piece basis in most ODP
amounts of organic material, which are in turn environments.
associated with concentrations of uranium due
to locally reducing environments. Independent Conclusions
depth shifts from visual image correlation and
gamma ray peak matching are equivalent within We find that the application of two independent
a relatively small margin of error (the difference techniques is most successful in integrating core
in average offset is 23cm for Hole 1003D, and and log data in lithologies with moderate core
only 2 cm if the outlier value for core 41 is not recovery. Gamma ray and other standard logs
included in the average). Other physical proper- may be used to constrain sediment properties in
ties such as density, porosity, susceptibility, and intervals of poor core recovery by calibration or
velocity, which are routinely measured on core core measurements to logs in intervals where a
sections, are potentially a valuable means for good match can be made. In order for visual
measurement calibration of log responses once core-log integration to be successful, it is
their depth scales have been adjusted. The essential to understand the relationship between
integration of various log and core data to a the physical properties measured in situ by the
common depth scale is the basis for ODP's CLIP logging tools and the colour and structural
(Core-Log Integration Platform) software (P. properties of the formation as represented in
deMenocal pers. comm.). Peak matching within core photographs. In the carbonate lithologies
intervals of cyclic sediment deposition can often discussed in this paper, core colour correlates
make use of amplitude as well as spacing well with the resistivity logs. This observation
between peaks as a means of correlation. This establishes the basis for matching the cores to
helps to avoid miscorrelation when the wave- FMS images. Both display centimetre scale
length of variation is much shorter than the information about the circumferential and ver-
length of the cores. Comparison of amplitude tical variability of the formations encountered in
variations in images, however, particularly the drill hole.
between measurements of different sediment Our depth matches between core and log
properties (colour reflectance for core images images indicate that incompletely recovered core
HIGH-RESOLUTION CORE-LOG INTEGRATION 295
material c a n n o t be assumed to come from the Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, v.
top o f the c o r e d interval, n o r can it be 42, part 1: Washington (U.S. Gov't Printing
theoretically or statistically predicted to come Office), 1143-1149.
LUTHI, S 1990. Sedimentary structures of clastic rocks
from a particular location within the section. In
identified from borehole images. In: HtJRST, A.,
addition, we find that core material is often LOVELL, M. A. & MORTON,A. C. (eds) Geological
missing within and between sections where Application of Wireline Logs. Geological Society
drilling d e f o r m a t i o n and biscuiting exists. Special Publications No. 48, 3-10.
G o o d depth matching must be based on core- LYLE, M., BRISTOW,J. BLOEMENDAL,J. & RACK, F. R.
scale features and requires accurately depth 1996. Comparison of natural gamma ray activity
corrected logs. If such data are available, it is profiles from downhole logging and the MST core
possible to attain more precise log response logger at Site 911 (Yermak Plateau). In: THIEDE,
calibrations, log resolution-matching, core or- J., MYttRE, A. M., FIRTH,J. V., JOHNSON,G. L. &
RUDD1MAN,W. F. (eds) Proceedings of the Ocean
ientation, and up-scaling o f core measurements.
Drilling Program, Scientific Results. Ocean Dril-
A n integrated approach using visual core-log ling Program, College Station, TX, 151, 369-376.
correlation supported by the quantitative com- MACLEOD, C. J., CELERIER, B., FRUH-GREEN,G. L. &
parison of core physical properties with logs is MANNING, C. E. 1996. Tectonics of Hess Deep: A
therefore r e c o m m e n d e d in similar O D P envir- synthesis of drilling results from Leg 147. In:
onments. MEVEL, C., GILLIS, K. M., ALLAN,J. F. & MEYER,
P. S. (eds) Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling
We gratefully thank the crew and scientific parties of Program, Scientific Results. Ocean Drilling Pro-
ODP Legs 160 and 166 for their efforts in acquiring the gram, College Station, TX, 147, 461-475.
datasets used here. The manuscript was improved by - - PARSON, L. M., SAGER, W. W. • the ODP Leg
the helpful comments of Lars Boldreel and an 135 Scientific Party, 1992. Identification of
anonymous reviewer. Funding for this work was tectonic rotations in boreholes by the integration
provided by the Joint Oceanographic Institutions, of core information with Formation MicroScan-
inc., through grants USSSP 160-20912 to Major and Her and Borehole Televiewer images. In. HURST,
USSSP to 166-F342 to Pirmez. This is LDEO A., GRIEFITHS,C. M. 8s WORTHINGTON,P. F. (eds)
contribution #5787. Geological Applications of Wireline Logs H
Geological Society Special Publications No. 65,
235-246.
References MATHIS, B., HALLER, D., GANEM, H. 8~; STANDEN, E.
1995. Orientation and calibration of core and
AGRINIER, P. & AGRINIER, B. 1994. On the knowledge
borehole image data. SPWLA 36th Annual Log-
of the depth of a rock sample from a drilled core.
ging Symposium.
Scientific Drilling, 4, 259-265. NURMI, R., CHARARA,M., WATERHOUSE,M. & PARK,
EBERLI, G. P., SWART,P. K, MALONE, M. et al. 1997. R. 1990. Heterogeneities in carbonate reservoirs:
Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Initial
detection and analysis using borehole electrical
Reports. Ocean Drilling Program, College Sta-
imagery. In: HURST, A., LOVELL, M. A. &
tion, TX, 166.
MORTON, A. C. (eds) Geological Application of
EKSTROM, M. P., DAHAN, C. A., CHEN, M., LLOYD, P.
Wireline Logs. Geological Society Special Pub-
M. & Rossi, D. J. 1987. Formation imaging with
lications No. 48, 95-111.
microelectrical scanning arrays. Log Analyst, 28,
PIRMEZ, C., HISCOTI', R. N. & KRONEN,J. O., Jr, 1997.
294-306.
Sandy turbidite successions at the base of
EMEIS,K.-C., ROBERTSON,A. H. F., RICHTER,C., et al. channel-levee systems of the Amazon Fan re-
1996. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program,
vealed by FMS logs and cores: Unraveling the
Initial Reports. Ocean Drilling Program, College
facies architecture of large submarine fans. In:
Station, TX, 160.
FLOOD, R. D., PIPER, D. J., KLAUS, A. &
GOLDBERG, D. 1997. The role of downhole measure- PETERSON, L. C. (eds) Proceedings of the Ocean
ments in marine geology and geophysics, Reviews
Drilling Program, Scientific Results. Ocean Dril-
of Geophysics, 35, 315-342. ling Program, College Station, TX, 155, 7-33.
Hiscoa~r, R. N., COLELLA,A., PEZARD, P. A., LOVELL,
SALIMULLAH,A. R. M. & STOW, D. A. 1992. Applica-
M. A. ~; MALINVERNO,A. 1992. Sedimentology of
tion of FMS images in poorly recovered coring
deep-water volcaniclastics, Oligocene Izu-Bonin
intervals: examples from ODP Leg 129. In:
forearc basin, based on formation microscanner HURST. A., GRIFFITHS, C. M. 8~; WORTHINGTON,
images. In: TAYLOR,B., FUJIOKA, K. & JANECEK,
P. F. (eds) Geological Applications of Wireline
T. R. (eds) Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Logs H. Geological Society Special Publications
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gram, College Station, TX, 126, 75-96. SERRA, O. 1989. Schlumberger formation microscanner
KIDD, R. B. 1978. Core-discing and other drilling
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effects in DSDP Leg 42A Mediterranean sediment
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cores. In: Hsu, K. J. & MONTADERT, L. et al.
Multi-scalar structure at D S D P / O D P Site 504, Costa Rica Rift, I:
stratigraphy of eruptive products and accretion processes
M. A Y A D I l, P. A. P E Z A R D 1, C. L A V E R N E 1 & G. B R O N N E R 2
t P~trologie Magmatique, C N R S ( U M R 6635), CEREGE, BP80, 13545 Aix-en-Provence,
France
2 Labora toire de G~ophysique- G{odynamique, Universitd d'A ix- Marseille III, Facult~ des
Sciences de Saint-Jdrdme, 13397 Marseille cedex 20, France.
Abstract" Hole 504B is located about 200 km south of the Costa Rica Rift and constitutes
the reference section for the structure of the upper oceanic crust. Compared to core, the
continuous electrical resistivity (at m scale) and the high-resolution electrical images (at cm
scale) recorded in Hole 504B, provide a continuous and detailed lithostratigraphic
description of the effusive section at Site 504. Flow thicknesses measured from cm scale
FMS images average 0.5 (• The massive units, known to bound fluid circulation at
large scale into the crust, are constituted with a series of 20 to 50 individual flows. If Site 504
was created over two volcanic cycles, each volcanic cycle allows the emplacement of [0.60
(+0.30)] x106 m 3 of magma per m along the ridge axis. This computation leads to an
estimate of magma volume for a single eruption of [0.003 (+0.001)]• l06 m 3 per m along the
ridge axis, and eventually, a gradient in magma pressure within the magma chamber lens of
52 (+26) MPa, appropriate for one eruption.
AYADI, M., PEZARD,P. A., LAVERNE,C. & BRONNERG. 1998. Multi-scalar structure at DSDP/ODP Site 297
504, Costa Rica Rift, I: stratigraphy of eruptive products and accretion processes In. HARVEY,P. K. ~fr
LOVELL, M. A. (eds) Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 297-310
298 M. AYADI E T AL.
Downhole m e a s u r e m e n t s
Electrical resistivity ( D L L ) . The average resis-
tivity value measured with the DLL in the upper
basement is about 10.0f2m (Fig. 3). As this
crustal section corresponds to eruptive products,
each interval with a resistivity of 10.0 9t m or less
was associated with the presence of pillows (P),
whereas intervals with higher resitivities were
associated to a massive flow (MF) when the
apparent thickness of the unit exceeds 4.0 m, and
a thin-flow (TF) otherwise. The terminology
'dyke' (D) was used when a near-vertical margin
was identified in the core, also for a unit with a
resistivity larger than 10.0 f~ m.
and then to deduce the thickness of each latter description is confirmed by FMS and DLL
individual flow. The different lithotypes (MF, data recorded during Leg 148 (Fig. 5). Such
TF, P and D) are distinguished from FMS lithological structure is also observed within
records on the basis of micro-conductance Units 27 and 39 (Fig. 8). The nature of the FMS
changes only. We chose here to describe the signal and the resistivity value (about 10.0f~m)
four lithotypes especially well defined from core obtained in the thin layer between flows leads
over a short section located from 520 to 550 one to believe that pillows, undetected in the
mbsf (Fig. 4): massive flows (MF) have a core, are present between each of the two major
signature with little variability (units 2D, 24, flows. This thin pillow unit is not observed
27 and 34; Figs 4 and 5); pillow lavas (P) have an within Unit 2D, located in the upper part of the
irregular signal signature, due to a more extrusive section, although the limit between the
fractured and brecciated structure; thin flows two separate flows is found in both FMS and
(TF) are characterized by signals intermediate DLL records (Fig. 5). This may be explained by
between that of massive flows and pillows; dykes the fact that Unit 2D was emplaced near the end
(D) are solely identified from core. of the construction of Site 504, further from the
axial domain where pillows originate, than
Results deeper, thus earlier, Units 27 and 34.
In conclusion, the identification of lithotypes
Massive units. Lithological units 2D, 27 and 34, from FMS and DLL in the massive Unit 27 and
are located in the upper part of Hole 504B and 34 allows the definition of new lithological unit
used here as examples to characterize the boundaries with respect to that initially pro-
lithological structure of massive units (Fig. 5). posed from core or by Adamson (1985). More-
These three massive units are identified from over, m scale DLL and cm-scale FMS data
nearby pillows due to a sharp resistivity increase, present details that were not observed in the
and abrupt changes in FMS signal signature core. Besides lithologic Units 2D, 27 and 34,
(from irregular in pillows to more regular in the other massive units such as 24 and 39 are
flow), in front of the chilled margins. Unit 2D detailed and described in the following in the
was described as two 'sparsely to moderately context of axial volcanism and accretion episo-
phyric basalt flows' (Cann et al. 1983). The two dicity.
separated flows are observed directly in the
electrical resistivity by a slight decrease at about Lithostratigraphical logs. From the study of
320 mbsf. This depth also corresponds to a variations of electrical resistivity values with
signal change in FMS profiles (Fig. 5a). Unit 27 depth (Fig. 3), the analysis of FMS data (Fig. 4)
was described as a 'massive flow with grain size and a comparison to core, it is possible to
changes from fine (at the top and bottom) to reconstruct a more detailed lithostratigraphic
medium and coarse toward the center' (Fig. 5b). log of the penetrated basement (Fig. 6b, c). Each
Unit 34 was described from core as a 'massive, section of the continuous record is associated
coarse-grained basalt with a glassy margin at the with a recovered unit, keeping the terminology
top' (Fig. 5c). defined in hand-specimen by Adamson (1985;
On FMS records, the latter two units appear Fig. 6a). The units missed in the core are
as made of two major flows separated by 1.1 m identified in their lithotype, but are not given a
(Unit 27) and 2.2 m thick pillows (Unit 34) not new unit number. The DLL analysis method is
recovered by drilling. The thicknesses deduced based on absolute resistivity variations, whereas
from FMS data of massive flows (without pillow the FMS analysis method is based on the
layers) constituting, respectively Units 2D, 27 variation of signal only. For this reason, the
and 34 are 11.7, 13.5, and 20.5m. The thin DLL-derived log (Fig. 6b) and the FMS-derived
pillow layers located within Units 27 and 34 are one (Fig. 6c) are sometimes found to provide
also present in DLL data, with a sharp resistivity slightly different depths of unit boundaries.
decrease (Fig. 5). This sharp resistivity decrease From DLL and FMS data, the analysed
is opposed to that, more subtle one, obtained section appears to be composed largely of
toward the centre of each major unit and pillows (about 70% of the total thickness),
interpreted as related to the observed increase whereas thin and massive flows contribute to
in grain size centreward of the flow, related to the overall thickness by about 25%. Dikes
cooling mechanisms after emplacement (Pezard contribute to the remaining 5%, a low value
1990). From DLL data, Unit 34 was described possibly due to poor core recovery. The resis-
by Pezard (1990) as an individual unit (from tivity-derived lithostratigraphy reveals about 20
about 673 to 683 mbsf), as opposed to two % more pillows than the core, as a value of 57%
individual units separated by a pillow layer. This was obtained (Alt et al. 1996). This result is
302 M. AYADI E T AL.
STRATIGRAPHY AT DSDP/ODP SITE 504 A N D ACCRETION PROCESSES 303
~,<
=2
9 0
304 M. AYADI ET AL.
Fig. 7. Histogram of basaltic flows thickness (MF: massive flow, TF: thin flow, P: pillows) derived from FMS. The
thickness averages for MF, TF and P are 0.6m, 0.5 m and 0.4m, respectively.
related to the fact that massive units are from FMS data. The true thickness of a dyke
recovered more easily than fractured and altered depends on dip.
pillows. As a consequence, the most altered From the FMS data, massive units 2D, 24, 27,
intervals are clearly less adequately sampled 34 and 39 are often composed of thick individual
during coring. flows (1.0 to 3.5 m) near the top, and of thinner
flows at the base (0.1 to 1.0 m; Fig. 8). We infer
Individualflow thickness. In an attempt to obtain that such a configuration is probably related to
a quantitative interpretation of basement lithos- the volcanic process, as the emplacement of a
tratigraphy, we may consider individual flow massive unit starts with small volumes of lava,
thicknesses as a statistical series. These thick- evolving later toward larger ones. Also, the two
nesses are directly deduced from FMS profiles parts of massive units are separated in Units 27,
analysis. A distribution of thicknesses ranging 34 and 39 by a thin pillow layer which appears to
from 0.1 to 3.0m, with an asymmetrical be decreasing in thickness with decreasing depth.
character and a mean thickness of about 0.5 m Within Units 2D and 24, both composed of two
(• m; Fig. 7) is obtained. The mean thick- main flows, this layer of pillow is absent. The
nesses determined from FMS lithological analy- absence of pillows at the late stage of the
sis of individual basaltic flows are very similar in emplacement of this crustal section can be
pillows (0.4m; Fig. 7b), thin flows (0.5m; Fig. related to the ridge evolution in space and time.
7c), and massive flows (0.6 m; Fig. 7d). While massive and some thin flows might reach
Considering the thicknesses of Units 2D, 24, a particular site hundreds of metres away from
27, 34 and 39, and the thickness of individual the eruptive axis (occasionally a few kin), pillows
massive flows (0.6 m• m), each massive litho- are emplaced within a much narrower zone, and
logical unit seems to be constituted in Hole 504B hence are more sparsely sampled in upper
with 20 to 45 individual flows. The few dyke crustal structures. In conclusion, such a cm-
units observed in the volcanic section of Hole scale description in vertical sequence of volcanic
504B have an apparent thickness of 2 to 7m products leads indirectly to a detailed knowledge
STRATIGRAPHY AT DSDP/ODP SITE 504 AND ACCRETION PROCESSES 305
Fig. 8. The distribution of the flow thicknesses within the main massive units encountered in the Hole 504B (2D,
24, 27, 34 and 39) versus depth. Units 27, 34 and 39 contain pillow layers with thicknesses increasing with
decreasing depth (mbsf: metres below sea floor). Site 504 was interpreted to be constructed in two main volcanic
cycles associated with the emplacement of two volcanic sequences (Pezard et al. 1992).
306 M. AYADI E T AL.
Accretion processes
The concept of the magma chamber has been a
critical element in geological models of crustal
formation along mid-ocean ridges (e.g. Cann
1974; Kidd 1977; Nicolas et al. 1988). Most of
these models consider that the magma chamber
is a relatively large reservoir essentially occupied
by melt. On the basis of more recent considera-
tions concerning the size of crustal magma
chambers (e.g. Detrick et al. 1987; Kent et al.
1990; Sinton et al. 1991) and recent geophysical
data, Sinton & Detrick (1992) have proposed a
model of mid-ocean ridge magma chamber at
different spreading rates.
Along a fast spreading ridge like the East
Pacific Rise, this model consists of sill-like
bodies of melt located 1.0 to 2.0km below the
ridge axis, and grading downward into a
partially solidified crystal mush surrounded by
a transition zone to solidified, although still hot
gabbros (Fig. 9). In this model, a lens con-
stituted of melt is proposed to be 10 to 100 m in
height. The shape and dimensions of the crustal
magma chamber determined along the northern Fig. 10. (a) Idealized view of the ridge axis and neo-
EPR are also probably typical of a wide range of volcanic zone (Pezard et al. 1992). At a half-spreading
intermediate and fast spreading ridges (Sinton & rate of 35 mm yr-1, the NVZ is proposed to be 1 km
Detrick 1992). wide. (b) Schematic representation of lava geometry
erupted within the NVZ. It is a cross-axis section
The accretion process episodicity at the ridge
obtained at the end of emplacement of the two
axis is believed to reflect the episodic activity of volcanic sequences (VS1 and VS2). (c) A cross-axis
the magma chamber under the ridge. The lava section showing the volume occupied by the massive
volume emplaced during a volcanic cycle (Kap- flows at the beginning of the volcanic cycle. The
pel & Ryan 1986; Gente 1987; Pezard et al. 1992) massive flows fill the axial graben (ESD) and overflow
may be used to evaluate the magma flow on the ridge flank until the first block-bounding fault.
through the magma chamber during this volca-
nic cycle. In the following, constraints from
marine geophysical surveys and downhole mea-
surements obtained in Hole 504B are used to
estimate the basaltic volumes erupted during
volcanic activity, and the constraints applied on
the magma chamber under an intermediate rate
spreading ridge, such as the Costa Rica Rift.
At an intermediate rate, the massive flows are
considered to be erupted on-axis in a graben
called elongated summit depression (ESD; Kap-
pel & Ryan 1986), yielding a lava plain at a large
scale. If the eruption is large enough, the massive
flows may fill the axial graben (ESD) and
overflow on the ridge flank until the first great
fault is encountered, often 2000 to 4000 m from
the axis, acting like a dam to the lava. The axial
Fig. 9. Cross-axis model of magma chamber along a graben (ESD) is generally 50 to 100 m deep, and
fast spreading ridge proposed by Sinton & Detrick 200 to 1500m wide. The volcanic and hydro-
(1992). thermal activity is, in most cases, limited to a 50
STRATIGRAPHY AT DSDP/ODP SITE 504 AND ACCRETION PROCESSES 307
to 500 m wide interval located on axis (Macdo- abbreviations used for the computing of lava
nald 1982; Gente et al. 1986; Kappel & Ryan volumes are shown in Table 1.
1986; Gente 1987; Macdonald & Fox 1988).
Site 504 was interpreted to be constructed in
two main volcanic cycles associated to the Table 1.
emplacement of two volcanic sequences (Pezard
et al. 1992). The 650 m thick volcanic pile Dimensions Definition Values (m)
observed in Hole 504B, was hence built over a
time interval on the order of 15000 to 20000 NVZ Neovolcanic zone 500+200
years considering a NVZ half-width of 500 m, at k Massive flow lateral extent 30004-1000
a half-spreading rate of 35 mm yr -1. The first T Massive flows thickness 17-t-5
volcanic sequence is proposed to cover the D Axial graben depth 75+25
interval from the transition zone to about 580 W Axial graben width 275-t-225
mbsf, near the base of Unit 27 (Fig. 8), and was E Extrusive thickness 800+100
constructed close to the axis (A to B; Fig. 10a). Z Sheeted dykes complex thickness 12504-750
The second volcanic sequence built the section
from 580 mbsf to 325, near the base of Unit 2D
(Fig. 8), and was erupted further out from the
axial graben, although still within the NVZ (B to
C; Fig. 10a). The 50 m thick upper part of the The volume erupted within the NVZ is of the
basement is considered to be related to later order of: VNvz = [NVZ.E] m3m 1. This volume,
episodes of accretion, when Site 504 was located for a single volcanic sequences is hence
out of the NVZ (beyond C; Fig. 10a). Vvs(KR) = Vyvz/2, that is [ 0 . 2 0 +
(0.03)x106]m3m 1 (Fig. 10b). The massive flow
Flow volume evaluation. We estimate here the volume erupted at the beginning of each
lavas volumes emplaced during a single volcanic volcanic cycle and filling the axial graben, may
cycle. In the following, we consider that all be estimated to Vvs(ml)= [D.W]. If the massive
basaltic flows are pillows and massive flows, flow overflows the axial graben, and with off-
erupted at the begining of the volcanic cycle. The axis emplacement, a different volume is com-
total volumes of lava estimated then correspond puted with: Vvs(m2)=[(L - W/2)xT]. There-
to that of massive flows, pillows and dykes fore, the t o t a l massive flow v o l u m e is
emplaced during a given volcanic cycle. The V v s ( m ) = [ V v s ( m l ) + V v s ( m 2 ) . ] With a total
volumes are computed per m of ridge length. thickness of 17 (+5) m, the massive flows
The two other dimensions are that perpendicular constitute only about 5 (+2) % of a given
to the axis (associated to the time scale), and volcanic sequence (400 (+50) m). The flows,
thickness. Due to the presence of a block- other than massive ones are supposed here to
bounding fault at about 800 mbsf in Hole correspond to pillows, which effectively consti-
504B, the penetrated section has been somewhat tute 95 (+2) % of the overall volcanic sequence.
truncated, and the thickness of eruptive pro- Then, the volume of pillow flows may be
ducts (about 650 m) is observed to be less than estimated to Vvs(P) = [(95)/100] x Vvs(KR).
average thicknesses measured in ophiolites The width of basaltic flows erupted during one
(Pezard et al. 1997). A more accurate evaluation volcanic cycle [NVZ/2=250 (+100) m] corre-
of the thickness of the extrusive section may sponds to the same as the injected dyke width
be estimated to be about 800 (+100)m. In (Kidd 1977). In ophiolites, the dykes are
addition, the volcanic products are emplaced observed to be 500 to 2000m in height (Z).
within a kilometer-wide NVZ and the volcanic The total dyke volume associated with a single
volumes which build a site such as ODP 504 volcanic sequence is then estimated to be
c o r r e s p o n d to the h a l f - w i d t h N V Z (500 Vvs(d)=[250xZ]. The total volume of lava
(+ 200) m; Fig. 10b). flows corresponding to a given volcanic cycle
The massive flow lateral extent can be becomes Vvs = Vvs(m)+ Vvs(P)+ Vvs(d). The
considered as corresponding to the distance (L) volume estimates of massive flows, pillows, and
from the ridge axis to the first great fault. From dykes emplaced during a given volcanic cycle are
the FMS- and DLL-derived lithostratigraphic summarized in Table 2.
study, the thickness of massive flows (T) is
measured in Hole 504B to vary from 12 to 22 m. Magma chamber behaviour and constraints. The
The axial graben size (wide and deep; Fig. 10c), previous volumes are used here to understand
directly derived from sea floor observations, are the magma chamber behaviour under an inter-
also considered for volumes estimates. The mediate rate spreading ridge such as the Costa
308 M. AYADI ET AL.
Table 2.
Lava volumes Definition Volume estimates
(106 m 3 m-1)
Vvs(m2) Massive flow volume overflowing the axial graben and emplaced off-axis 0.094-0.08
Vvs(m) Total massive flow volume erupted in the begining of a volcanic cycle 0.114-0.09
Rica Rift. The eruption process is directly magma volume associated with a single eruption
related to the pressure and stress constraints ( V E ( m a g m a ) ) is t h e n e q u a l to [0.0033
applied on the magma chamber environment. (+0.0011)]• m 3 1. Az may be estimated to
An eruption of volcanic material may be 2.0 (1.0) kin, if TD is of 2.0 (+0.5) m.
associated with a single dyke injection (Nicolas This volume VE(magma) may be expressed as
1988). Dykes were described in Hole 504B to be a gradient in magma pressure within the magma
emplaced as multiples, each 4.0 m in width on chamber lens, appropriate for rupturing the cold
average, hence composed of about 5 single dykes lid constituted by the sheeted dykes complex,
(Umino 1995). If a 4.0m wide dyke multiple is propagating a dyke and creating an eruption
considered as produced as a serie of eruptions onto the sea floor: Ap = Ping• Az, where g is the
and associated to one volcanic event, then a gravity. For a given dyke eruption, this pressure
250 m width volcanic sequence is emplaced after Ap may be estimated to 52 (+26) MPa. This
about 60 volcanic events such as that proposed estimated pressure corresponds to that applied
by Umino (1995). The lava volume emplaced on at the base of the sheeted dykes prior to
both sides of the ridge during one volcanic event eruption.
is VVE= 2• [Vvs/60]. The lava volume emplaced
during one eruption is then VE----[VvE/5] that Conclusions
may be estimated to [0.003 (•215 106] m3m -I
(Table 2) This volume corresponds to the Resistivity measurements (at m scale) and high
magma volume available in the form of an resolution electrical images of the borehole wall
overpressure within the magma chamber lens (at cm scale) allow one to discriminate the large-
before eruption. scale layers of the upper crust and to identify
This volume (VE) may be expressed as equal each of the lithologic units defined in the core.
to [TDAZ] per unit length of ridge, where TD is High-resolution electrical images (FMS) allow
the dyke width and Az corresponds to a us, not only to discriminate individual lithologi-
theoretical height of magma erupted during a cal units, but also the sub-units which corre-
given eruption. The volume (VE) estimated spond to individual flows. C o n s e q u e n t l y ,
previously corresponds to erupted basalt. The thicknesses of flows composing the effusive
basalt magma (at the temperature of magma section at Site 504 can be determined and
chamber lens) is expressed as VE(magma)-- VE discussed in terms of accretion parameters. The
(basalt)/o~, where ~=[pm/pB]. Pm is taken as average thickness of individual flows deduced
about 2.7• 103 kg m 3 (Hooft & Detrick 1992) from this analysis is 0.5m (+0.1 m). This study
and PB as about 2.95• 103 k g m 3. The estimated shows that massive units are often composed of
STRATIGRAPHY AT DSDP/ODP SITE 504 AND ACCRETION PROCESSES 309
thick individual flows in the upper part, and of 70, and 83, and ODP Legs 11 I, 137, 140, and 148).
thinner flows at the base. Lithological massive In: ALT, J. C., KINOSHITA,H., STOKKING,L. B. &
units are observed to be constituted with two MICHAEL, P. J. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling
major flows separated by thin pillow layers, Program, Scientific Results, 148, 417-434.
ANDERSON~ R. N., HONNOREZ, J., BECKER, K., et al.
which seem to be increasing with increasing
1985. Initial Reports of Deep Sea Drilling Project.
depth, probably associated to the distance of the Washington (U.S. Govt. Printing Office), 83.
site from the ridge axis while erupting. BALLARD, R. D., FRANCHETEAU, J., JUTEAU, T.,
Site 504 is postulated to be created at an RANGIN, C. & NORMARK, W. 1981. The East
i n t e r m e d i a t e rate spreading ridge, with the Pacific Rise at 21~ the volcanic, tectonic and
emplacement of two volcanic sequences. Each hydrothermal processes of the central axis. Earth
sequence was built after emplacement of [0.60 and Planetary Science Letters, 55. 1-10.
(•215 106] m 3 m 1 of flows and dykes volume.BECKER, K., SAKAI, H., et al. 1989. Drilling deep into
During a single eruption, a [0.003 (+0.001)x 106] young oceanic crust, Hole 504B, Costa Rica rift.
Review of Geophysics, 27, 79-102.
m 3 m -L of m a g m a volume is emplaced on the
--, Foss, G., et al. 1992. Proceedings of the Ocean
both sides o f the ridge. The m a g m a volume Drilling Program, Initial Reports, 137, College
evaluation allows one to estimate the gradient in Station, TX (Ocean Drilling Program).
m a g m a pressure within the m a g m a chamber lens BONATTI, E. & HARRISON, C. G. A. 1988. Eruption
to 52 (+26) MPa, appropriate for propagating a styles of basalt in oceanic spreading ridges and
dyke and during an eruption. seamounts: effect of magma temperature and
viscosity, Journal of Geophysical Research, 93,
2967-2980.
We are grateful to Bernard Celerier and Bisger Hanson CANN,J. R. 1974. A model for oceanic crust structure
for a very detailed and constructive review of the developed. Geophysical Journal of the Royal
manuscript. This manuscript was improved by infor-
Astronomical Society, 39, 169-187.
mal discussion with C. Coulon, A. Demant and J.-J. - - - - - - , LANGSETH, M. G., HONNOREZ, J., VON
Cochem& This work was supported by the Groupe- HERZEN, R. P., WHITE, S. M., et al. 1983. Initial
ment de Recherche 'Physique et M&anique des
Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project. Wa-
Roches', and the 'G~osciences Marines' ODP support
shington (US Govt. Printing Office), 69.
program of CNRS in France.
CHOUKROUNE, P., FRANCHETEAU, J. • HEKIN1AN, R.
1984. Tectonics of the East Pacific Rise near
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LONSDALE, P. 1977. Deep-tow observations at the 33.
Multi-scalar structure at D S D P / O D P Site 504, Costa Rica Rift, III:
faulting and fluid circulation. Constraints from integration of FMS
images, geophysical logs and core data
M . A Y A D I l, P. A. P E Z A R D l, G. B R O N N E R 2, P. T A R T A R O T T I 3, & C. L A V E R N E 1
1Pdtrologie Magmatique, C N R S ( U M R 6635), CEREGE, BP80, 13545 Aix-en-Provence,
France
2 Laboratoire de G(ophysique-Gdodynamique, UniversitO d'Aix-Marseille III, Facult~ des
Sciences de Saint-J~rdme, 13397 Marseille cedex 20, France
3 Dipartimento di Geologia, Paleontologia e Geofisica, Universitgl di Padova, via Giotto n.1,
1-35137 Padova, Italia
Abstract: Downhole geophysical logs and high-resolution electrical images (FMS) from
DSDP/ODP Hole 504B are analysed in combination with core data to obtain an integrated
description of oceanic faults met in the hole. About 34 500 fractures were mapped from
FMS images over 1672 m of basement. The fracture distribution from FMS confirms the
presence of a main fault zone between 800 and 1100 mbsf (metres below sea floor), elsewhere
detected from seismic data as well as magnetic, acoustic, and electrical resistivity
measurements. The fracture density profile reveals the presence of two other highly
fractured zones, (1) between 400 and 575 mbsf and (2) close to the bottom of Hole 504B
(1700 to 2100 mbsf). Consequently, we infer that Site 504 was submitted first to an
extensional stress regime near the ridge axis, with circulation of high-temperature fluids and
pervasive alteration of the basalts. This initial phase is associated with the main fault met in
Hole 504B. Similar but less developed deformation was generated off-axis, with lower-
temperature parageneses, such as that cored between 400 and 575 mbsf. The present
compressional to strike-slip stress regime is expressed in subhorizontal fracturing detected in
discrete zones, such as within the main fault zone and the lower fracture zone (1700 to 2100
mbsf) in Hole 504B.
F a u l t i n g is a f u n d a m e n t a l process in the 1992; Alt et al. 1993) was drilled about 200kin to
construction and evolution of the oceanic crust. the south of the Costa Rica Rift. This drillhole
Mid-oceanic ridges at all spreading rates are provides a unique opportunity to describe, at m
believed to be characterized by extension and the to cm scale, the evolution of the oceanic crust
presence of ridgeward-dipping normal faults. generated at the rift axis. D S D P and O D P
Normal faulting is also observed in ophiolites, efforts at Site 504 have produced rock samples
where discrete zones of fracturing spaced at and geophysical data supporting the ophiolite
intervals of 1.0 to 1.5kin and parallel to the model (Anderson et al. 1982; Becker et al. 1989)
sheeted dykes, and may become listric at depth and contributing to improving the understand-
(Casey et al. 1981; Rosencrantz 1983). These ing of the seismic structure of crustal layers
fault zones are generally highly altered and (Detrick et al. 1994).
mineralized, indicating a preferential conduit for While faulting in the upper oceanic crust is
fluid circulation (Nehlig & Juteau 1988). In the generally described to be normal, the analysis of
Troodos ophiolite, highly-altered subhorizontal borehole wall images recorded in Hole 504B
surfaces are observed to act as decoupling provides evidence of a compressional stress
horizons, linked by planar normal faults (Agar regime in the upper basement (Moos & Zoback
& Klitgord 1995). 1990). In addition, in situ, borehole instabilities
The structure of the oceanic crust has often advocate for a compressional stress regime
been described at km scale with marine geophy- above 1500 mbsf to a strike-slip stress regime
sical data. D S D P / O D P Hole 504B ( C R R U S T below 1700 mbsf (Pezard et al. 1995). Faulting
1982; Cann et al. 1983; Anderson et al. 1985; and fluid circulation in the crustal section
Becker et al. 1988; Becker et al. 1992; Dick et al. penetrated by Hole 504B are here analysed in
AYADI,M., PEZARD,P. A., BRONNER,G., TARTAROTTI,P. & LAVERNE,C. 1998. Multi-scalar 311
structure at DSDP/ODP Site 504, Costa Rica Rift, III: faulting and fluid circulation. Constraints
from integration of FMS images, geophysical logs and core data In." HARVEY,P. K. &
LOVELL,M. A. (eds) Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 311-326
312 M. AYADI E T AL.
Fig. 1. The upper crustal structure in the vicinity of ODP Site 504, as interpreted from the N-S single channel
seismic section (Langseth et al. 1988) after migration with no vertical exageration (Pezard et al. 1997). The
interpretations are represented with dashed lines. The hole seems to penetrate two tilted blocks seperated by a
north-dipping normal fault met by the drilling.
relation to the nature of the stress field. plex (Fig. 2). The extrusive thickness (about
While core analyses are essential to study 600m) is considerably less than the average
tectonic and hydrothermal processes, true frac- observed in ophiolite, where lava thicknesses are
turing estimates from core are grossly under- estimated to be 1.0 to 1.5kin (Kidd 1977). A
estimated in this case. The approach used in this block-bounding fault met at about 550m into
paper is based on the integration of the high- basement probably provides part of the explana-
resolution electrical images of the borehole wall tion for this reduced thickness (Pezard et al.
(Formation MicroScanner, or FMS), downhole 1997). This north-dipping fault appears as sub-
geophysical logs and core data. First, we present vertical at the sediment-basement interface, with
a global analysis of the integrated core-logs- a mean dip of 45 ~ toward the ridge axis at 800
FMS images results. The first part presents the mbsf (Pezard et al. 1997).
data. The results of the FMS analysis are then
described in details, and interpreted in term of
fracturing. Second, several intervals correspond-
ing to identified fracture zones are analysed in Downhole geophysical measurements
details in term of faulting and fluid circulation, (m scale)
then related to the regional stress regime, present
and past. Downhole measurements of rock physical prop-
erties recorded in Hole 504B during ODP Leg
148 (Alt et al. 1993) provide a continuous m-
Structural setting scale description of the crustal structures. The
electrical resistivity increases by nearly two
In the vicinity of Site 504, the upper crustal orders of magnitude from highly porous and
structure was first imaged by a north-south altered extrusives (Becker 1985; Becker et al.
single channel seismic (SCS) reflection profile 1989) to the resistive sheeted dikes (Fig. 2a,b). In
(Langseth et al. 1988). More recently, a dense the dykes, the electrical resistivity increases
grid of single- and multi-channel seismic reflec- continuously down to 1400 mbsf, and a more
tion was performed (Kent et al. 1996). From the irregular pattern is observed below. Intervals
earlier SCS section, the basement structure on with resistivity readings under 100 O H M m
the southern flank of the Costa Rica Rift was below 1400 mbsf are due to either an increase
interpreted as constituted by km scale fault in fracture density or a change in clay miner-
blocks, apparently tilted gently to the south. The alogy. Compressional-wave velocity values are
depth conversion of the seismic section was greater than 5.0 k m s ~ in the dykes and
performed in a point-wise manner by Pezard et occasionnally larger than 6.5 k m s ~ below
al. (1997) using velocities measured on samples 1500 mbsf (Fig. 2c). Detrick et al. (1994)
collected in the sediment and basement at Site concluded from such data that Hole 504B
504 (Fig. 1). Hole 504B penetrates 274.5m of penetrates well into Layer 3, and that the Layer
sediment, about 600m of extrusives (pillow 2/3 boundary is not necessarily a lithological
lavas, massive flows, thin flows, and breccias), one.
a transition zone from the extrusives to about Natural radioactivity (GR) values obtained in
1000m, then the underlying sheeted dyke corn- the hole are overall higher, and display a more
FAULTING AND FLUID CIRCULATION AT DSDP/ODP SITE 504 313
Fig. 2. (a) Schematic of Hole 504B drilling history and lithostratigraphy after Leg 148. (b) Electrical resistivity
profiles (LLd and LLs) recorded in the hole during ODP Leg 148 with the Dual Laterolog (DLL) tool. (c) To the
left, compressional- and shear-wave velocities (Vp and Vs) obtained in Hole 504B with Vp values greater than
5.0 km s-Lin the dykes and eventually larger than 6.5 km s 1 below 1500 mbsf; to tlae right, natural radioactivity
(GR) profile with values obtained in the hole higher and with a more irregular pattern in the altered extrusives
than in the dykes. (d) Magnetic field (to the left) and inclination (to the right) computed from tri-axial
magnetometer data recorded with the orientation device of the FMS during ODP Leg 148.
irregular pattern in the altered extrusives than in Borehole wall electrical images ( c m scale)
the dykes (Fig. 2c). Higher G R values corre-
spond to local potassium concentrations in Data acquisition. Formation MicroScanner T M
secondary minerals due to fluid circulation in (FMS) images of the borehole surface were
the upper crust (Tartarotti et al. 1988). High GR recorded over 1672 m of the basement crossed by
values may consequently be used in the extru- Hole 504B during ODP Leg 148 (Alt et al. 1993).
sives as an indicator of palaeofluid circulation. The FMS creates an image of the borehole wall
The present trace of the fault detected from by mapping its electrical microconductivity
seismic data (Fig. 1) corresponds with the lowest using an array of small, pad-mounted electrodes
values of electrical resistivity recorded in the (Ekstrom et al. 1986; Luthi & Banavar 1988).
basement at about 800 mbsf (Fig. 2; Pezard & The slimhole configuration developed for ODP
Anderson 1989). This fault was initially detected (Pezard et al. 1990) uses four pads, each with 16
from tri-axial magnetic field data (Kinoshita et buttons. Because of electrode geometry, the tool
al. 1989) with a 4 ~ step in magnetic inclination has a moderately shallow depth of investigation,
measured in the hole near 800 mbsf (Fig. 2d). in the order of a few centimetres. FMS data are
The magnetic properties of the basalt were also recorded every 2.5 mm, and the vertical resolu-
found to be strongly modified over an interval tion of individual features is about one centi-
spanning from 900 to 1050 mbsf (Pariso & metre. The tool can, however, detect thinner
Johnson 1991), suggesting hot fluid circulation features if a sufficient resistivity contrast to the
in this zone close to the axis. surroundings matrix is present. FMS images
314 M. AYADI E T AL.
Fig. 3. FMS plane density derived from raw data, expressed by the number of planes per metre. (a) Density for
total planes mapped from FMS imges (34 500 planes over 1672m of basement); (b) Density for subhorizontal
planes (dip < 30~ (c) Density for intermediate planes (30~ dip < 60~ (d) Density for subvertical planes (dip
_>60~ Large dots indicate recording file boundaries, explaining the absence of data in places (1800 to 1884 mbsf,
for example) and locating where the FMS sensor became stuck during logging due to hole restriction, obliging the
operator to close the tool and interrupt the recording.
show conductivity changes related to bed lower than that for intermediate and subhor-
boundaries and fractures, either open or miner- izontal planes (10 planes per m; Fig. 3). In fact,
alized. Each electrode is oriented in space with in near vertical holes, subhorizontal planes are
three-axis accelerometers and flux-gate magnet- better detected from borehole wall images than
ometers, making it possible to derive the strike subvertical ones. The probability of encounter-
and dip of geological features. ing vertical features is lower than that of
FMS data processing and analysis in Hole encountering horizontal ones ( N e w m a r k e t al.
504B is described by Ayadi et al. (1996). Images 1985; Dick et al. 1992). A correction of fracture
were analysed with Fracview TM,a Schlumberger density with dip value may thus be applied.
interpretative software package that allows the Plane account is equal to zero, if dip is equal to
interactive display and analysis of oriented 90 ~, and to one, if dip is equal to 0 ~ A
images (Luthi & Souhait~ 1990). About 34 500 correction coefficient equal to [1/cos(0)], where
planes were identified and mapped over 1672 m 0 is the mean dip value for a given bin, is usually
of basement, yielding an average of 20 planes applied to compensate for this sampling bias.
mapped per m. This dataset is analysed here in On the other hand, the number of planes
terms of raw fracture density versus depth (Fig. mapped from FMS images is affected by the
3). In order to organize this large dataset, the small size of FMS pads in O D P (Pezard et al.
planes were binned in terms of dip angle as 1990), implying a low relative surface coverage
subhorizontal (dip _<30~ intermediate (30 ~ of the borehole wall. During O D P Leg 148, only
_<dip < 60 ~ and subvertical (60 ~ _<dip _<85~ three pads of the FMS were operating due to a
sensor malfunction, and the surface coverage is
Corrections. On the one hand, FMS raw density only in the order of 12%. In comparison with
average for subvertical planes (5 planes per m) is FMS results derived from Hole 504B, the
FAULTING AND FLUID CIRCULATION AT DSDP/ODP SITE 504 315
400
600
8OO
} Upper
Fracture
Zone
Main
Fault
looo D Zone
1200
m
,~ 1400
160C
Lower
180C Fracture
No d a t a [No d a t a No data No data Zone
200G
2201 i i I I I I I I
Fig. 4. FMS plane density profiles derived from corrected data for both verticality and coverage effects. The
density profile is expressed by an average number of planes per metre. (a) Density for total planes; (b) Density for
subhorizontal planes (dip < 30~ (c) Density for intermediate planes (30~ dip < 60~ (d) Density for subvertical
planes (dip 60~ Large dots indicate recording file boundaries.
fracture distributions derived from O D P Hole imum are difficult to identify. It is assumed in
896A (Alt et al. 1993) and ODP Hole 917A the correction for this azimuthal bias that the
(Larsen et al. 1994), where the surface coverage main mode is representative of the true degree of
is in the order of 22%, the bias due to the fracturing at a given depth. This bias unfortu-
coverage effect is less pronounced (unpublished nately forbids any azimuthal analysis beyond
data). The two latter boreholes have a smaller 30 ~ of dip. A correction coefficient for each of
diameter (25.4 cm) than Hole 504B (30 cm), and the six dip bins is computed for the three chosen
the four pads of the FMS were operating during depth intervals. A correction coefficient average
logging of Holes 896A and 917A. For these is then computed by average for each dip class
reasons, surface coverage obtained in these two (1.3, 1.7, 2.1, 2.5, 3.1 and 4.4 are respectively the
holes is greater than in Hole 504B. As a coefficients (+0.5) for classes 0-15 ~ 15-30 ~ 30~
consequence, the FMS density should be cor- 45 ~ 45-60 ~ 60-75 ~ and 75-90~ In the follow-
rected for a bias due to poor coverage. The ing, the fracture density discussed is exclusively
correction method is briefly explained below. that corrected for both verticality and azimuthal
For the coverage correction in Hole 504B, the coverage effects (Fig. 4). This corrected density
FMS planes were divided with dip into six appears (Fig. 4) as five times greater (100m -1)
classes (0-15 ~ 15-30 ~ 30-45 ~ 45-60 ~ 60-75 ~ than that of raw data (20m-l; Fig. 3).
and 75-90~ An histogram of plane orientations
for each class is then plotted in three chosen C o r e description
intervals (500-550, 580-630 and 2000-2050
mbsf) of constant tool orientation. The azi- The core dataset used here is mapped and
muthal histograms show two clear modes (main described by Tartarotti et al. (1998). This
and minor) separated by 180 ~ except for structural study was focused on the mapping
subhorizontal planes (0-30 ~ where the max- of fractures, veins, breccia and rubble intervals
316 M. AYADI E T AL.
Fig. 5. (a) Recovery in percent obtained in the volcanics (275 to 1000 mbsf; on the left) and core plane density
(open fractures and veins) derived from corrected data for both verticality and recovery effects on the right (from
Tartarotti et al. 1998). (b) The minimum estimates of fracture porosity (to the left), derived from the difference
between the two DLL electrical resistivity measurements (LLs and LLd; Pezard & Anderson 1989), compared to
breccia and rubble intervals found in the cored section. Horizontal fracture porosity is represented by grey line,
vertical fracture porosity by black line, breccias by dark lozenges and rubbles by dark triangles. (c) FMS total
plane density derived from corrected data for both verticality and coverage effects, obtained in the volcanic
section (from 275 to 1000 mbsf). The number of planes is represented by crosses and the average density profile by
a dark line.
in the volcanic section. A total of 1112 macro- more abundant within the extrusive products
scopic fractures and veins were measured on (20m -1 on average) than in the sheeted dykes
core from the upper 1000m of the hole. The (10m -1 on average; Fig. 4b). This is probably
term fracture was restricted to open planar related to the radial patterns associated with
features without any mineral fill, and the term contractional cooling of the pillows. The inter-
veins to filled fractures. Cooling and drilling mediate and subvertical set dominate the sec-
features were excluded during mapping in order tion, with respective values of 30 m -1 and 50 m -1
to include only tectonic data. Vein selection was planes on average. Between 800 and 1100 mbsf,
adopted in order to avoid vein networks related the fracture density is found to increase with
to either incipient brecciation, or to contrac- increasing depth (Fig. 4). An increase with
tional cooling of pillow lavas. Fracture and vein increasing depth also obtained between 400
distribution plotted in Fig. 5a is the number of and 575 mbsf for planes with intermediate dips,
fractures and veins per metre over the consid- seems to be less pronounced than that obtained
ered depth interval. These data are also between 800 and 1100 mbsf. Between 1100 and
corrected for verticality, as described above. In 1600 mbsf, the fracture density decreases slightly
addition, core data must be corrected for with increasing depth, probably in relation to
recovery (Tartarotti et al. 1998). dyke cooling during and shortly after emplace-
ment. Another highly fractured zone is found
Results towards the present bottom of the hole, in
particular for subvertical fracturing. The pre-
We analyse first of all, downhole variations in sence of this zone may be related to drilling
FMS planes density. Subhorizontal planes are difficulties met during O D P Leg 148. These
FAULTING AND FLUID CIRCULATION AT DSDP/ODP SITE 504 317
Fig. 6. (a) Schematic of Hole 504B drilling history and lithostratigraphy after Leg 148. (b) To the left, minimum
fracture porosity of near-vertical conductive structures in the Hole 504B, derived from the difference between the
two DLL electrical resistivity measurements (LLs and LLd). The data were obtained at the opportunity of ODP
Legs 111 (1986; dark line) and 148 (1993; grey line). To the right, the estimates of apparent total porosity on the
basis of Archie's formula (dark line) and the free-fluid porosity (grey line) deduced from accounting for surface
conductivity due to clay minerals (Pezard 1990; Revil et al. 1996). (c) To the left, resistivity-derived open porosity
fraction (ratio of free fluid pore space to total pore space) and to the right, Young's modulus computed from
acoustic velocity measurements at dm-scale (and 20 kHz). The dotted line reflects an expected increase with
increasing depth. (d) FMS total plane density derived from corrected data for both verticality and coverage
effects. The number of planes is represented by crosses and the average density profile by a dark line.
results are compared in the following to the the core (e.g. about 430, 575, 850 mbsf; Fig. 5),
analysis of core data and geophysical logs. except at 500 mbsf where the core recovery is
The FMS density (100 m l, on average) is four zero (Fig. 5). The highly fractured zone between
times greater than that from core (25m -~, on 400 and 575 mbsf derived from FMS analysis
average) after correction. The planes mapped (Fig. 4) is confirmed by the core fracture and
from FMS correspond not only to natural vein analysis. Some of the planes, such as that
fractures but also to fractures induced by located near 430 or 575 mbsf, and deduced from
drilling. On the other hand, the FMS provides both core and FMS data, may be of tectonic
a nearly continuous image of basement struc- origin, and thus may relate to the presence of
tures, as opposed to the incomplete core which is fault planes. Below 800 mbsf, the fracture
affected by poor recovery (averaging 29.8% in density increase confirms the existence of the
the extrusive section in Hole 504B). When the main fault, elsewhere detected from seismic data,
recovery is under 30%, mapping fractures from as well as magnetic and electrical resistivity
core does not provide a representative dataset of measurements.
basement fracturing, even after correcting for Three methods to obtain porosity estimates
several potential sampling biases. Higher core from electrical resistivity measurements are
recovery appears to be biased in this hole to less detailed in Pezard et al. (1996) and provide a
fractured intervals (Fig. 5). An increase in the means to evaluate macroscopically the fractur-
number of planes mapped from FMS generally ing intensity and distribution in basement, as
corresponds to an increase in fracture density in well as to compute the open porosity fraction
318 M. AYADI E T AL.
Fig. 7. The upper fracture zone (from 400 to 575 mbsf). (a) To the left, the percentage of core recovery obtained in
the Hole 504B and to the right, the deep electrical resistivity profile (LLd). (b) Minimum DLL-derived horizontal
(grey line) and vertical (dark line) fracture porosity, on the right, and total plane density derived from corrected
FMS data, on the left. (c) Natural radioactivity profile, on the left; distribution of K-rich minerals and zeolites
derived from petrographic observation in thin sections, in the centre and right. (d) Intermediate plane density
derived from corrected FMS data, on the left; distribution of red alteration halos derived from visual observation
on cores and petrographic observations, on the right.
(ratio of open to total porosity). The porosity 1993 occurs near 800 mbsf (Fig. 6b), where a
profiles derived from electrical resistivity mea- steep discontinuity is also inferred from elec-
surements are in agreement with the fracture trical resistivity and magnetic data (Fig. 2). At
density distribution from FMS images (Fig. 6). this depth, a 20m thick interval was found in
Total and open porosity values obtained in the 1993 to be more extensively fractured than in
extrusives, averaging 10% and 3%, respectively, 1986, possibly due to re-activation of the fault
are higher than that obtained in the dykes, with after 1986. On average, 25% of the pore space
average values of 2% and 1% (Fig. 6b). The appears to be open to fluid circulation in the
fracture porosity (FP) deduced from the differ- basement of Hole 504B (Fig. 6b). Departures
ence between the two D L L electrical resistivity from this average value are found in the 30-m-
measurements (LLs and LLd) is qualitative and thick aquifer located in the upper basement with
a minimum estimate, and thus can be mislead- values up to 70%, and between 800 and 1100
ing. In Hole 504B, the FP profiles show intervals mbsf with values up to 40% (Fig. 6c).
of high values (in particular for vertical features) The mechanical characteristics of the base-
in the extrusives, with a spacing of about 80 m . ment, such as revealed by the Young's modulus
These intervals are interpreted to represent profile (Fig. 6c), can be derived from full
smaller blocks bounded by secondary faults waveform acoustic measurements (Fig. 2). De-
and brecciated zones in the upper part of Hole partures from the expected trend are found in
504B, with an actual spacing of about 10m. the 30m thick aquifer section in the upper
The main difference between the two fracture basement, near the base of the hole, and between
porosity (VFP) profiles recorded in 1986 and 800 to 1100 mbsf. In this zone, the reduced
FAULTING AND FLUID CIRCULATION AT DSDP/ODP SITE 504 319
Young's modulus is interpreted to correspond to Fluid circulation. The upper fracture zone is
a weakened crust, probably associated with located within the upper pillow alteration zone
repeated fracturing and mineralization from (UPAZ; Honnorez et al. 1983; Emmermann
hydrothermal alteration. This decrease in 1985; Alt et al. 1985, 1986; Laverne 1987). This
Young's modulus also corresponds to fractured fracture zone is characterized by the presence of
intervals derived from FMS images. zeolite veins, concentrated between 528 and 572
From this geophysical dataset and core mbsf (Fig. 7d). This interval (from 528 to 572
observations, three fault zones are distinguished mbsf) is characterized by high VFP values, high
in the crustal section penetrated by Hole 504B. FMS plane density and the occurrence of
These zones are here refered to as the upper breccias (Fig. 5b). These observations suggest
fracture zone (400 to 575 mbsf), the main fault that such an interval is highly fractured and
zone (800 to 1100 mbsf) and the lower fracture porous, and may represent a preferential conduit
zone (1700 to 2111 mbsf) which are analysed and for fluid circulation. Zeolites are interpreted to
discussed in the following. be derived from low temperature evolved fluids,
due to late off-axis hydrothermal circulation (Alt
et al. 1996).
Fault analysis The natural radioactivity (GR) profile can be
confronted to the FP profile. Low and high GR
In this part, individual fracture zones are values are associated with low and high FP
analysed in details on the basis of FMS images values, respectively (Fig. 7b,c). However, GR
and in terms of fracture density and mean minima are frequently located at the boundary
aperture. These results are compared to those between domains of contrasting FP, i.e. domi-
obtained by Tartarotti et al. (1998) and other nant contrasting fracture orientation. Along
studies (e.g. Agar 1990, 1991; Alt et al. 1986, such boundaries, metasomatic reactions, e.g.
1996; Pariso & Johnson 1991) which focused on leaching of alkalis, may have occurred due to
the upper core section of Hole 504B (extrusives contrasting permeability values thus explaining
and transition zone, see Fig. 2). FMS results are the GR decrease (Fig. 7c).
also compared to results derived from downhole The GR profile can be also confronted by the
geophysical measurements (e.g. Kinoshita et al. presence of K-bearing minerals in core (includ-
1989, Pezard et al. 1997). ing celadonite, phillipsite, and K-feldspar) de-
tected in thin sections. Phillipsite mainly fills
Upper f r a c t u r e z o n e ( 4 0 0 to 575 m b s f ) microfractures and replaces glass. Celadonite
and celadonite-smectite mixtures are much more
Fracturing. Within this interval, the FMS abundant than phillipsite, and occur in red and
fracture density with intermediate dips increases black alteration halos. Such oxidized halos are
linearly with increasing depth to reach average also parallel to fractures and exposed surfaces.
values of 55m 1 at about 520 mbsf, then The grey coloured internal part of the samples
decreases linearly down to 575 mbsf (Fig. 7). do not contain any celadonite but only saponite,
This depth corresponds to the top of lithologic which does not contain potassium. Recent study
Unit 27, a massive flow characterized by high of the 504B core (Alt et al. 1996; Fig. 7d) reveals
electrical resistivity values. A similar density that red halos comprise at least 27% of the
increase with increasing depth limited to frac- upper volcanic section . The highest percentage
tures with intermediate dips is obtained in ODP of red halos are not perfectly correlated with
Hole 896A (Alt et al. 1993) at the same depth the GR signals. However, in some cases (e.g.
into basement, about one km to the southeast of from 510 to 585 mbs0 the correlation between
Hole 504B (unpublished data). Within this GR profile and red halo distribution is good.
interval (400 to 575 mbsf), a maximum in red Thus, it is possible that most of the GR peaks
halo distribution (the percentage of alteration correspond to zones where alteration halos
red halos for each core interval, after Alt et al. occur.
1996), corresponds to high FMS fracture density In conclusion, evidences from core-logs-FMS
and low electrical resistivity values (except at 500 data indicate that the upper fracture zone
mbsf where the core recovery is zero). In the located between 400 and 575 mbsf is of tectonic
core, such oxidized halos are observed to be origin. This zone is constituted essentially, with
parallel to fractures and exposed surfaces. intermediate dipping fractures (30 ~ to 60~ and
This high fracturing intensity in the upper characterized by the presence of several porous
basement may be of tectonic origin, as a similar intervals associated with intense fluid circulation
signal is found in the core (fracture and vein at low-temperature where celadonite, celado-
density, and red halo profile). nite-smectite mixtures and saponite also occur.
320 M. AYADI ET AL.
Fig. 8. Composite profiles of geophysical logs and mineralogical logs from the main fault zone (from 800 to 1100
mbsf). (a) To the left, core recovery percentage and to the right, interval studied by Agar (1991) with some fault
planes presented (F). (b) Magnetic inclination computed from tri-axial magnetometre data recorded with the
orientation device of the FMS, is opposed to the Cu ppm values obtained from core. (c) Total plane density
derived from corrected FMS data, on the left; ppm values of Zn derived from core chemical analyses, on the right.
(d) Subhorizontal plane density derived from corrected FMS data on the left and open porosity fraction (free fluid
porosity over total porosity) on the right. (e) Apparent aperture in mm of planes directly mapped from FMS
images, on the left; distribution of breccias (triangles) and rubbies (circles) identified on core (Tartarotti et al.
1998 volume), on the right. (f) To the left, minimum porosity of near-vertical conductive structures. The data were
obtained seven years apart, at the opportunity of ODP legs 111 (1986, dark line) and 148 (1993, grey line). To the
right, distribution of zeolites derived from petrographic observation in thin sections. To the left-hand side, the
localization of the stockwork-like sulphide mineralization (Honnorez et al. 1983).
Zeolite (e.g. philipsite) veins are also found to be 800 to 1100 m b s f and is characterized by a high
concentrated in the lower part, and interpreted F M S fracture density, with a linear increase with
to be associated with low temperature circula- increasing depth (Fig. 8b). This interval is highly
tion. brecciated, in particular in the upper basement
section (Fig. 8e). A l t h o u g h the presently active
M a i n f a u l t z o n e ( 8 0 0 to 1100 m b s f ) part of the fault appears to be located within a
20 m thick interval below 800 mbsf, as deduced
Fracturing. Seismic data, d o w n h o l e geophysical from the difference between two FP profiles
logs, borehole wall images and core description recorded in 1986 and 1993 (Fig. 8f), it is difficult
obtained at Site 504 have led to infer the to identify a given fault trace. This rupture might
presence of a normal fault at about 800 mbsf in fact be a very recent one, and not representa-
(Kinoshita et al. 1989; Pezard & A n d e r s o n 1989; tive of repeated deformation. As a consequence,
Pezard et al. 1997). This fault displays dip this interval is discussed in the following in terms
shallowing toward the ridge axis (Fig. 1), either of fault zones rather than individual traces.
gradually (lystric model) or abruptly. F M S data Several discrete deformation traces or fault
suggest a m e a n dip of about 45 ~ for a fault planes are identified between 800 and 1100 mbsf.
meeting the hole within the interval from 800 to The open porosity fraction (OPF) profile pro-
1100 m b s f (Fig. 4c). The fault zone spans from vides an average in the main fault zone of 40%,
FAULTING AND FLUID CIRCULATION AT DSDP/ODP SITE 504 321
and discrete m scale intervals with values explained by a rapid cooling and alteration after
exceeding 60% (Fig. 8d). These intervals often the circulation of hydrothermal fluids at high
correspond to maxima in FMS subhorizontal temperatures (from 200 up to 400 ~ charac-
fracture density (e.g. about 890, 1020, 1040, 1075 teristic of axial hydrothermal processes (Pariso
mbsf), and very variable values of apparent & Johnson 1991). This 150m thick interval is
aperture of FMS planes (Fig. 8e). At 890 mbsf, a one of low frequency signal in downhole
fault plane identified in core and described as measurements (Fig. 8) of total magnetic field
dipping about 30 ~ lies at the base of a sequence and inclination, due to the weak intensity of
of minor faults with decreasing dip with depth remanent magnetization.
(Agar 1991). At this depth, an anomaly in The main fault zone located between 800 and
temperature gradient profile recorded during 1100 mbsf is mineralogically characterized by
Leg 148, is also observed (Guerin et al. 1996). the occurrence of greenschist facies (e.g. actino-
The m scale zones (with OPF > 70%), such as lite, chlorite, epidote, quartz). This zone is also
that located at about 890 mbsf might be characterized by the presence of zeolite-rich
interpreted as present sites of deformation with- veins, in particular between 880 and 1000 mbsf.
in the main fault zone (Pezard et al. 1997). Zeolite veins are interpreted by Alt et al. (1996)
Although the observation of vein filling at 890 to result from low temperature evolved fluids,
mbsf suggests a normal component of move- due to off-axis hydrothermal circulation. The
ment accommodating extension in the hanging occurrence of minerals of the greenschist facies
wall of the fault identified at seismic scale (Agar together with zeolites further suggests that the
1991), present deformation evidences are found crust underwent successive stages of alteration
directly above, probably in relation to the due to varying circulating fluids (Alt et al. 1986;
present compressional stress regime found in Agar 1990, 1991).
the upper basement (Moos & Zoback 1990). Within the main fault zone, the stockwork-
From about 850 to 1000 mbsf, the FMS like sulphide mineralization (Honnorez et al.
subhorizontal fracture density and apparent 1983) occurs between 900 and 920 mbsf, and is
aperture decrease with increasing depth, in a characterized by a network of mineralized veins,
zone corresponding to intense brecciation (Fig. mainly composed of greenschist facies minerals
8d,e). Within this interval, steeply dipping fault and large sulphide crystals. This interval is
planes (about 70~ such as that at about 905 and interpreted to have served as a conduit for hot
925 mbsf are identified in core, providing fluids (Agar 1991). The same depth interval
evidences of polyphase deformation (Agar (from 900 to 920 mbsf) is observed to be very
1991). The steeper planes (at about 905 and brecciated (Fig. 8e) and characterized by the
925 mbsf; Fig. 8a) are interpreted as older fault presence of zeolite veins (Fig. 8f).
planes developed in an extensional setting and In conclusion, the hydrothermal alteration
later reactivated in relation to the present developed initially in the main fault zone under
compressional stress regime in upper basement. greenschist facies conditions then, later, was
In conclusion, the main fault zone spanning overprinted by zeolite facies conditions. These
from 800 to 1100 mbsf is characterized by the two superimposed metamorphic facies are then
presence of discrete deformation intervals, where attributed to hydrothermal alteration that took
fault planes are a result of the earlier extension place, respectively, on-axis at temperatures from
and later (to/present) compression at Site 504. 200 ~ to 400~ and off-axis at lower tempera-
tures lower than 250~ Within this main fault
Fluid circulation. Within the main fault zone, the zone, the stockwork-like sulphide mineralization
chemical properties are also found to be interval is interpreted to have probably served as
modified, as characterized in alteration miner- a preferential conduit for both hot and, later,
alogy (e.g. Cu and Zn; Fig. 8b, c). Such changes much colder fluids.
are in relation with early normal faulting and
hot fluids circulation. In addition, besides a step
change of 4 ~ in downhole total magnetic field L o w e r f r a c t u r e zone (1700 m b s f to 2111
inclination at 800 mbsf (Fig. 8b), the magnetic mbsf)
properties are found to be strongly modified
over an interval spanning from 900 to 1050 mbsf Fracturing. The lower part of Hole 504B,
(Pariso & Johnson 1991). The intensity of between 1700 mbsf and the present bottom of
magnetization and the magnetic susceptibility the hole (2111 mbsf), is characterized by a global
of samples in this interval are one to two orders increase in FMS fracture density with increasing
of magnitude lower than that obtained in the depth (Figs 4 & 9b), as opposed to the gradual
crust above and below. These low values are decrease with depth observed above, between
322 M. AYADI E T A L.
Fig. 9. Composite profiles illustrating geophysical logs in the lower fracture zone. (a) core recovery percentage. (b)
To the left, the deep electrical resistivity profile (LLd) and to the right, the total plane density derived from
corrected FMS data. (c) Open porosity fraction (free fluid porosity over total porosity), on the left; subhorizontal
plane density derived from corrected FMS data, on the right. (d) Apparent aperture in mm of planes directly
mapped from FMS images, on the left; temperature gradient recorded at the end of coring operations during
ODP leg 140, on the right. Distribution of zeolites derived from petrographic observation in thin sections are
presented on this diagram (closed circles).
1100 to 1700 mbsf (Fig. 4). This zone is also low recovery zone (Fig. 9a). The poor recovery
characterized by discrete m-scale intervals with at this depth (1890 to 1800) may be associated
high values of open porosity fraction, in places with a very fractured and/or brecciated zone.
exceeding 30% (Fig. 9c). These intervals often Broken material is naturally less recovered than
correspond to maxima in FMS subhorizontal massive material in the core. Several m scale
fracture density and large although scattered intervals appear to be characterized by a
values of apparent aperture of FMS planes (e.g. decrease in electrical resistivity values (at about
about 1720, 1925, 2000 mbsf). These m scale 1825, 1860 and 1925 mbsf; Fig. 9b). The low
zones are similar to the one found in the main electrical resistivity values often correspond to
fault zone (at about 1005, 1020, 1035, 1065, and high OPF and FMS density values for horizon-
1080 mbsf; Fig. 8), and may indicate the present tal planes (Fig. 9c). These discrete m scale
sites of deformation, in relation to the compres- intervals may be interpreted as resulting from
sional (above 1500 mbsf) to strike-slip (below the present deformations, in relation to com-
1700 mbsf) stress regime proposed by Pezard et pressive to strike-slip stresses.
al. (1995) from the base of Hole 504B. The deformation zone located at about 1925
No FMS data were recorded over the section mbsf corresponds to an abrupt decrease in
spanning from 1890 to 1800 mbsf, as the sensor electrical resistivity. The FMS plane azimuths
was closed, hence inoperative, to avoid it getting and dips show a maximum of subhorizontal
stuck. This interval with rapid changes in hole fracture density between 1920 and 1940 mbsf
size and numerous restrictions corresponds to a (Fig. 10a), which corresponds to a subhorizontal
FAULTING AND FLUID CIRCULATION AT DSDP/ODP SITE 504 323
Fig. 10. (a) Plane azimuths and dips mapped from FMS images over the interval spanning from 1900 to 2100 mbsf
represented versus depth. Subhorizontal (dip < 30~ closed triangle), 'intermediate' (30~ dip < 60~ plus sign),
subvertical (60~ dip < 85~ vertical bars), and steep fractures (dip 85~ closed circles) are discriminated with
different symbols. (b) Schmidt equal area projection in lower hemisphere of 998 plane poles derived from FMS
images over 20 metres (from 1920 to 1940 mbsf) of basaltic crust crossed by Hole 504B.
fault zone located in the lower part of Hole 504B (1) sea water circulation caused by drilling;
(Ayadi et al. 1996). The geometry distribution (2) hydrothermal fluid circulation at low tem-
suggests that the average of subhorizontal planes perature ( < 250~ within the fault planes.
is dipping 25 ~ to the south (Fig. 10b), thus away
from the ridge axis.
In conclusion, the lower fracture zone is The temperature gradient profile obtained in
characterized by the presence of several m scale Hole 504B during O D P Leg 140 within this
faulting intervals which correspond to the lower fracture zone, suggests the presence of
present sites of deformation, associated with intervals with high permeability corresponding
the compressive to strike-slip stresses. This stress to an increase of temperature gradient values,
regime generated a subhorizontal fault zone (1825 and 1860 mbsf). One of these intervals
located between 1920 and 1940 mbsf, with (near 1825 mbsf) is characterized by the presence
average dips of about 25 ~ to the south. of zeolite rich veins (Fig. 9d). These intervals
may correspond to active fault planes which
Fluid circulation. Although the interval spanning constitute a preferential conduit to fluid circula-
from 1700 to 2111 mbsf is mainly characterized tion at a relatively low temperature.
by amphibolite and greenschist facies alteration, In conclusion, we infer that this lower fracture
local zeolites crystallized at much colder tem- zone was submitted first to an alteration due to
peratures are also identified (Dick et al. 1992; fluid circulation at high temperatures resulting
Alt et al. 1993; Laverne et al. 1995; Tartarotti et in greenschist facies minerals crystallization, and
al. 1995; Fig. 9d). The zeolites fill the veins later a cooling due to low temperature fluid
together with amphiboles, and are considered as circulation and/or sea water circulation due to
the most recent alteration stage (Alt et al. 1993). drilling. Active fault planes were probably the
The occurrence of zeolites at this depth can be preferential place of cooling and occurrence of
explained by: low-temperature minerals, such as zeolites.
324 M. AYADI ET AL.
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WILKENS, R. H. 1997. Detailed structure of an
Quartz cement volumes across oil-water contacts in oil fields from
petrography and wireline logs: preliminary results from the Magnus
Field, Northern North Sea
S. A. B A R C L A Y & R. H. W O R D E N
School o f Geosciences, The Queen's University o f Belfast, Belfast, B T 7 I N N , Northern
Ireland
The distribution of quartz cement is a major reservoir and wettability (Worden et al. 1998).
control on sandstone reservoir quality (Coskun Oil inclusions are not u n c o m m o n in quartz
et al. 1993). Quartz cement can reduce porosity cements although these are often considered to
by occluding pores, thus reducing oil volume. It form early in oil-filling history before maximum
can also have an effect on permeability by the oil saturation was achieved (Larter & Aplin
general reduction in porosity and specifically by 1995). The oil trapped in the inclusions is often
reducing the diameter of pore throats. less mature than the oil in the reservoir (Larter &
One of the major factors that has widely been Aplin 1995). In areas where the oil source rock
assumed to either retard, or halt quartz cemen- was progressively being buried and heated (e.g.
tation in a reservoir is the prior emplacement of the North Sea), migrated oil to the reservoir
oil (e.g. Glasmann et al. 1989; Robinson & became more mature with time. This suggests
Gluyas 1992). It is commonly assumed that that oil inclusions are typically formed during
replacing water in the pores by oil must halt the early stages of reservoir filling and do not
inorganic geochemical processes including those permit the implication of continued quartz
involved in quartz cementation. This assumption cementation at maximum oil saturation.
however does not take account of either the Gluyas et al. (1993) illustrated an inverse
preferred wetting state of the reservoir or the relationship between quartz cement volume and
source of the silica in the quartz cement. oil inclusion abundance, with the greatest
Although a reservoir may have reached max- abundance of oil inclusions at the crest of the
imum oil saturation, it can be water wet and the field. Assuming reservoirs fill from the crest to
pore network can be filled with approximately the flank (England et al. 1987), this inverse
20% water. There exists, therefore, the possibi- relationship allows us to infer that early-
lity of continued silica transport, quartz dissolu- migrated oil was trapped to form oil inclusions
t i o n a n d silica p r e c i p i t a t i o n a f t e r oil at the crest and that as the oil saturation of the
emplacement. reservoir decreased towards the flanks, the
The possibility of quartz cementation con- growth of quartz cement was less inhibited
tinuing in the presence of oil is strongly towards the flanks of the field (Gluyas et al.
influenced by the water saturation of the 1993).
BARCLAY,S. A. & WORDEN,R. H. 1998. Quartz cement volumes across oil-water contacts in oil fields 327
from petrography and wireline logs: preliminary results from the Magnus Field, Northern North Sea
In." HARVEY,P. K. • LOVELL,M. A. (eds) Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London,
Special Publications, 136, 327-339
328 S.A. BARCLAY & R. H. WORDEN
Fig. 1. Maps showing location of Magnus field in Northern North Sea and well locations.
Quartz is usually preferentially water-wet should not be used as proof that quartz
(Schlangen et al. 1995; Barclay & Worden cementation continues after reservoir filling.
1997). One of the key problems with the However, oil inclusions may still be used to
formation of oil inclusions is the mechanism of show that oil emplacement and quartz cementa-
trapping a non-wetting fluid. Macleod et al. tion occurred synchronously in a reservoir as oil
(1993) showed that oil in inclusions is enriched inclusions cannot form in the absence of oil in
in polar compounds compared to the oil in the the reservoir.
reservoir. Brown & Neustadter (1980) and In this paper, we describe the distribution of
Schlangen et al. (1995) have both demonstrated quartz cement across the oil-water contact
that polar compounds can act as surfactant for (OWC) of a submarine fan sandstone hydro-
the water-oil~tuartz system, altering the wetting carbon reservoir: the Magnus Field in the
preference of quartz from hydrophilic to oleo- Northern North Sea, UKCS. We have used a
philic. This might permit quartz to trap droplets combination of point-count data and wireline
of oil thus forming oil inclusions although how analysis methods to examine the distribution of
an oil-wet system allows quartz cementation to quartz cement and the bulk distribution of
occur remains to be understood. quartz in the reservoir. The results obtained
The evidence presented above implies that oil allow us to draw conclusions on;
inclusions form in conditions that are potentially
unrepresentative of the reservoir at maximum oil (1) the possibility of quartz cementation con-
saturation with a mature oil, and therefore tinuing after oil emplacement in Magnus;
QUARTZ CEMENT VOLUMES ACROSS OIL-WATER CONTACTS 329
Table 1. Reservoir lithofacies in the Magnus field. Lithofacies IV is the most important in terms of the volume of
trapped petroleum
Term Definition
1981), and the three wireline logs used could diagenetic quartz as well as feldspars. This is
differentiate between them successfully. because the three wireline logs used are insensi-
The rationale behind the mineralogy-deriva- tive to changes in quartz type (i.e. the difference
tion method is that different minerals have between detrital and authigenic quartz), also
different characteristic responses to the sonic, quartz and feldspar have a very similar response
neutron and density tools. The signals from the on these logs. Therefore the wireline 'quartz'
sonic transit time, neutron porosity and bulk data actually represents a 'pseudo-quartz' value
density logs can be integrated and resolved for which may be defined:
three mineral types and total porosity using
three algorithms relating each separate log ' p s e u d o - q u a r t z ' = m o n o - and poly-crystalline
signal at any given depth to solid grain volume detrital quartz + quartz cement + feldspar (5)
(occupied by the three minerals) and the
assumption that the sum of the three mineral The gamma log has often been used in the
fractions plus porosity equals unity. This ap- past to quantify the clay content of reservoir
proach also assumes a linear relationship be- sandstones (Hearst & Nelson 1985). The com-
tween mineral proportions and their posite gamma log records the total potassium,
contribution to the response on any of the logs thorium and uranium content of the rock; the
used. Therefore, with four equations and four spectral gamma log differentiates between the
unknowns (the proportions of the three minerals gamma radiation from the three elements. As
and porosity), the following algorithms (equa- most clay minerals do not contain any potas-
tions 1 to 4) can be solved simultaneously at sium, the composite g a m m a log and the
each depth. potassium spectral gamma log indiscriminately
record the total abundance of potassium feld-
At = minl .Attain1 + min2. A tmin2 + min3.Atmin3 spar, illite and mica. Potassium feldspar is not
+ At. O (1) uncommon in the Magnus Sandstone (classified
as sub-arkosic; De'Ath & Schuyleman 1981)
p = minl .Pminl + min2.Prnin2 + min3.Pmin3 + p.O which also contains smaller quantities of mica
(2) and potassium-bearing clays such as illite. Using
the composite gamma log to attempt to estimate
On = minl .Onminl -+-min2.0nmin2 + min3.0nmin3 the clay content of the Magnus Sandstone will
+ On.O (3) produce artificially high estimates of the clay
content. The problem is compounded because
1 = m i n l +min2 + min3 + O (4) many detrital feldspars contain variable and
unpredictable quantities of potassium. The
The terms used in equations (1) to (4) are thorium gamma signal (derived from the spec-
defined in Table 2. The sonic transit time, tral gamma log), has been used in the past to
neutron porosity and bulk density wireline identify and quantify the amount of kaolinite in
responses for the three minerals were taken sandstones (Serra et al. 1980; Quirein et al.
from Rider (1986). 1982). However, Hurst & Milodowski (1996)
The value of'quartz' derived from the wireline have recently shown that the thorium gamma
data used includes all types of detrital and signal reflects the abundance of thorium-bearing
332 S.A. BARCLAY & R. H. WORDEN
D 3200
D
3150 ~>
3220 ~?
3160 C>
3240 -~
3170 r
o
0 3260 > WDt
~> B[]
3180 E>
3280 9~ 2 owc
"~
=, 3190
[>
3300 ~
OWC
E> Q~
~" 3200
3320
E>
3220 3360 ~
3230 3380
9 Wireline pseudo-quartz 9 Wireline pseudo-quartz
[] Point-count pseudo-quartz [] Point-count pseudo-quartz
A Point-count quartz cement zxPoint-count quartz cement
Fig. 4. Variation of point-count quartz cement fraction Fig. 5. Variation of point-count quartz cement fraction
(open triangles), point-count pseudo-quartz (open (open triangles), point-count pseudo-quartz (open
squares) and wireline pseudo-quartz (black circles) squares) and wireline pseudo-quartz (black circles)
across the oil-water contact (OWC) for 211/12a-11. across the oil-water contact (OWC) for 211/12a-09.
heavy minerals (e.g. monazite) within the the basis of 200 solid grain counts (with porosity
sandstone, and bears no genetic relationship to counted on a separate channel) per section. The
the amount of kaolinite. point count data were also converted into
It was therefore not possible to use the gamma fractional values of point-count pseudo-quartz
wireline logs to quantify potassium feldspar or using equation (5) to facilitate comparison
clay in the reservoir, because of the ambiguities between wireline and petrographic data.
inherent in the allocation of the radioactive
potassium or thorium signal to feldspar and clay
minerals. Results
Table 3. Calculated means (+ standard deviations) for the point-count quartz cement fraction, point-count pseudo-
quartz fraction and wireline pseudo-quartz fraction in each of the studied wells. Values shown are on a scale of O to I
1.0 0.20
(a) 211/12a-ll L * * * ~ __J.. (a) 211/12a-ll
0.8 1:1 correlation line]
0.15-
0.6 / ."
0.10-
0.4
0.2
J
['i:1 correlation line 0.05-
#*
~o J O
0.0
0.0
J, 0.2 01.4
i
0.6 01.8 1.0
0.00 ' '
O 9
*,
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Wireline pseudo-quartzfraction Point-count pseudo-quartzfraction
Fig. 7. Cross-plots of point-count pseudo-quartz and Fig. 8. Cross plots of point-count quartz cement and
wireline pseudo-quartz for wells 211 / 12a- 11, 211 / 12a- point-count pseudo-quartz for wells 211/12a-11, 211/
09 and 211/7-1, respectively. 12a-09 and 211/7-1, respectively.
any of the three wells (Figs 7-9; Table 3). This the l:l correlation line on each plot, suggesting
suggests that the total amount of quartz is that there is a reasonably good correlation
uniformly distributed about the OWC in Mag- between petrographically- and petrophysically-
nus. The mean amount of point-count quartz determined total quartz volumes. These results
cement also does not vary significantly across indicate that the wireline pseudo-quartz value
the OWC (Table 3). There is a slight difference in can be used to estimate the total quartz volume
well 211/7-1, where the amount of point-count in a reservoir.
quartz cement increases from 0.04 in the oil leg
to 0.07 in the water leg (both values on a scale of Comparison of point-count and wireline
0 to 1), but this change falls within the range of pseudo-quartz with point-count quartz
the standard deviation.
cement data
Comparison of point-count pseudo-quartz The point-count and wireline pseudo-quartz
and wireline pseudo-quartz data versus point-count quartz cement data for wells
211 / 12a- 11, 211 / 12a-09 and 211/7-1 are plotted
The point-count pseudo-quartz and wireline in Figs 8a-c and 9a-c. The data for these three
pseudo-quartz data for wells 211/12a-11, 211/ wells do not plot near to the 1:1 line and do not
12a-09 and 211/7-1 are plotted in Fig. 7a to c. correlate. The pseudo-quartz values are com-
The data for all three wells falls on, or near to, posed of more than one quartz type (quartz
QUARTZ CEMENT VOLUMES ACROSS OIL-WATER CONTACTS 335
0.20 Quartz %
___J_ (a) 211/12a-ll
(a)
1:1 correlation line
0.15
Oil leg
0.10 L OW(
0.05 Waterleg
r
/ (b) 211/12a-09 Co)
!: 1 correlation line[
0.15
/ OWC
Oil leg
t.
=
0.10
;:':. Waterleg
0.05
~
=
o
(c)
~
o / (c) 211/7-1
0.10 Waterleg
0.05
cement, mono- and polycrystalline detrital (1) the source of the cement---external or
quartz) and includes feldspar (see equation 5), internal to the reservoir;
whilst the point-count quartz cement value (2) the specific effects of oil emplacement on
represents quartz cement only, with no con- quartz cementation--whether oil emplace-
tribution from detrital quartz or feldspar. ment halts quartz cementation (e.g. Gluyas
However, these data (Figs 8a-c and 9a-c) are et al. 1993), or allows continued quartz
useful because they show that the total quartz cementation (e.g. Bjorlykke & Egeberg
volume does not increase with increasing quartz 1993);
cement contents. This suggests that the occur- (3) the relative timing of quartz cementation
rence of quartz cement in Magnus was not and oil emplacement control the distribu-
associated with an increase in the overall tion of quartz cement across an OWC
amount of quartz in the reservoir. (Emery et al. 1993).
\ Timing
(relative to oil Wettability Quartz cement distribution
emplacement)
~
9 0.6- (is water-we0
(b)
~, 0.4- Water-wet
be relatively unaffected and the volume of quartz wireline pseudo-quartz change significantly
cement above and below the OWC should be across the oil-water contact shows that
effectively identical. quartz cementation in the Magnus reser-
After oil filling, the Sw value is usually < 20- voir was largely unaffected by the emplace-
25% (Hearst & Nelson 1985). In water wet ment of oil.
reservoirs, this residual water exists in the form (6) The reported presence of oil-filled fluid
of grain-coating films. Transport of silica in the inclusions in quartz cement and the re-
oil-leg will be adversely affected by the reduced ported simultaneous oil generation and
water volume and the increased tortuosity of the quartz cementation suggest that quartz
water film so that the amount of quartz cement cementation occurred in the presence of
precipitated above the O W C should be recog- oil. However, the lack of correlation
nizably reduced relative to the aquifer (all other between total quartz and quartz cement
things being equal). and the uniform quartz cement volumes in
In oil wet reservoirs, the rate of silica diffusion the oil and water legs seem to indicate that
and the access of the aqueous medium to the the reservoir was water-wet at the time of
sites of would-be dissolution and precipitation cementation and that the water saturation
should be radically reduced from the early stages must still have been very high during
of oil filling and should be effectively zero at quartz cementation and that the silica
maximum oil saturations. Oil wet reservoirs forming the cement was locally sourced.
should present differences in quartz cement
content about the O W C even at the earliest
The authors would like to thank British Petroleum Ltd
stages of oil emplacement for synchronous (and J. Rowse in particular) for supplying the
quartz cementation and oil filling. petrographic data and the wireline log data, and also
If we concur that oil emplacement and quartz the two reviewers for their comments.
cementation were synchronous in Magnus then
we can also conclude that the quartz cementa-
References
tion must have occurred at the earliest stages of
oil filling and that Magnus was water wet at the ARCHER, J. S. & WALL, C. G. 1994. Petroleum
time of cementation. Any other scenario of engineering." principles and practice. Graham &
wettability or Sw (i.e. exact timing of oil Trotman, London.
emplacement) would produce differences in BARCLAY, S. A. 8,~ WORDEN, R. H. 1997. Reservoir
quartz cement content not observed in the wettability and its effect upon cementation in oil
Magnus field. fields. In: HENDRY, J., CAREY, P., PARNELL, J.,
RUVVELL,A. & WORDEN, R. H. (eds) Geofluids H
'97." Contributions to the Second International
Conclusions Conference on Fluid Evolution, Migration and
Interaction in Sedimentary Basins and Orogenic
(1) The wireline (petrophysical) pseudo-quartz Belts. Belfast, Northern Ireland, 10-14 March,
values correlate reasonably well with the 264-267.
point-count (petrographic) pseudo-quartz BJORLYKKE, K. & EGEBERG, P. K. 1993. Quartz
values. Both techniques can thus be used to cementation in sedimentary basins. American
examine the distribution of bulk quartz Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 77,
across the oil-water contact in the Magnus 1538-1548.
BROWN, C. E. & NEUSTADTER, E. L. 1980. The
reservoir. wettability of oil/water/silica systems with refer-
(2) Neither the wireline pseudo-quartz nor the ence to oil recovery. Journal of Canadian Petro-
point-count pseudo-quartz values correlate leum Technology, 19, 100-110.
with the point-count quartz cement values COSKUN, S. B., WARDLAW,N. C. & HAVERSLEW,B.
and are not good indicators of quartz 1993. Effects of composition, texture and diagen-
cement values in the Magnus reservoir. esis on porosity, permeability and oil recovery in a
(3) The lack of correlation of total quartz sandstone. Journal of Petroleum Science and
content and quartz cement implies that Engineering, 8, 279-292.
silica was not imported into the reservoir. DE'ATH, N. G. & SCHUYLEMAN, S. F. 1981. The
geology of the Magnus oilfield. In: ILLING,L. V. &
(4) The point-count quartz cement, point- HOBSON, G. D. (eds) Petroleum Geology of the
count pseudo-quartz and the wireline Continental Shelf of North- West Europe. Heyden,
pseudo-quartz appear not to change sig- London, 342=-351.
nificantly across the oil-water contact in DICKSON,J. A. D. 1965. A modified staining technique
the Magnus Sandstone Member. for carbonates in thin section. Nature, 205, 587.
(5) The fact that neither the point-count quartz DOVETON, J. H. 1994. Geologic log analysis using
cement, point-count pseudo-quartz and computer methods, AAPG computer applications in
QUARTZ CEMENT VOLUMES ACROSS OIL-WATER CONTACTS 339
T. S. B R E W E R 1, P. K. H A R V E Y l, M . A. L O V E L L 1, S. H A G G A S l, G. W I L L I A M -
S O N 1 & P. P E Z A R D 2
1Leicester University Borehole Research, Department of Geology, University of Leicester,
Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK.
2 Laboratoire de Pdtrologie Magmatique, UPRES 6018, FacultO des Sciences et Techniques
de Saint-Jdrome, Avenue Escadrille Normandie-Niemen, F-13397 Marseille Cedex 20,
France
Abstract: The volcanic architecture of oceanic crust records the diversity in volcanic activity
during its development in the neovolcanic zone of individual ridge systems. Potentially there
exists a spectrum of lithological architectures which may primarily be related to the
spreading rate and the dynamics of individual magma chambers along different ridges.
Recent studies have emphasized the observable spatial variations within different
neovolcanic zones, although direct extrapolation into the third dimension can only be
achieved by the use of drilling results. To study the structure of the volcanic layer it is
essential that individual lithologies (sheet flows, pillow lavas and/or breccias) can be
discriminated from the core and/or logging results and mapped within the borehole.
Unfortunately a problem with the drilling of the volcanic basement during the Ocean
Drilling Program has been the generally low (typically c. 25%) and biased core recoveries,
which produce an erroneous picture of the lithological diversity of the volcanics. This
problem is further compounded by the difficulty in determining the volcanic stratigraphy,
particularly when the key information is lost during coring (i.e. boundaries/contacts).
Downhole logging provides near continuous records of the physical/chemical properties of
the borehole which when integrated with core measurements, yield a detailed picture of the
architecture of the volcanic layer. Logging results from ODP Hole 896A are of sufficient
quality that sheet flows, pillow lavas and brecciated units can be discriminated and mapped
effectively within the borehole. From their distribution it is evident that sheet flows become
more abundant in the lower part of the hole, which probably correlates with ridge axis
volcanism whereas, the predominance of pillow lava flows (< 340 mbsf (metres below sea
floor)) in the upper part of the hole, is probably related to off-axis volcanism within the
neovolcanic zone.
Construction of the ocean crust is one of the volcanic layer (Smith & C a n n 1992). The
most fundamental processes of the earth and has stratigraphy of the volcanic pile is important
been operating for at least 2.0 Ga in its present since it is a function of:
form and probably in a similar or slightly
modified form since the earliest history of the (a) the distribution of volcanism within the
earth (Windley 1995). Until the mid 1970s the neovolcanic zone (rift valley);
inaccessibility of ocean floor limited models of (b) how it controls fluid circulation and
the structure of ocean crust to the classic layered secondary alteration;
stratigraphy (Fig. 1; Hill 1957; Raitt 1963), (c) its influence on chemical fluxes during the
support for which was provided by extensive evolution of the crust.
studies on ophiolite complexes. Recent studies
have questioned the nature of the layer 2/3 Ocean drilling (DSDP and ODP) provides
boundary, suggesting this is a metamorphic important information (core samples) in the
transition and not a lithological b o u n d a r y construction of the volcanic stratigraphy, but a
(Detrick et al. 1994) and a further on-going limitation is often imposed by the poor and
debate is concerned with the architecture of the biased core recovery which generally charac-
BREWER,T. S., HARVEY,P. K., LOVELL,M. A., HAGGAS,S., WILLIAMSON,G. 8z PEZARD,P. 1998. 341
Ocean floor volcanism: constraints from the integration of core and downhole logging measurements
In- HARVEY,P. K. d~;LOVELL,M. A. (eds) Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London,
Special Publications, 136, 341-362
342 T.S. BREWER E T AL.
Fig. 1. Typical layered model for normal ocean crust, modified from Wilson (1989) and Brown & Mussett (1981).
For comparison the lithostratigraphies of ODP Holes 504B and 896A are shown, data from Alt et al. (1993). The
position of the layer 2/3 boundary in hole 504B is after Detrick et al. (1994).
terizes basement holes (i.e. < 25%). sets. In integrating core and logging data an
Biasing of the core record toward the rheolo- obvious feature is that the core and logging data
gically more competent units (e.g. pillow inter- are determined by techniques which have
iors and massive units) induces a pronounced different precisions and accuracy. Even in the
systematic biasing in the recovered lithologies, case where an individual core and log are
which leads to large errors in the calculated core recorded from the same apparent depth interval,
lithostratigraphy (Brewer et al. 1995; Harvey et there may be a considerable variation induced
al. 1995). In contrast, downhole logging results where recovery in the core barrel is < 100%, due
provide near continuous records of the physical to:
and/or chemical properties of the borehole,
which for some measurements are represented (a) incorrect depth assignment of individual
as images of the borehole walls (e.g. Formation core pieces;
Microscanner: FMS T M (Mark of Schlumber- (b) analysis of material by the logging tools
ger)). By integrating the core and downhole which is not present in the core;
logging measurements, potential exists to allow (c) analysis of a different sample volumes.
the 3 dimensional geometry of the crust to be
explored and to evaluate how magmatic and
secondary (alteration) processes relate to the Geological setting
observed lithological anisotropy.
To demonstrate the potential of this ap- In the equatorial east Pacific, the Cocos-Nazca
proach, data have been used from ODP Hole spreading centre consists of the Galapagos,
896A which penetrates c.290m of volcanic Ecuador and Costa Rica Rifts. This rift system
basement. An important issue prior to any was initiated approximately 27 Ma ago, by the
integration of core and downhole measurements formation of the Galapagos Triple Junction
is an appreciation of the quality (precision and (Hey et al. 1977; Lonsdale & Klitgord 1978),
accuracy) and limitations of the different data- which produced a triangular wedge, the Gala-
OCEAN FLOOR VOLCANISM 343
Fig. 2. Location of ODP holes 504B and 896A in the eastern Equatorial Pacific, modified from Hobart et al.
(1985). Insets shows the detailed location of Hole 896A, being situated on a bathymetric high (b) which overlies a
basement high characterized by elevated heat flow (c). Insets from Langseth et al. (1988).
pagos Gore (Holden & Dietz 1972, Dick et al. crust. Hole 896A is located approximately 1 km
1992). The Costa Rica Rift is the easternmost of to the south-east of Hole 504B in crust
the three rift segments, and separates the Cocos ~ 2 . 8 x 104 years older than at Hole 504B. Hole
and Nazca plates (Fig. 2); the rift system spreads 896A is located on a bathymetric high overlying
asymmetrically at an intermediate rate (half rate a basement topographic high (Fig. 2). No
of 3.6 cm yr -1 to the south and 3.0 cm yr -1 to the attempt was made to recover the sedimentary
north). cover and the position of sediment/basement
With the drilling of Ocean Drilling Program interface was based upon rubble being felt by the
Hole 896A, two deep basement holes (Holes drill bit at 179 mbsf and the hole was cored from
504B and 896A) now penetrate oceanic crust 195.1 mbsf to 469 mbsf (Alt et al. 1993). In the
formed at the Costa Rica Rift (Fig. 2). Hole drilled section, core recovery averaged 26.9%
504B, the deepest basement hole in oceanic crust and this was divided into pillow lavas (57%),
so far drilled, is located approximately 200 km to massive flows (38%) and breccias (5%) and two
the south of the Costa Rica Rift, in 5.9 Ma old small dykes, based on visual descriptions (Table
344 T.S. BREWER E T AL.
1). The basalts are sparsely to highly phyric to be imaged by the resistivity measurements
tholeiites, with plagioclase and olivine dominat- used to produce the FMS images. Thus, pillow
ing the phenocryst assemblage, although be- lavas are characterized by anastomizing net-
tween 353.1 and 392.1 mbsf clinopyroxene is works of fractures, whereas the massive units
present as a phenocryst phase (Alt et al. 1993). have a more ordered steeply dipping fracture
With the exception of pillow rims, the majority network (Brewer et al. 1996).
of the rocks are slightly altered (< 10%) and
variably veined (Alt et al. 1993). Pervasive
background reducing alteration coupled with Volcanology of the Costa Rica-Galapagos
saponite and minor pyrite replacement of olivine
has led to the grey colour of the core. Oxidative Rift
alteration is manifested by dark grey to yellow
and red alteration halos which commonly occur In the late 1970s a series of submersible dives on
around smectite veins (Alt et al. 1993). Two the Galapagos Rift (Fig. 2) described the
types of breccia were recovered, hyaloclastic and geometry, distribution and morphology of vol-
matrix supported which comprised 5% of the canism within the rift (Allmendinger & Fridtjof
core. Matrix supported breccias are lithologi- 1979; Ballard et al. 1979; van Andel & Ballard
cally diverse, ranging from angular clasts in 1979), which is the western most of the three rift
intensely veined zones to angular to rounded segments along the Cocos-Nazca spreading
clasts in a matrix of clays, carbonated and finely centre (Hobart et al. 1985). Due to the proximity
granulated basalt. The hyaloclastite breccias and similar spreading rates, the Galapagos Rift
were often preserved on the outer edge of pillow is potentially a good analogue for the Costa
rinds and comprise fragments of glass and Rica rift, and thus, its morphology and volca-
devitrified glass in a matrix of clay + carbonate. nology can be used as a first order model for
In the deeper parts of the hole (below 364 mbsf) comparative purposes. The Galapagos Rift is
true hyaloclastite breccias are rare, although relatively simple, consisting of a rift valley
matrix supported breccias are present in both approximately 3.5 km wide, with a mean depth
the pillow and massive lavas. Veins are very of 2.5km (van Andel & Ballard 1979). The rift
abundant throughout the drilled section (Alt et morphology is composed of small axial volca-
al. 1993; Laverne et al. 1996; Teagle et al. 1996) noes with faulted marginal plateaus, bounded by
and vary in width from 0.1 to 2 mm, although steep inward facing fault scarps (Weiss et al.
thick (up to 8 mm) green saponite + carbonate 1977; Ballard et al. 1979; van Andel & Ballard
veins are common in the pillow basalts (Teagle 1979). The dominant flow forms are pillow lavas
et al. 1996). In order of decreasing abundance and sheet flows, with the latter dominating the
the vein types are, green smectite, green smectite morphological types along the axial ridge
+ carbonate, smectite + Fe(O,OH)x, smectite (Ballard et al. 1979). An important morpholo-
+ Fe(O,OH)x + carbonate, carbonate and gical type particularly on the southern edge of
phillipsite (Teagle et al. 1996). Of these vein the rift system are collapse and/or subsided flows
types carbonate veins are abundant in the upper (Ballard et al. 1979). Collapse related features in
part of the hole (< 300 mbsf) and also between individual flows range from a few centimetres in
390 and 415 mbsf. Orientation of the various size to large structures (pits) several tens of
vein types is problematic, since many of the core metres in width and up to a few metres deep
pieces were small and so were not oriented with (Ballard et al. 1979). The floors of such pits are
respect to the azimuth in the core barrel. Where often covered with rubble created by the collapse
the core was orientated by use of palaeomag- of the roof (Ballard et al. 1979), which could
netic declination, it was evident that in the ultimately provide the framework for some of
massive units at least one set of fractures are the breccias observed in Hole 896A. From the
relatively steeply dipping, and probably repre- submersible information it is evident that the
sent cooling joints, whereas in the pillow lavas lithological architecture of the volcanic pile is
the distribution of fractures is more random and strongly anisotropic both laterally and vertically
relates to radially orientated cooling joints (Ballard et al. 1979), but can be broadly divided
(Dilek et al. 1996). As the veins are infilled with into three major units, pillow lavas, sheet flows
clay minerals (and other secondary minerals) and brecciated (cemented collapse and/or sub-
which are electrically conductive relative to the sided flows) units. The typical morphology and
basalts, this produces small scale resistivity macropetrology (i.e. fracture pattern) of each
contrasts within the rock mass. The scale of this major unit is summarized in Table 2; since these
contrast is controlled by the vein size (average c. are the features which will be imaged by the
1 mm, Teagle et al. 1996), but is often sufficient logging tools.
OCEAN FLOOR VOLCANISM 345
Table 1. Criteria used to identify lithological units during ODP Leg 148, after Alt, Kinoshita, Stokking et al. 1993.
Massive Units
Pillow Lavas
Breccias
9 Only recorded as a unit where two or three peices together in the core.
9 Matrix supported breccias lithologically variably which are cemented by clays+carbonate and finely
comminuted basalt.
9 Haloclastic breccias often preserved on outer edge of chilled/glassy rinds and comprise fragments of glass and
devitrified glass in a matrix of clay + carbonate.
Table 2. Macropetrological features of the volcanic lithologies in hole 896A which may be imaged by the diffrent
logging tools. Data from Aft et al. (1993); Yamagishi (1985); Walker (1992).
Pillow lavas
Sheet Flows
Breccias
Fig. 4. (a) Morphology of Hole 896A, expressed as hole size deviation determined from the FMS calipers. The
hole size deviation is the amount by which the borehole is enlarged beyond the diameter on the drill bit. The FMS
has four calipers, arranged at right angles, and in the plots shown here, the two curves, plotted 'away' from the
centre of the borehole, map the difference of the means of the two opposing pairs of calipers on the FMS, from
the 'true' borehole diameter. Break-outs and enlargement of the borehole only becomes critical when the
deviation is > 5 cm, and as such is limited to small discrete zones. (b) An illustration of the stand-off effect in the
measurement of alumina by the ACT TM(Activation Clay Tool) over a breakout at about 240 mbsf. a-~Mark of
Schlumberger.
resistance images, whilst inclinometry provides spectroscopy with a 252Cf source, to determine
reference for orientation of the images. In the abundance of aluminium. This tool, how-
addition, the four orthogonal arms provide ever, is very sensitive to variations in the
two caliper measurements of the borehole distance of stand-off from the borehole wall.
diameter. A detailed description of the principles Here we use the A C T response in conjunction
and limitations of the FMS tool as well as with caliper observations (see above) to mark
documentation of its varied uses within O D P is zones of borehole enlargement where log quality
given by Lovell et al. (1998). is likely to be poor.
In the ocean crust environment the electrical The Dual Laterolog uses focused current
resistivity of most rocks depends on both the techniques to provide two separate measure-
amount of pore space and the proportion of ments of the electrical resistivity of the forma-
clays present, with electrical resistivity decreas- tion. These are denoted as LLd for the 'deep'
ing as both porosity and clay content increase. and LLs for the 'shallow' measurement, respec-
The only exceptions to this general trend are tively, measured in terms of penetration into the
limited to the presence of electronic conductors formation away from the borehole. The tool
such as pyrite which effectively short circuit the operates well in boreholes with a conductive
electrical paths through the pore space (Lovell fluid and high resistivity crystalline rocks over
1985; Pezard et al. 1988; Lovell & Pezard 1990). the resistivity range 0.1 to 40000 o h m m (Titt-
The FMS thus provides visual images of textural man 1986) with a vertical resolution of 0.61m
variations at the borehole wall due to changes in (Theys 1991). Typically in igneous ocean crust,
electrical resistivity resulting from porosity and the electrical resistivity of the rock will be high
grain size variations. It also provides two except where there is extensive fracturing.
perpendicular borehole diameter measurements. Comparison of the two distinct measurements
The Aluminium Clay Tool (ACT) forms part involved in the Dual Laterolog can examine the
of Schlumberger's geochemical combination. extent of fracturing around the borehole wall
The ACT uses neutron-induced gamma ray The array sonic tool (SDT) uses two acoustic
348 T. S. BREWER E T AL.
Fig. 5. Core recovery and percentage error in core location within Hole 896A.
transmitters and a series of receivers to measure deMenocal 1992). In Hole 896A the A1 yields
the travel time of sonic waves close to the from the ACT rapidly fall in the break-outs, but
borehole wall; the exact travel path is partly in the remainder of the hole the small scale relief
determined by the source-receiver separation of the borehole does not significantly affect this
and may penetrate further form the borehole tools performance (Fig. 4b). This would suggest
with increasing source-receiver separation if the that extreme caution be placed on any inter-
velocity increases in depth away from the pretation of the logging results in the identified
borehole. Here we use the travel times for the break-outs (Fig. 4a), whereas, in the remainder
compressional wave, converted to apparent of the logged section the hole size does not affect
velocities. The vertical resolution of the sonic the quality of the logging results. This behaviour
tool is similar to the Dual Laterolog (Theys of the ACT has been used in the adjacent Hole
1991). 504B to detect borehole oversizing in the
The nature and quality of the responses from absence of a caliper log (Harvey et al. 1995).
logging tools is strongly influenced by the
morphology of the borehole, such that where Error estimation
the hole is oversized or undersized, anomalous
results may be obtained from individual tools. Any reconstruction of the volcanic stratigraphy
The FMS has two orthogonal calipers which which uses both core and log must first establish
record the borehole size and ellipticity (Bell the quality of the different datasets. In dealing
1990; Evans & Brereton 1990). The largest with the core, errors arise from inaccurate
section of oversizing (Fig. 4a) occurs at the top location (i.e. metres below sea floor; mbsf) and
of the cored section directly beneath the casing, misclassification (e.g. pillow or flow). Errors in
reflecting oversizing produced during the setting the logging data relate to inaccurate location
of the casing. The remainder of the hole is (mbsf), the precision and accuracy of the
generally uniform in size, although there are different tools and the interpretation of the data.
several break-outs within the borehole (Fig. 4a). Inaccurate depth location of the core, must as
These break-outs occur over relatively small first order value be no better than the average
intervals (c. 2 m) and so only a small amount of recovery of 26.9%, which represents a maximum
logging data have been lost due to the stand-off location error of +73.1% in the cored section.
effect. Individual tools are affected to different Clearly such a value does not account for the
degrees by stand-off, but the ACT is particularly variations in recovery for individual core barrels
sensitive to this effect and as such can be used as (Fig. 3) and as such a moving average based on
a monitor of tool performance (Bristow & actual core barrel recoveries is a more appro-
OCEAN FLOOR VOLCANISM 349
IOO-
An estimation of the location error for any
log can be derived simply by determining the
amount of missing or unuseable data due to hole
oversizing (break-outs). In Hole 896A, over the
entire logged section the location error is +9%.
However, this is a global error and a more
realistic value is represented by a moving
average, where in the break-outs the error is [ 1 I I I I
660 670 680 690 700
+100%, while in the remainder of the hole the
(C) depth (mbsf)
location error is small if depth shifting has been
correctly applied. Depth shifting is carried out
Fig. 6. (a) Repeat runs of the DLL within hole 504B,
during shore-based processing where all of the data from Dick et al. (1992). (b) Comparison of LLs
logs are systematically shifted by reference to the data over the same depth interval in hole 504B using
NGT, which is deployed with each logging suite. data from Legs 140 (Dick et al. 1992) and 148 (Alt et
The NGT curves from each logging run are then al. 1993). (c) The same depth interval with depth
depth shifted so that curve shapes closely shifting applied.
correspond (Williamson pers. comm. 1996),
which then minimizes the location errors which
may have arisen during different tool deploy- logging records were recorded for the lower
ment (e.g. cable stretching). section of the hole (Dick e t al. 1992). Results of
Measurement errors associated with indivi- two passes for the dual lateral resistivity tool
dual tools can be estimated by either reference to from Leg 140 are shown in Fig. 6a. It is clear
published values (Theys 1991) or by use of that these results are extremely similar and
multiple tool passes within the same borehole. indicate that the reproducibility (precision) of
ODP Hole 504B provides an excellent example this tool is extremely good (i.e. a small
for calibration of logging results, since this hole measurement error). A comparison of the LLs
has been logged during several drilling legs (Alt data from Legs 140 and 148 across flow unit 2d
e t al. 1993). Also, during Leg 140 multiple is shown in Fig. 6b, where it is clear that the
350 T. S. BREWER E T AL.
magnitude of the measurements recorded during and hydrosphere. Estimation of apparent por-
each run are very similar, but a major discre- osity within ocean crust can be derived from
pancy exists in the depths of the two measure- resistivity measurements recorded with the long-
ments (a location error of c. 5 m). This location spacing resistivity device (Becker 1985) or by the
error probably reflects the difference in depth dual laterolog (Pezard 1990). The apparent
shifting applied during shore-based processing, porosity is a computed value which represents
but if the Leg 148 results are shifted so that the both electrolytic conduction processes in pores,
two highest values from unit 2d (Fig. 6c) fractures, cracks (including microcracks) and
coincide then the two datasets are very similar surface conduction mechanisms; the latter are
and again demonstrate the excellent precision of particularly important when conductive altera-
the resistivity measurements. These results illus- tion minerals (e.g. smectites) are present (Pezard
trate the potential that exists for using logging 1990). From the dual laterolog it is also possible
data from different legs to interpret the structure to record the average fracturing around the
and evolution of ocean crust, but it is important borehole (Boyeldieu & Martin 1984; Sibbit &
to evaluate the location and measurement errors Faivre 1985; Pezard & Anderson 1990). In ODP
in order to minimize problems in interpretation. holes, sea water is both the drilling fluid and the
A semi-quantitative estimation of the mea- pore fluid in the rock mass. Consequently, the
surement error associated with the FMS data is difference between the deep (LLd) and shallow
possible from Hole 896A, since two passes were (LLs) resistivity may be related to rock aniso-
recorded over a large section of the hole. The tropy (Pezard & Anderson 1990). Moreover, the
images from both passes can be visually difference between the LLd and LLs can be used
compared and it is evident that the lithological to compute the fracture porosity, which relates
boundaries (e.g. sheet flow/pillows) are similarly to the relative volume of organized conductive
imaged on each pass (Brewer et al. 1995), features (i.e. fractures) in the vicinity of the
although there is a small depth ( < lm) variation borehole.
in the actual location, which probably relates to Early attempts at evaluating fracture intensity
errors associated with depth shifting. Another in the ocean crust were performed by eye from
problem with the FMS is that at best only c. borehole televiewer (BHTV) images (Newmark
20% of the borehole wall is covered and that the et al. 1985) or by direct measurements on the
orientation of the feature controls the prob- recovered core. Visual fracture analyses of the
ability of it being imaged. Thus, sub-horizontal BHTV images are often extremely inaccurate
to inclined structures have a greater likelihood due to blurring and distortion of the images
of being imaged compared to near vertical produced by ship heave, hole ellipticity and tool
structures, due to there greater probability of stand-off. Fracture analysis of actual core is a
intersecting an FMS pad within the borehole. In function of the core recovery and is open to
Hole 896A, the lithological boundaries appear biasing in the drilling of specific rock masses. In
to have sub-horizontal orientations which re- the case of the ODP, basement recoveries are
sults in similar imaging during each pass, often low (< 20%) and any recovered core is
whereas some high angled vein networks may often biased towards more massive less fractured
not be equally imaged on each run. materials (i.e. pillow cores, massive flows).
However, from the compilation of the quality The relationship between porosity and resis-
of the logging data it is clear that individual tivity for ocean floor basalts has been extensively
tools have different precision and accuracy, but discussed by Becker (1985) and Lovell & Pezard
the poorest measurement errors are c. 10% (1990), who concluded that the use of Archie~)s
(Theys 1991), which is considerably better than formula with a = 1.0 and m = 2.0 approximates
the location errors associated with the recovered the relationship between porosity and resistivity.
core (Fig. 6a). However, a different law with a = 10 and m close
to 1.0 has been suggested for ocean floor basalts
(Flovenz et al. 1985; Pezard 1990; Broglia &
Ocean basement structure, the logging Moos 1998), which reflects electrolytic conduc-
tion in elongated volumes filled with pore fluid
perspective (sea water). From the more general derivation of
Archie's Law, Pezard (1990) estimated the
The porosity and permeability structure of apparent porosity (RPHI), assuming the LLd
ocean crust are important properties in under- measurement represents the true resistivity of
standing fluid-rock interactions, distribution the ocean crust, from the following:
and style of secondary low temperature altera-
tion and chemical fluxes between the lithosphere RPHI2 = R w / R L L d ,
OCEAN FLOOR VOLCANISM 351
where RLLd is the resistivity value from the 1992; Pelling et al. 1991). The majority of these
deep laterolog and Rw is the pore fluid resistivity studies divided the drilled section into large
(sea water). 'units' which were characterized by similar
An estimation of the fracture porosity is chemical parameters. Brewer et al. (1992)
derived from the difference between the LLd suggested that the NGT derived K values may
and LLs measurements (Pezard & Anderson be used to discriminate pillow lavas (higher K)
1990). For ODP holes where sea water is used as from massive units (flows, low K). The high K
the drilling fluid, salinity invasion can be ignored concentration in the pillow lavas reflected the
since the pore and borehole fluids have the same greater abundance of secondary minerals (K-
salinities (Mottl et al. 1983). Thus, the difference bearing) which developed due to the more
between the LLd and LLs can be related to the permeable nature of the pillow lavas, the more
anisotropy of the pore space within the rock as intense fluid-rock interactions and the enhanced
imaged by the two different depths of current mobility of potassium.
penetration. Furthermore, any effects produced High quality logging data provide a near
by drilling induced fractures close to the bore- continuous detailed record of the physical and/
hole walls should not account for more than a or chemical properties of the borehole wall. If
few percent of the difference between the LLd the logging data can then be reconciled with the
and LLs. Pezard (1990) demonstrated that the core derived observations and measurements, an
LLd measurement mostly represents the hor- integrated dataset can be produced, which
izontal resistivity of the rock mass and is should provide very important information for
therefore hardly affected by the presence of the study of the ocean crust. However, it is clear
vertical conductive features (i.e. fractures). In that the logging results must be interpreted in
contrast, the shallow LLs measurement is such a way to provide maximum geological
sensitive to both the horizontal and vertical information. In the following sections a series of
resistivity of the rock mass and so is reduced by interpretations are presented to illustrate the
the occurrence of vertical and horizontal frac- potential of this method in understanding the
tures. The net result of these two effects is that lithological architecture of the ocean crust in
sub-horizontal conductive features (i.e. frac- ODP Hole 896A.
tures) p r e f e r e n t i a l l y decreases the LLd
( L L d - L L s >0), whereas sub-vertical conduc- Volcanic structure of Hole 896A
tive features reduce the LLs measurement
( L L d - LLs _<0). Visual core descriptions identified massive units
Identification of specific volcanic units (e.g. (flows) and pillow lavas as the main lithologies
pillows and flows) using resistivity logs, has been in Hole 896A (Fig. 3), with minor breccias (Alt
documented from several studies (Pezard 1990; et al. 1993). However, the actual proportions of
Gable et al. 1989; Hyndman & Salisbury 1983), lithologies present is dependant on the core
in each of which massive units (flows) were recovery and the robustness of the identification/
identified by elevated resistivity values relative to discriminant criteria. The generally low core
the remainder of the volcanics. However, little if recoveries (Fig. 3) together with the absence of
any attempt has been made to further subdivide many of the key discriminant criteria (Table 1)
the structure of the volcanic layer and usually all on individual core pieces places severe limita-
units not identified as massive units (flows) are tions on this interpretation. In the following
grouped under the heading of pillow lavas. discussion each of the lithological types (pillows,
FMS images may be viewed as apparent flows, breccias) are treated separately to illus-
resistivity maps of segments of the borehole trate the types of information which can be
wall and as such allow for the potential derived from the logging data, which is then
discrimination of different lithological types synthesized to developed a model for the
(Lovell et al. 1998). To date, mapping of lithological architecture of the volcanics in this
lithological types from ODP basement holes hole.
based upon FMS images is relatively restricted
(Langseth & Becker 1994; Brewer et al. 1996), Flows
although in both of these studies a more detailed
picture of the basement was produced relative to Core recovery in the flows was moderately high
the core descriptions. and individual core pieces tended to be long
Several studies have attempted to use results compared to recovery in pillow lavas and/or
of the geochemical logging tool (GLT) to breccias (up to 20cm; Alt et al. 1993). This
discriminate the structure of the volcanic layer enhanced and more continuous core recovery
(Anderson et al. 1990a,b; Brewer et al. 1990, probably reflects the massive nature of the sheet
352 T.S. BREWER E T AL.
Fig. 8. Wireline logging responses over a single sheet flow located between 230 and 236 mbsf. Divisions within the
flow, whose position is indicated by the vertical grey bars on the lithological columns in the centre of the diagram,
A, B and C, are described in Fig. 9. Above the flow are brecciated pillow lavas (BPL), with pillow lavas (PL)
beneath. For an explanation of hole size deviation see the caption to Fig. 4.
reflect the more massive, less altered (and by high and variable K values, and also that
veined) nature of the flows. Due to their more some of the highest K values are developed both
massive nature, the flows would probably act as below and above individual flows (Fig. 8d),
barriers to fluid flow, so limiting their internal which probably represent the zones of maximum
alteration and preserving their original low fluid interactions (Brewer et al. 1992).
potassium values. This correlation of lower K
in the flows is developed throughout the log Breccias
section, which suggests that as well as acting as
barriers to fluid, they also served to focus flow in A variety of breccias were recovered from Hole
the more porous and permeable breccias and 896A (Alt, et al. 1993, Harper & Tartarotti
pillow lavas. Evidence for the focusing of fluid 1996). However, the amount of actual recovered
flow comes from the more altered basalts material was limited (c. 5%) and breccia units
recovered in these zones, which are characterized were only recorded when two or more pieces of
354 T.S. BREWER E T AL.
Fig. 9. FMS image across a sheet lava flow. The base of the flow is a little below 235 mbsf, and marked by a low
resistance zone. The flow has a fractured base about 140 cm thick, above which is some two metres of relatively
unfractured rock, representing the central part of the flow. The top of the flow is fractured and pillowed and
extends up to 230 mbsf. Resistivity scale: pale (resistive) to dark (conductive).
breccia occurred consecutively in a core barrel nic succession (e.g. mass wastage and/or
(Alt, et al. 1993). Consequently, the amount of lava fragmentation).
breccia identified in the lithological log was low
(5%), but this biasing is further enhanced by the Breccias are composed of variably sized clasts
probable destruction of breccias during the cemented by a matrix that can represent up to
drilling process. The proportion and distribution 40% of the rock (Teagle et al. 1996). In Hole
of breccias in the hole is particularly important 896A, clasts are composed of fresh to altered
since such units may: basalt and or basaltic glass which is in a matrix
composed of smectites 4- carbonate + saponite
(a) control fluid flow and therefore the dis- :k:Fe(O,OH)x (Alt et al. 1993, Harper & Tartar-
tribution of secondary alteration in the otti 1996; Teagle et al. 1996). Furthermore,
volcanic section (Teagle et al. 1996); breccias contain the most altered basaltic
(b) record different processes within the volca- compositions recovered from Hole 896A (Teagle
OCEAN FLOOR VOLCANISM 355
Fig. 10. Downhole logging responses from a breccia unit located at 350-370 mbsf. Two metre long FMS images
covering part of the section are shown, correctly scaled in the horizontal and vertical directions, as (f) (360-362
mbsf) and (g) (366-368 mbsf). Large unfractured blocks within the breccia are outlined in (f) and (g), and
demonstrate the chaotic nature of this lithology.
et al. 1996) which illustrates their importance in (a) low resistivity values;
understanding secondary alteration processes (b) a serrated form to the sonic log and
and chemical fluxes in this segment of crust. spectral gamma logs;
The small scale lithological variations of the (c) microrelief on the caliper log;
breccias results in rapidly changing physical and (e) mottled FMS images.
chemical properties which are recorded by the
following log responses (Figs 7 & 10): The low resistivity values of the breccias (c.
356 T.S. BREWER E T AL.
5 ~ m, Figs 7 & 10) reflect the matrix material, spatial resolution. This then makes the
which is composed of conductive minerals. distinction between coarse grained halo-
Highly variable LLd and LLs logs (Fig. 10a,b) clastite breccias and pillows particularly
may reflect measurements recorded in larger difficult;
clasts compared to those in matrix. FMS images (d) Submersible information suggests that pil-
of the breccias are characterized by mottled low lavas are not always the dominant
images (Fig. 10) which are very diagnostic and morphological flow type developed along
allow discrimination from the pillows and flows, the Galapagos rift (Ballard et al. 1979).
which is not always possible from the other
logging data. FMS images also allows the Logging results may provide an answer to
'mapping' of large discrete clasts, in sufficient some of these problems and the following
detail to establish whether the clast is veined or features summarise the different tool responses
unveined. In the flows, fracture orientation was in pillow lavas (Figs 7 & 11):
determined from the relationship (LLd -LLs),
but in the breccias this value normally close to (a) variable relief on the caliper log;
zero (i.e. LLd=LLs), suggesting that neither (b) a rapidly changing (< 1 m) resistivity log
sub-horizontal or sub-vertical structures dom- containing both relatively high (> 10 ~2m)
inate, which can be partly calibrated from the and low (< 10 ~ m) values;
FMS images. However, this relationship is (c) variable fracture orientations identified by
complicated since what is recorded is the the LLd and LLs relationship;
orientation of the boundaries between the clasts (d) FMS images characterized by regions of
and the matrix. From the core material it can be relatively uniform resistivity (pillows) sepa-
seen that the distribution of such boundaries is rated by curved surfaces. Inter-pillow
random and no one particular direction dom- material is more conductive than the
inates. This relationship does however help to pillows. Randomly orientated fractures on
distinguish the breccias from the flows. K values individual images;
are highly variable and have relatively large (e) variable amplitude and wavelength varia-
ranges in individual breccia units (Fig. 10d). tions in the sonic log, with overall values
These features reflect the heterogeneous distri- transitional between the breccias and sheet
bution of the high-K matrix minerals (Table 3) flows (Figs 7 & 11);
and the lower K of the unaltered basaltic clasts (f) rapidly changing potassium concentrations.
(Table 3). Finally, the microrelief on the caliper
log with occasional break-outs and hole over- Although some of the short wavelength
sizing (Fig. 10e) results from the pudding stone variations in the pillow lavas are similar to those
macropetrology of such rocks, where individual described from the breccias, the generally higher
clasts and/or matrix may be plucked out during resistivity and sonic values (Figs 7 & 11) and the
drilling or later cave into the hole. This contrasts different FMS images allow discrimination of
with the generally smooth caliper logs (Fig. 8e) pillows and breccias. The major differences
in the massive and more rheological competent between the pillows and flows are the FMS
flOWS. images (Fig. 1lf) and the serrated resistivity and
sonic logs of pillows compared to the more
Pillow lavas uniform logs in the sheet flows.
The lithological heterogeneity within a pillow
Pillow lavas comprise c. 58% of the core lava (pillow or inter-pillow) is what controls the
lithological log and were identified using the variation in the sonic, resistivity and potassium
criteria in Table 1, with individual pillows concentrations (Fig. 11). This heterogeneity is
ranging in thickness from 50 to 280 mm and primarily a function of the origin of the pillows
possibly up to 350mm (Alt et al. 1993). In Hole such that an individual pillow contains a core of
896A the major problems in identify pillow lavas massive basalt or basaltic glass which is more
from the core were: resistive and has moderate seismic velocities
compared to the inter-pillow material. In con-
(a) the lack of rims, such that the cores of large trast, pillow rims and, in particular the more
pillows may have been classified as massive intensely altered inter-pillow regions, are more
units (Alt et al. 1993); conductive (lower resistivity) and have lower
(b) a curved to planar or irregularly chilled seismic velocities due to the abundance of
margin unique to a pillow lava; secondary alteration minerals (Fig. 7). The
(c) core recovery in the intervals classified as variation in potassium is slightly more compli-
pillow lavas was poor, which limits any cated since this element is redistributed during
OCEAN FLOOR VOLCANISM 357
Fig. 11. Downhole logging responses for pillow lavas located between 290 and 300 mbsf. A 4m FMS image,
correctly scaled in the horizontal and vertical directions, is shown as (f) (294-298 mbsf). Several of the rounded
surfaces between the pillows are picked out in (f--solid lines), as are some irregular fractures (dotted).
alteration and is often concentrated in vein fore, the overall form of the potassium log
minerals (Laverne et al. 1996; Teagle et al. 1996). within any one pillow lava will reflect the
Low potassium values correlate with the interior intensity of veining, the degree of alteration
of unveined pillows, whereas, the higher values and the size and shape of distributions of the
record more altered and veined material. There- individual pillows. The relief of the caliper log
358 T. S. BREWER E T AL.
Fig. 12. Comparison of core recovery, core and log derived lithostratigraphies (left). Also shown is the variation
in TiO2, K20 and Ni in core samples over the same depth interval (right). The elemental data were measured by
X-ray fluorescence spectrometry.
(Fig. 1 le) reflects the differing rheology of the However, in the majority of the pillow lavas in
pillows (cores and rims) and the inter-pillow general L L s > L L d , which is probably not
material, such that oversizing results from such related to the fracture directions, but is more
factors as: likely to reflect the general sub-horizontal
orientation to the stacking of the pillow lavas.
(a) plucking of small pillows during drilling;
(b) wash-outs of the inter-pillow material by Lithological diversity in Hole 896A
the drilling fluid;
(c) post-drilling collapse due to the differing By combining all of the different log responses, a
strengths of the pillow and inter-pillow log derived lithostratigraphy is constructed for
material; and/or the upper c. 220 m of Hole 896A (Fig. 12). In this
(d) numerous fractures and planar discontinu- model the proportions of the three different
ities intersecting the borehole wall leading lithologies are pillow lavas 31%, sheet flows
to wedge and, or block failure. 23% and breccias 46% which contrasts strongly
with the core derived data (pillow lavas 57%,
FMS images (Fig. l lf) of pillow lavas are flows (massive units) 38%, breccias 5%). At
particularly diagnostic (i.e. curved boundaries to present there is no attempt to further subdivide
individual pillows) and have previously been into specific types as described from the core
used to identify pillow lavas sequences in base- material (jigsaw puzzle, sedimentary, tectonic,
ment holes with poor recoveries (Langseth & haloclastite; H a r p e r & T a r t a r o t t i 1996),
Becker 1994). Also evident on the FMS images although work in progress suggests that this
are anatomizing networks of infilled fractures in subdivision may be possible (S. Haggas, pers.
individual pillows (more conductive features; comm. 1997). This log based lithostratigraphy is
Fig. 1lf). These fractures are probably original clearly different to that derived from the core
cooling features related to eruption which descriptions (Fig. 12) and the proportions of
explains their general random form. From the individual lithologies are quite different, with the
resistivity logs (Fig. l lb) there is no obvious most obvious being the increased proportion of
preferred fracture direction as recorded by the breccias in the logging results. This variation in
rapid variation in the value (LLd - L L s ) . the proportion of rocks is probably the result of
OCEAN FLOOR VOLCANISM 359
results. It is therefore critical that logging results BOYELDIEU, C. & MARTIN, C. 1984. Fracture detection
are acquired as soon as possible after drilling in and evalution. Transactions of the 9th SPWLA,
order to avoid deterioration of the hole (i.e. European International Formation Evaluation,
oversizing). T h e n by i n t e g r a t i n g c o r e a n d paper 21.
BREWER, T. S., BACH, W. • FURNES, H. 1996.
logging results, detailed models of the lithologi-
Geochemistry of lavas from Hole 896A. In: ALT,
cal a r c h i t e c t u r e of the ocean crust can be J. C., KINOSHITA,H., STOKKING,L. B. t~; MICHAEL,
generated which reveal its 3-D structure, which P. J. (eds), Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling
is crucial for the assessment of m a g m a t i c and Program, 148, 9-20.
later alteration processes. - - LOVELE, M. A., HARVEY, P. K., PEELING, R.,
ATKIN, B. P. & ADAMSON,A. C. 1990. Preliminary
geochemical results from DSDP/ODP Hole 504B:
a comparison of core and log data. In: HURST,A.,
We thank Z & S Consultants Ltd for the provision of
LOVELE,M. A. & MORTON, A. C. (eds), Geological
their log and imaging software system, RECALL, and
application of Wireline Logs. Geological Society of
NERC for financial support of the borehole imaging
London, Special Publications No. 48, 195-202.
facility at Leicester University (grant GST/02/684).
t~ WILLAMSON, G. 1995.
Careful reviews by M. Eisk and C. Laverne helped to
Stratigraphy of the ocean crust in Hole 896A
improve this paper significantly.
from FMS images. Scientific Drilling, 5, 87-92.
, PEELING,R., LOVELL,M. A. & HARVEY,P. K.
1992. The validity of whole-rock geochemistry in
the study of oceanic crust: a case study from ODP
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Physical signature of basaltic volcanics drilled on the northeast Atlantic
volcanic rifted margins
C. J. B U C K E R l, H. D E L I U S 2, J. W O H L E N B E R G 2 & L E G 163 S H I P B O A R D
SCIENTIFIC PARTY
1 GGA, Geowissenschaftliche Gemeinschaftsaufgaben (Joint Geoscientific Research of the
State Geological Surveys), Stilleweg 2, 30631 Hannover, Germany
2 Lehr- und Forschungsgebiet Angewandte Geophysik, Rheinisch-Westfdlische Technische
Hochschule, Lochnerstr. 4-20, D-52056 Aachen, Germany
Abstract: During several DSDP and ODP Legs in the NE Atlantic, basaltic lava flows of the
early rifting and break-up phase in the Tertiary have been drilled and logged. The lava flows
were deposited subaerially with characteristic variations in their physical and magnetic
properties and it is possible to distinguish different intraflow zones (I-IV) by evaluating
downhole and core measurements. The physical and magnetic properties are mainly
influenced by the degree of vesicularity and alteration, especially in the top and bottom parts
of the flows. The pattern of the magnetic properties susceptibility and remanence seems to
be helpful in distinguishing different flow types (aa and pahoehoe) as well as intraflow
structures.
These zonal characterizations of subaerial basaltic lava flows can be seen frequently in
core as well as in downhole measurements. This holds true not only for one hole but also for
holes at different locations in the NE Atlantic with an exceptional high correlation down to
fine scale variations, pointing to comparable genetic mechanisms during the initial phase of
rifting.
Several DSDP (Deep Sea Drilling Project) and DSDP and ODP drillings together with shor-
ODP (Ocean Drilling Program) Legs are located ebased studies (i.e. Larsen & Marcussen 1992)
in the NE Atlantic, addressing the nature of and drillings on the Faeroe Islands (Waagstein
early rifting and break-up of the NE Atlantic & Hald 1984) all suggest near sea-level eruption
(Legs 81,104, 152, 163). At the time of magnetic of the lava within the SDRS (Larsen et al. 1994).
anomaly 24, the time of opening of the N The Tertiary igneous provinces of Britain,
Atlantic, the drillings of the mentioned Legs Northern Ireland, the Faeroes and Greenland
would be located at the continental margins were formed at the same time (White &
(Rockall Plateau, Voring Plateau, SE Green- McKenzie 1989). All these igneous provinces
land). These continental margins are type together form the North Atlantic Volcanic
examples of volcanic rifted margins and they Rifted Margin.
are characterized by broad seaward dipping
reflector sequences (SDRS). All the drilled Although the volcanic nature of the SDRS is
basaltic volcanics belong to a large igneous firmly established (Roberts, et aL 1984; Eldholm
province (LIP) similar to the Kerguelen- or et aL 1987), the geological processes responsible
Ontong-Java-Plateau (White & McKenzie 1989; for the formation of their characteristic archi-
White 1992; Coffin & Eldholm 1992, 1993, 1994). tecture is still partly a matter of conjecture
Rifting and break-up along the NE Atlantic (Larsen et al. 1994).
during the Early Tertiary was accompanied by The purpose of this paper is to show the
an intense phase of magrnatism and the eruption relation between physical and magnetic rock
of large volumes of volcanic rocks, which properties and the volcanic flow structure.
formed the SDRS (Hinz 1981; White & McKen- Borehole measurements as well as core measure-
zie 1989; Fitton et al. 1995; White & Morton ments will be used to cast some light on this
1995). Several DSDP and ODP Legs (81 Rockall matter.
Plateau, 104 Vring Plateau, 152 and 163 South-
east Greenland Margin) have shown that these D S D P and O D P drillings in the northeast
SDRS are mainly composed of subaerial basaltic Atlantic
lava flows (Roberts et al. 1984; Eldholm et al.
1987; Larsen et al. 1994, ODP Leg 163 Ship- At the time of break-up of the N Atlantic and
board Scientific Party 1996). The results of the rifting, all the drillings of the DSDP/ODP Legs
BI]CKER, C. J., DELIUS,H., WOHLENBERG,J. ,~r LEG 163 SHIPBOARDSCIENTIFICPARTY. 1998 363
Physical signature of basaltic volcanics drilled on the northeast Atlantic volcanic rifted margins
In- HARVEY,P. K. ~r LOVELL,M. A. (eds) Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London,
Special Publications. 136. 363-374
364 C.J. BI~ICKER E T AL.
Fig. 1. Reconstruction of the North Atlantic at the time of magnetic Anomaly 24 with the disposition of the major
continental blocks (after Srivastava 1978), the distribution of on- and off-shore basalt flows and sills and the
palaeolocation of DSDP/ODP Legs 81, 104, 152 and 163 (modified after Larsen et al. 1994).
81, 104, 152 and 163 are situated along a more 1980; MacDougall 1988; Rowland & Walker
or less N - S trending line at these early con- 1990). However, there is only little information
tinental margins (Fig. 1). The Legs 81, 104 and on flow structure or flow thickness. These
152 and the Faeroe Islands are situated along characteristics of volcanic flows are reflected by
these margins, while Legs 152 and 163 are their physical properties and they in turn are
situated across the margins. To understand the controlled by magma eruption rates, emplace-
genesis of the voluminous volcanic activity ment mechanisms and cooling histories (Walker
during the short reversed polarity between 1971, 1993; Rowland & Walker 1990; Long &
magnetic anomalies 24 and 25 and the formation Wood 1986; Walker 1971).
of coeval suites of dipping reflectors at the
conjugate margins of Greenland, Rockall and For the investigations and comparisons car-
the Norwegian Sea, it is useful to correlate the ried out in this study, one drill site for each leg
volcanic sequences of East Greenland, Rockall with a logging suite as complete as possible in
and Voring Plateau and the other volcanic areas the volcanic succession was chosen:
in the NE Atlantic in more detail.
The petrology and petrography of magmatic (i) 553A of Leg 81 (Rockall Plateau);
products like subaerial flood basalts in large (ii) 642E of Leg 104 (Voring Plateau);
igneous provinces is mostly well known (i.e. Cox (iii) 917A of Leg 152 (SE Greenland)
PHYSICAL SIGNATURE OF BASALTIC VOLCANICS 365
Site 553A
Lithostratigraphy, vesicularity and physical
C24 Main SDRS
formation properties of volcanic flows
In all the mentioned boreholes, subaerial volca-
~ 56
Site 642E nic flows of large amounts have been drilled and
57
C25 cored with a core recovery of 50% to 80%. In
!< Upper Series general, the drilled volcanics are composed of
58 phyric and aphyric basalts with minor dacites
and picrites and also some tuff and sediment
59
C26 intercalations. The recorded downhole logs and
the physical and magnetic property core mea-
60
surements are well suited to give information
Middle and about lithology and intraflow structure. The
61
Lower Series
Site 917 measured physical properties and downhole logs
C27
are mostly controlled by the vesicularity of the
Basal Flow
basalt flows. Generally, gas bubbles or vesicles
63 - C28
are ubiquitous in basaltic flows. The occurrence
and features of the vesicles that remain in lava
flows, can yield important information on flow
Fig. 2. Composite stratigraphic section compiled from mechanisms and lava rheology. There are only a
cored material from ODP/DSDP Legs 81,104, 152,163 few studies which have yet pursued this topic
(modified and supplemented after ODP Leg 163 (Walker 1993). In Fig. 3, a typical flow structure
Shipboard Scientific Party (1996)). Age estimations
with vertical changes in vesicularity is shown in
for Site 990A shown by solid dots with tentative chron
assignment (normal magnetic polarity); radiometric combination with responses of downhole mea-
age data for Site 553 are from Maclntyre & Hamilton surements. The correlation shows that the flow
(1984): solid square with line representing the range of structure can be distinguished by the logs. The
determinations; radiometric age data for Site 642 are lower flow boundary is marked by a sharp peak
from LeHuray & Johnson (1989): range of age in resistivity. The region with the maximal
determinations between solid triangles; radiometric amount and sizes of vesicles can be attributed
age data for Site 917 are from Sinton & Duncan to the lowest values in density RHO and velocity
(1996): open circles with lines showing 95% uncer- Vp and the highest values in the gamma ray GR.
tainty. The column with alternating black and white
This region corresponds to the flow zones I and
rectangles (normal and reverse magnetic polarity)
shows magnetochrons C23 to C28. II (Delius et al. 1995) that will be described in
detail later. Flow zone III marks the massive
basalt with only a small amount of vesicles,
giving high density and velocity values. In flow
Due to some weather problems (damage zone IV the size and amount of the vesicles again
occurred to the vessel during a hurricane force), increase, whereas the density and velocity
no downhole measurements have been achieved decrease.
in any of the holes of Leg 163. For Hole 990A of A description of the lithostratigraphy and
Leg 163 (SE Greenland) the physical properties intraflow structures of Hole 642E is given by
of cores were measured onboard with a distance Delius et al. (1995) and Planke (1994) and of
between the measuring points of no more than Hole 917A by Demant et al. (1995) and Planke
5 cm. & Cambray (1996). Typical subaerial volcanic
As can be seen from Fig. 2, the composite flow structures can also be seen for example in
stratigraphic section may be referred to an the Goban Spur drillings W of Ireland (Tate &
almost complete lava flow sequence consisting Dobson 1988) and in the Deccan Traps, Central
of upper series, middle and lower series, and a India (Buckley & Oliver 1990).
basal flow. The sequence includes the earliest In the following, the lithostratigraphic de-
lavas overlying pre-rift sediments and continen- scriptions of Holes 553A and 990A are empha-
tal basement rocks as well as Icelandic-type sized.
366 C.J. BUCKER ET AL.
Fig. 3. Generalized section across a 5 m thick pahoehoe flow unit, showing different shapes, sizes and zonal
distribution of vesicles. The curves for the maximal sizes and volume percentages of the vesicles are given in the
middle column (modified after Walker 1993). The right side shows typical log responses within a single volcanic
flow. SFLU: resistivity in Ohm m in linear scaling to enhance the peak at the bottom of the flow, GR: gamma ray
in API; Vp: compressional wave velocity in km s 1, RHO: density in g cm-3. In relation to these log responses, the
flow is divided into four typical flow zones I-IV (right column with different grey shadings).
Fig. 4. Volcanic pile together with a composite log of Hole 553A at the Rockall Plateau. From left column to right
column: simplified lithology (after Roberts et al. 1984), individual lava flows as detected by logs (separated by
different grey scales), SFLU log in linear scale to enhance the sharp peaks at the bottom of single flows, density
RHOB, neutron porosity NPHI, compressional wave velocity Vp, and gamma ray GR,
can be well compared with the physical proper- velocity. The single flows show a typical decrease
ties and downhole logs (see also the later section in neutron porosity downward in the central
'Single flow physical property characteristics'). part with a sharp increase in the vesicular zone
Within one single flow, the densities (RHOB) in the lowermost part of the flow (Fig. 4) which
and compressional wave velocities (Vp) are well is also accompanied by firstly an increase in
correlated and show large variations with values density and then a decrease towards the base
ranging between 2-3 g cm 3 and 2- > 6 km s-l, part of the flow (Fig. 7a, b, zone IV).
respectively. The lower values correspond to the The density log in turn is well correlated with
flow top and bottom parts yielding the high the NPHI log, which is a measure for the
vesicularities and high alteration degrees, hydrogen content, not only for pure porosities.
whereas the massive basalt in the centre part of So, the NPHI log may indicate not only water-
a flow shows the highest values of density and filled vesicles but also the weathered flow tops
368 C.J. BUCKER ET AL.
Fig. 5. Compilation of core measurements from Hole 990A. From left column to right column: core recovery in
black, flows 1-13 with flow boundaries, flow type (aa, transitional, pahoehoe), rock type, density (measured on
full rounds with the shipboard GRAPE Gamma Ray Attenuation Porosity Evaluator), compressional wave
velocity Vp measured on half rounds, magnetic intensity after 30 mA alternating field demagnetization, and
susceptibility.
with alteration minerals containing hydrous the distance from the volcanic vent (reflected by
oxides (smectite, montmorillonite, celadonite, the grain size distribution), the cooling history
zeolite, chalcedon). and the thickness of the lava flow and the
Single lava flows from Hole 553A as well as depositional environment. So, log interpretation
intraflow variations, i.e. the different develop- in volcanic flows may help in answering ques-
ment of neutron porosity and alteration with tions related to these topics.
depth, are well identified by the logs RHOB, Vp,
NPHI, SFLU and GR. The structure of a Hole 990A ( O D P Leg 163)
basaltic lava flow depends (among other things
like eruption mechanisms (Aubele et al. 1988) or A comparable structure of the volcanic flows can
atmosphere conditions (Sahagian et al. 1989)) on be seen in Hole 990A. This drilling is situated
PHYSICAL SIGNATURE OF BASALTIC VOLCANICS 369
Fig. 6. Density-velocity correlation for volcanic lava flows in the NE Atalantic. Data were taken from log and
core measurements from holes 553A, 642E, 917A and 990A as indicated. The densities of Hole 990A were
measured on full round cores whereas the velocities were measured on the split cores (halfrounds). Note the
regression lines all lying close together.
close to the coast of SE Greenland in a water cm with the shipboard cryogenic magnetometer
depth of less than 500 m. Below a sediment after alternating field demagnetization of 30 mA
cover which extends down to 212 mbsf, basaltic to remove secondary remanences like drilling
lava flows were drilled to a final depth of 342 induced magnetizations (Nakasa, pets. comm.).
mbsf. As mentioned at the beginning, downhole The results of the measurements in relation to
measurements could not be achieved in any of rock type, flow type and flow boundaries are
the holes of Leg 163, but the core recovery in the shown in Fig. 5. Due to the high sampling rate a
igneous section was quite good (up to 70%) and very detailed structure of the volcanic pile can be
provides a good basis for further investigations. seen. Alltogether 13 lava flows were recognized.
The physical and magnetic properties like The volcanic lava flows at Site 990 can be related
density and susceptibility were measured with to three flow types. In the upper part of the hole,
the shipboard MST, the Multi Sensor Track aa lavas were drilled, and in the lower part
system on full round cores with a measuring pahoehoe lavas with transitional type lavas
point distance of 2 cm prior to sawing. As soon between. The aa lava is characterized by a
as possible after core retrieval, the p-wave commonly thick brecciated flow top and a thin
velocities were measured on water saturated half vesicular flow base. For the pahoehoe flow type,
round cores with the Hamilton Frame Veloci- the brecciated top is missing and it has a thick
meter with a measuring point distance of 5 cm. upper vesicular zone, a massive interior and
The magnetic intensities were measured every 10 vesicles at the base. The transitional type lava
370 C.J. BOCKER E T AL.
Fa ~ ,--
0a o ~ r o
~ ~'=
~ Z ~
N~ ~ ' ~
~ ~ "~ r.~ c.~
< ~ , o =
~ ~, ~ . ~
o ~ ~
9K ~ ~
g
~oo GG,2
,~- , ,...~ ~.~
o ~ ' ~ 0a ~LC
.o ~=a: ~ =
~-~ . ~
m ~
o< ~.~
go~eo~
o ~ ~<.o
.-~ ~ ~
~ , ~ o
9 " GI
PHYSICAL SIGNATURE OF BASALTIC VOLCANICS 371
has a thin brecciated or vesicular flow top, some Correlation of physical properties
internal flow banding and a vesicular base. The
lithology of the interior of the flows ranges from There is a very high correlation between physical
aphyric to pyhric basalt. Grain size and flow properties that have been measured on different
thickness tend to increase upwards in the drilled core types. Core measurements were conducted
section (ODP Leg 163 Shipboard Scientific on full rounds, half rounds and also on mini
Party, 1996). A comparable trend in the grain cores with 2.5cm in diameter. In Fig. 6, this
size distribution can also be seen in Hole 553A correlation is shown for the density and com-
(see preceding chapter) as well as in Hole 917A pressional wave velocity. Although the minicore
with the pahoehoe flows in the lower part and measurements integrate over a much smaller
the aa flows in the upper parts of the borehole. volume than the full or half round measure-
These flow type variations and intraflow ments, the correlation is fairly high. This good
structures with brecciated and/or vesicular top correlation is (among other things) an effect of
and bottom zones are reflected by the core measurements immediately after core recovery.
measurements (Fig. 5). As described for the log During time after core recovery, and depending
measurements of Hole 553A, density and on core depth (confining pressure), the cores
velocity are again well correlated and show high undergo a stress release (Zang & Berckhemer
variations. The core measurements reveal char- 1989) and this in fact plays a role for density and
acteristic features for the three flow types. for more enhanced velocity estimation by form-
Highest density and velocity values can be found ing microcracks.
generally in the non-vesicular or only less There is not only a good correlation between
vesicular flow interiors where the massive and measurements for one hole but also between
homogeneous basalts occur. Here, the flow different holes in comparable environments (Fig.
interiors are characterized by densities of 6). The large amount of data are coming from
3 g cm -3 and velocities of about 6 km s 1. Very density and velocity downhole and core mea-
low density and velocity values can be found at surements from the Holes 990A, 917A, 642E and
the flow boundaries of the aa type flows. In 553A. The lines in Fig. 6 are linear regression
general, the density, velocity and susceptibility lines for each dataset. Although the scatter of
variations as well as their absolute values are the data is not negligible, the regression lines are
decreasing downwards in the hole, whereas the close together. There seems to be a different
magnetic intensity variations are decreasing trend of increasing velocities at higher densities.
upwards and the average values are increasing This trend is reflected by borehole as well as by
downwards. These findings for the physical and core measurements. The reason for this is not
magnetic properties might be in correlation with well understood. It may be that the anisotropic
the flow types and the amount of vesicular and/ nature (flow bandings) of the massive basalts is
or brecciated zones and the grain size distribu- responsible for this trend.
tions. In general, the aa flows are more fine
grained whereas the pahoehoe flows are more Single flow physical property characteristics
coarse grained. The pahoehoe flows show the
lowest variations in density and velocity and the Each flow exhibits a characteristic variation in
highest variations in magnetic intensity. The physical properties. This is especially true for
high variations of density and velocity for the aa thick fine-grained (aa) flows. The detailed
flows are primarily caused by the brecciated and structure of selected single flows of this type
altered top parts of the flows revealing very low from the drillings 553A, 642E, 917A and 990A is
density and velocity values. The magnetic shown in Figs 7a and b. Flow #3 from Hole
intensity shows only some enhanced peaks, but 990A (Fig. 7a, top, see also Fig. 5) consists of a
the susceptibility is in general relatively high for moderately phyric plagioclase basalt and has a
the aa flows. Although the differences in thickness of 15 m. Due to variations in physical
magnetic property behaviour might have several properties, the flow can be divided into four
single or combined reasons (like alteration characteristic zones.
conditions, grain sizes, variable cooling his- The top of the flow (zone I + z o n e II) is
tories), they seem to be helpful in distinguishing characterized by a moderate to complete altera-
different flow types. This will be a subject of tion (ODP Leg 163 Shipboard Scienitific Party
further investigations. 1996). These zones of the flow (260-264.3 mbsf)
In summary, the core measurements of Hole can be compared with low to moderate density
990A are well suited for distinguishing flows and (2.5-2.8 g cm -3) and velocity values (2-5 kms 1).
intraflow structures as well as the log measure- The susceptibility and the remanence show the
ments as shown for Hole 553A. highest values in the alteration zone II. This
372 C.J. BI~ICKER E T AL.
might be caused by a low temperature oxidation That means, for example, that the peak devel-
of titanomagnetite to pure magnetite or maghe- opment is more significant at shallow water
mite having a higher specific susceptibility conditions than at dry ground conditions during
(Audunsson et al. 1992). There may also be an the flow emplacement.
enrichment of Fe-oxides in this permeable zone In all flows shown in Fig. 7a and b, the central
yielding enhanced magnetic values. Zone II massive basalt is characterized by zone III with
characterizes a transition between zones I and highest values in density and velocity but lowest
III with increasing density and velocity values. values in gamma ray and magnetic properties.
In the central part of the flow (zone III) down to Obviously, the magnetic properties are affected
272.5 mbsf, the highest values of density and by the alteration thus resulting in enhanced
velocity occur, indicating a massive basalt. The values in the top and bottom zones.
susceptibility values are moderate, pointing to Comparing the curves of the four holes there
titanomagnetite as the magnetic mineral. The seem to be two groups with a high correlation
bottom of the flow (zone IV) is also character- between the corresponding curves of density and
ized by high alteration and vesicularity with velocity for Holes 990A and 553A and a similar
decreasing velocity and density values and correlation with a relatively higher variation in
enhanced remanence and slightly enhanced velocity for the corresponding curves of Holes
susceptibility values. In this zone, a small density 642E and 917A.
peak just below zone III can be observed in
many aa flows. Conclusion
For comparison, corresponding logs of Hole
553A (Leg 81) for flow #12, of Hole 642E (Leg The key to understanding variations in physical
104) for flow #53 and of Hole 917A (Leg 152) properties of basaltic lava flows are the intraflow
for flow #60 are shown in Figs 7a and b. There is vesicle sizes, shapes and distributions and the
a high correlation between the corresponding alteration stages of the flow tops and bottoms.
core and downhole measurements of Holes The comparison of different physical properties
990A, 642E, 553A and 917A. They show a very of volcanic flows in the NE Atlantic shows that
similar vertical structure of the flows.The they can be clearly attributed to four character-
gamma ray peak at 683 mbsf in Hole 642E istic flow zones (zones I-IV) with changing
may be correlated to the moderately altered zone vesicularity (Fig 3). This holds not only for the
at the top of the flow (zone II) with the enhanced comparison of corresponding log measurements
magnetic values in Holes 917A and 990A. The but also for continuous core measurements. It
gamma ray logs in zones I and II of Holes 917A has been shown that the core measurements
and 553A also show the highest values in these associated with a high recovery are as well suited
altered and brecciated zones. Obviously this is for the differentiation of a volcanic pile and
an effect of potassium enrichment in these zones intraflow structures as the log measurements.
that probably occurs in alteration minerals Although the flow structure can also be seen in
(smectite, celadonite). As described before, the FMS (Formation Microscanner) images (Cam-
bottom of a flow can be detected by a sharp bray 1996), the complete physical structure can
increase in the SFLU log. This sharp increase be derived only by downhole and core measure-
falls into flow zone IV with low density and ments.
velocity values. Often a density peak can also be As the structure of a single lava flow depends
observed in this zone. The SFLU log of Hole on many influences (i.e. distance from the
917A is somewhat different from that of Holes volcanic vent (grain size distribution), cooling
553A and 642E and the density log does not history, flow thickness, growth and rise of gas
show this pronounced peak at the base of a flow. bubbles, sea level air pressure), log interpreta-
This may be an age effect and thus due to a more tion in volcanic flows may give help in answering
progressive alteration. During alteration, clay questions related to these topics. It seems that
minerals are filling and replacing glass (Desprai- the magnetic properties play a special role in
ties et al. 1989). As shown in Fig. 2, the oldest finding these answers. Obviously, the magnetic
basalts have been drilled in Hole 917A and the properties, remanence and susceptibility, are not
youngest basalts have been drilled in Hole 553A. only suited to differentiate intraflow structures
Possibly the basalts drilled in Hole 917A and but also to distinguish between aa (fine-grained)
especially the flow tops and bottoms with the and pahoehoe (coarse-grained) flow types.
enhanced permeabilities are more altered and Probably the reason for this is the different
thus show a change in their physical properties. cooling history of aa and pahoehoe flows,
The character of the SFLU peak might be also resulting in different grain size distributions also
influenced by the depositional environment. for the magnetic particles and thus in different
PHYSICAL SIGNATURE OF BASALTIC VOLCANICS 373
magnetic properties. The magnetic properties, Spektrum der Wissenschaft, 12, Akademischer
susceptibility and remanence are not only Verlag.
influenced by the kind of the carrier of & 1994. Large igneous provinces:
magnetization but they are also strongly influ- crustal structure, dimensions and external con-
sequences. Reviews in Geophysics, 32, 1-36
enced by the grain size of the magnetized DELIUS, H., BI~CKER, C. J. & WOHLENBERG,J. 1995.
particles. Palaeomagnetic studies as well as Significant log responses of basaltic lava flows and
Formation Microscanner image analyses should volcaniclastic sediments in ODP Hole 642E.
take notice of the enhanced magnetic values at Scientific Drilling, 5, 217-226
the top and bottom of volcanic flows, because DEMANT, A., CAMBRAY,H., VANDAMME,D. & LEG 152
the magnetic directions might be influenced. SHIPBOARDSCIENTIFICPARTY1995. Lithostratigra-
phy of the volcanic sequences at Hole 917A, Leg
Although the holes discussed here are geo-
152, SE Greenland margin. Journal of the
graphically distant, the physical properties and Geological Society London, 152, 943-946.
the structures of the drilled volcanic flows are DESPRAIRIES, A., TREMBLAY, P., & LALOY, C. 1989.
similar, pointing to comparable genetic mechan- Secondary mineral assemblages in a volcanic
isms during the initial rifting phase. sequence drilled during ODP Leg 104 in the
Norwegian Sea. In: ELDHOLM, O., THIEDE, J.,
TAYLOR, E., et al. (eds) 1989. Proceedings ODP,
Our special thanks are owed to all of the Leg 163 Scientific Results, 104. College Station, TX
Scientific Party and the excellent crew with Captain E. (Ocean Drilling Program).
Oonk especially during the storm. Thanks to Y. ELDHOLM, O., THIEDE, J., TAYLOR, E. & LEG 104
Nakasa who made available the magnetic intensity SHIPBOARD SCIENTIFIC PARTY 1987. The Norwe-
core data from Hole 990A. The help from A. Essers in gian continental margin: tectonic, volcanic, and
data preparation and processing is greatfully acknowl- paleoenvironmental framework. Proceedings in
edged. The critical and helpful comments of two ODP, Initial Reports, 104. College Station, TX
anonymous reviewers have been of great value in (Ocean Drilling Program).
improving an earlier version of the manuscript. We FITTON, J. G., SAUNDERS,A. D., LARSEN,H. C., FRAM,
would also like to thank P. Harvey for his encourage- M. S., DEMANT, A., SINTON, C. & LEG 152
ments in writing this contribution. SHIPBOARD SCIENTIFIC PARTY 1995. Magma
Thanks to the DFG (Deutsche Forschungsge- sources and plumbing systems during breakup of
meinschaft) for the financial support. the SE Greenland margin: preliminary results
from ODP Leg 152. Journal of the Geological
Society, London, 152, 985-990.
HINZ, K. 1981. A hypothesis on terrestrial cata-
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Development of the Cote D'Ivoire-Ghana transform margin: evidence
from the integration of core and wireline log data
C. A. G O N ~ A L V E S 1 & L. E W E R T 2
Abstract: The primary objective for drilling the Cote d'Ivoire-Ghana Transform Margin
during ODP Leg 159 was to assess the sedimentary and deformation processes resulting
from the different stages of continental break-up and related transform tectonism. In view of
the structural importance of the leg, integration of logging and core data is important to
help understand the main tectonic and deformation events that occurred.
The effect of the transform deformation can be seen in physical properties data, for
instance the porosity data derived from index properties measurements. Major breaks in
porosity are associated with the tectonized lower Cretaceous and Cenozoic boundary, a
trend also reflected in the P-wave velocity measurements. At each site, core and well log data
show the presence of a major unconformity between the Cretaceous and Cenozoic, marked
by an offset in porosity, density and P-wave data. The physical properties of log data are
also heterogeneous, reflecting variations in consolidation, age and lithology.
Another interesting aspect covered by core-log integration was the structural relationship
within the sediments. As well as the direct measurements made on cores, in situ structural
measurements have been obtained using the Formation MicroScanner (FMS; Mark of
Schlumberger) logging tool in two of the holes. The measurements cover the Eocene to
Turonian-upper Santonian limestones. Bedding planes dip predominantly towards NW-
NNW and show an increase with depth which can be interpreted to be the result of steady
subsidence of the Deep Ivorian Basin. Break-outs and fracturing were also observed. Break-
out occurrences depend on sediment type and their axes are perpendicular to the maximum
compressive horizontal stress east-northeast west-southwest. Fracturing occurs as normal
and reverse microfaults, with dispersion of dips and azimuth directions in these zones. The
presence of fault zones are also correlated with changes in the physical properties of the
sediments.
During Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Leg 159, (2) the extent to which the physical properties
13 holes were drilled in four sites (959, 960, 961 of the sediments are controlled by the
and 962) on the C6te d'Ivoire-Ghana Trans- tectonism;
form Margin (Fig. 1). All holes were continu- (3) the consistency of the structural features in
ously cored using APC (Advanced Piston Core), the cores with downhole Formation Micro-
XCB (Extended Core Barrel) and RCB (Rotary Scanner (FMS) images.
Core Barrel) techniques and had an overall core
recovery ranging from 30% (Site 962) to nearly We used data from three holes (959D, 960A
70% (Site 960). A full suite of standard and 960C) because only these holes were drilled
Schlumberger logging tools was also deployed through the entire sedimentary section, covering
in four of these holes (959D, 960A, 960C and periods of hiatus and condensed sedimentation
962D), collecting in situ continous physical from late Cretaceous to Paleocene. In addition,
properties measurements. these holes contained a full suite of logs
The central purpose of this paper is to discuss including FMS data.
the integration of data from cores and wireline The sedimentary sequence investigated at
logs to interpret the different stages observed in Sites 959 and 960 consisted from top to bottom,
the evolution of the C6te d ' I v o i r e - G h a n a of chert and claystone (Unit IIB), porcellanite
Margin. The main objectives are to evaluate: (Unit IIC), black claystone (Unit III) and sandy
limestone, sandy dolomite and a calcareous
(1) the reliability of both types of measure- sandstone (Units IVA and IVB) (Fig. 2). The
ments; three holes (959D, 960A and 960C) penetrated
GON(TALVES,C. A. & EWERTL. 1998. Development of the Cote D'Ivoire-Ghana transform margin: 375
evidence from the integration of core and wireline log data In: HARVEY,P. K. • LOVELL,M. A. (eds)
Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 375-389
376 C.A. GON(~ALVES & L. EWERT
Fig. 1. Location (a) and structural (b) maps of the area surveyed during ODP Leg 159 showing the four sites
drilled during the cruise (adapted from Mascle et al. 1996).
different geologic units at different depths three principal stages of continental break-up
depending on their location. Mascle e t al. have been identified: an Intra-Continental Basin
(1996) show that the interplay of tectonic stage, a Marginal Ridge emergence stage and a
deformation and sedimentation on the C6te Passive Margin stage. These stages reflect
d'Ivoire-Ghana Transform Margin is best re- lithologically distinct intervals in the sedimenta-
presented in the spatial and stratigraphic varia- tion history and relate to changes in the tectonic
tion of sediments cored at Sites 959 and 960. setting. Even though all of these stages are not
Although important information is provided by present in the sediments recovered, this paper
cores from Sites 961 and 962, the completeness shows that the core-log integration in Sites 959
of these sections, and thus the direct contribu- and 960 can give a substancial input to the
tion for interpreting palaeoenvironmental set- understanding of the significance of their spatial
tings, is comparatively limited. On the basis of relations.
sections reconstructed for Sites 959 and 960,
DEVELOPMENT OF A TRANSFORM MARGIN 377
Table 1. Standard Schlumberger tool strings used during ODP Leg 159 operations
where Sw is the water saturation, Rw is the where pf is the formation fluid density, PB is the
formation water resistivity, ~b is the fractional log density and Pma is the the grain density. A
porosity, Rt is the measured formation resistivity histogram of the measured grain density for
and n, a and m are empirical constants obtained Hole 959D is shown in Fig. 3. The histogram
from laboratory measurements. This equation shows two peaks with mean values of 2.34 g cm -3
has shown to be reliable for clean sands (no
clay). In the case of Leg 159 sediments,
measured resistivities include contributions from
both free water in pores and bound water in
clays. Therefore, more sophisticated equations
such as models from Waxman & Smith (1968) or
Clavier et al. (1977) are needed to account for
the clay effect. However, for the high porosity
values encountered in the C6te d'Ivoire-Ghana
sediments, the effect of clay contributions may
result in under-estimation of porosity by as
much as 20% (Jarrard et al. 1989). Therefore,
other methods for obtaining porosity should be
used.
A density log obtained from the Lithodensity
tool (HLDT) correlates well with core data in
sections with good hole conditions. Then, for Fig. 3. Histogram for grain density ((ma) values
these cases a porosity estimate (qSD) can be measured on cores from Hole 959D.
DEVELOPMENT OF A TRANSFORM MARGIN 379
Fig. 4. Core porosity, density log-derived porosity and neutron porosity log in Hole 959D. Caliper and gamma
ray curves for the same interval as well as clay content from XRD analysis are also plotted.
Fig. 6. Core porosity and neutron porosity log in Hole 960A. Density and gamma ray curves for the same interval
as well as clay content from XRD analysis are also plotted.
osity values observed below 740 mbsf (Fig. 4) tions, but is highly affected by borehole diameter
can be due to the hydrogen concentration variations. In sections subjected to good hole
associated with the shale matrix in the black conditions, nearly identical velocities were ob-
claystone (lithologic Unit III). served by the long and short spaced sonic tools.
Hole 960A presents density and porosity In both cases, P-wave velocities were determined
measurements for both core and log data from full waveform analysis by a simple first
between 50 and 350 mbsf. In this case, a poor break criterion during data acquisition (ODP
correlation is observed between the absolute 1991). Data were processed onboard to remove
values of both measurements (Fig. 6). Breaks in cycle skipping effects (Mascle et al. 1996).
log porosity and log density are observed at 105 P-wave velocities were also determined from
mbsf (top of lithologic subunit IIA), at 145 mbsf core samples. Core measurements from Hole
(within subunit IIB) and at 165 mbsf (between 959D are shown in Fig. 7 together with the sonic
lithologic subunits IIB and III). A major break velocity log curve for the interval between 550-
in core density and core porosity measurements 1050 mbsf. There is good agreement between the
is observed at 185 mbsf, which corresponds to datasets despite the fact that core measurements
the unconformity between upper Cretaceous and were performed at atmospheric pressure. Both
Cenozoic (lithologic subunits III and IVA) curves increase from about 1.7kms -1 at 550
(Mascle et al. 1996). Observe the extremely high mbsf to about 2.2kms ~ at the bottom of the
counts for gamma ray at this depth. Here, a logged interval. At 735-740 mbsf velocities from
highly condensed, 23 cm thick, section of micrit both datasets increase to 2 . 8 k m s l, which
claystone representing the entire upper Santo- coincides with the decrease in porosity observed
nian to upper Palaeocene is capped by a in Fig. 4. Another major break is observed at
phosphatic hard ground. The deposition of such 975 mbsf, also corresponding to a decrease in
an extremely condensed sequence indicates a porosity. These breaks correspond to an angular
depositional environment that was probably unconformity within Eocene sediments and the
swept by currents with rare respites that allowed boundary between Cenozoic and upper Cretac-
sediment accumulation. eous, respectively.
Velocity is plotted against porosity in Fig. 8
Velocity for both core and log data in Hole 959D. It
shows a fair agreement between both datasets.
The sonic velocity log at Hole 959D is of good For porosities between 50% and 60%, core
quality for sections exhibiting good hole condi- measurements show a velocity-depth trend
DEVELOPMENT OF A TRANSFORM MARGIN 381
Caliper Velocity
55o 550
o~
6oo 60o
65O 65O
750 750
e-" ~
.0 800 8O0
vE |
ca.
(D 850 850
0
9OO 9OO
950 III / ~
/
950
e~.
E<
lOOO 1000
1050 1050
5 lO 15 20 1.5 2 2.5 3
inches Km/sec
Fig. 7. Core velocity and log velocity in Hole 959D. The caliper curve and the stratigraphic column are also
plotted.
are zones of anomalous increase throughout the (dyne cm -2) is multiplied by 10-1~ In the case of
interval (e.g. between 745-780 mbsf) that cannot Hole 959D, Kw is assumed to be 2.37x 10 l~ dyne
be predicted by Carlson's model (Carlson et al. cm -2 and K~ to be 50x101~ dyne cm -2. Kf is
1986). This is not surprising, in view of the calculated from porosity using Hamilton (1971)
variations in porosity and mineralogy due to empirical equation for silty clays, where
diagenesis within the siliciclastic sediments of
subunits IIC . The remarkable match between log (10 8xKf)=3.735 -4.250q5.
velocity and porosity behaviour in Hole 959D
and their variation with depth lead us to reject The calculated shear modulus (#) for Hole
the Carlson et al. (1986) model in favour of a 959D varies from 4.4x 101~ dyne cm -2 at the top
more traditional explanation that porosity is the of the interval to about 6.5x101~ dyne cm -2 at
dominant control on velocity. The effect of approximately 1050 mbsf, displaying an ex-
overburden on velocity is indirect, probably pected increase in rigidity with depth (Fig. 9).
arising from changes in porosity due to compac- Bulk modulus (K) is also showing an increase
tion. with depth from 6x 1010 dyne cm 4 to 8.5•
Therefore, a theoretical model using classic dyne cm 2. The sharp increase in rigidity
Hookean elastic equations for the elastic proper- observed at 745 mbsf is associated with changes
ties of marine sediments (Gassman 1951) was in the deformation records of the continental
tested for core data on Hole 959D. The reason margin and characterized by an unconformity
to use core data instead of log data in this model within Eocene sediments. These changes are also
is that the former are not affected by enlarged reflected as a break in faulting above 745 mbsf
hole conditions as seen in both Holes 959D and (Mascle et al. 1996). Another break and increase
960A. Moreover, a computed velocity log from in rigidity occurs at the very bottom of the
core data can be applied for other holes in the interval and is related to an unconformity
same area regardless of their borehole condi- between the Cenozoic and upper Cretaceous.
tions. In this model, bulk modulus (K) of a Both K and 1 show a strong correlation with
mixture of sediment and pore water is related to porosity and density as shown in Figs 10a<l. A
velocity (Vp) and density (p) by the equation plot of KXpVp 2 is presented in Fig. 10e.
Hamilton (1971) shows that if the result in Fig.
K=pVp 2- 4/3 #, 10e contains values of K f r the divergence of
the data points from the line k=pVp 2 indicates
where # is the shear modulus. K can also be the 2presence of rigidity. With an increase in
obtained using p Vp, rigidity tends to a constant value. Another
characteristic observed is the correlation be-
K= Ks (Kf + Q)/(K~ + Q), tween bulk modulus, shear modulus and poros-
ity. The total variance in shear modulus is
where factor Q is given by accounted for by the regression equation
Q=(Kw (K~-Kf))/(c~ (Ks -Kw), (#x 10-l~ = 2.854 -7.213 log (q~),
"E:
Shear Modulu,, Bulk Modulus :3 <
550 i"1 i 550 I ' ~ '
of
600 | =
600 ~ i
650 650 UdI~L
700
700 ~~~+~7 IIC @@
75O
~+4"
**~,
750 [
/o 812.3
80o
'~176 ~,.-~
E
Z++ ~.~
g_g,
e~ 850 650 +
r'~
9O0 900 ~;~.
1043.3
95O
1000
1050
{ 96ol
1000 I
1050 I
+~
IVA ~
i
g-
ila
I I I I i 9 IVB Unknown?~
3 4 5 6 7 8 2 4 6 8 10
(dyne/cm2 x 1010) (dyne/cm 2 x 1010)
Fig. 9. Calculated shear (#) and bulk modulus (K) for Hole 959D. Note the sharp increase in rigidity within
Eocene sediments associated with an angular unconformity. The stratigraphic column for Hole 959D is also
shown.
7 . ~ ~*:~t- ++
~ 6 6
5 I 1 I I I 5
1,4 1.6 1,8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 20 30 40 50 60 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
(b) (d)
7.0 7.0 9.0
+
+++ $
6.5
* ~ 8.0
/
"5 "- 6,0 6.0
7.0
~ x 5. 5 5.5 'u F %. . +
60 +. +~'+
go~ 5,0
5.0 + +
4.5 4.5
Fig. 11. A 1.5 m interval in Hole 959D showing the FMS image and corresponding core section. Layers dip 5~ to
10~ to the Northwest.
the borehole wall with an array of 16 electrodes size, porosity, cementation, induration, miner-
positioned in a four pad-contact tool. This alogy as well as borehole size, shape and surface
provides a high resolution electrical image of features. For rocks of similar mineralogy,
the formation which is displayed in colour or cementation and fluid type in a uniform bore-
grey scale. The tool, which is a 6 meters long hole, the pixel tone on the FMS images is
cylindrical measuring device, is lowered to the observed to be a function of grain size. However,
bottom of the hole and records four perpendi- prior to obtaining an image of good quality,
cular images (one image for each pad) providing data must undergo extensive processing.
approximately 25% of coverage of the borehole Schlumberger (1989) and ODP (1991) present a
wall (ODP 1991). Improved coverage can be complete description of the processing steps
obtained using more than one pass with the tool needed for obtaining an image representative
rotated but very often the pads seem to follow of the formation resistivity.
the track left by the previous pass, especially in FMS data were recorded in three holes during
soft formations. Standard resistivity data are Leg 159. Due to unstable hole conditions
also recorded and used to calculate dips in the (enlarged holes) and consequently bad contact
formation. The tool contains a triaxial acceler- between the pads and the borehole wall, the
ometer and three orthogonal magnetometers to quality of the FMS images in Hole 962D is poor
accurately orientate the images. During the and the data were not used in this work.
recording, measurements are also made of hole In Hole 960C, the FMS images are of
size, cable speed, and natural gamma ray on the moderate quality. A large part of the logged
same tool string. interval is affected by poor pad contact caused
Pezard et al. (1992) shows that FMS con- by irregular hole size. Between 351-341, 292-
ductivity measurements are a function of grain 277, 218-200 and 195-175 mbsf, hole conditions
DEVELOPMENT OF A TRANSFORM MARGIN 385
Fig. 12. Dip and azimuth measurements for the interval between 660--780 mbsf in Hole 959D, including
histograms with variations in the measurements.
Fig. 14. Left: intense calcite veins set in dolomitic limestone of subunit IVB (Site 959). Centre: sketch of a set of
conjugate normal microfaults formed prior to tilting in laminated siltstones in Site 960 (unit III). A reverse
microfault and calcite infills are also present along the fault planes. Right: a typical subvertical microfault
structure in the black claystones of unit III (Site 959) is shown.
dips at the bottom of the interval. These on the FMS data (Fig. 12). Occurrence of
dispersions in dip values are associated with an microfaults and calcite veins on cores within
increase in fracturing. When comparing core the lower Cretaceous in Sites 959 to 962 are
and FMS structural measurements for the same observed in Fig. 14. Microfaults are sometimes
depth intervals (Fig. 13) at Site 959, a reasonable anastomosing and indicate reverse motion as
agreement is observed. Data on cores appear shown on the right in Fig. 14. Although it is very
more scattered probably due to poor core difficult to date the faulting events, it appears
recovery and bad core reorientation in some that the faults affect mainly the porcellanites of
sections of the hole. Reorientation of structures lithological Unit II (lower Miocene-upper Pa-
to geographic coordinates was possible on cores laeocene) and the black claystones (Unit III).
recovered during Leg 159 through the use of Due to their reverse nature, most of the fault
Tensor orientation tool data (APC cores) and zones observed are possibly related to gravity-
palaeomagnetic data (XCB and RCB cores) driven sliding that occurred during lithification
(Mascle et al. 1996). of these sediments (Mascle et al. 1996).
Two kinds of fractures were observed in the Breakout occurrences are numerous between
FMS data at Hole 959D: subvertical breakouts 540 and 700 mbsf. Breakouts depend on the
(conductive, open fractures), dark in the images; sediment type (no breakouts appear in the non-
and highly dipping faults (resistive, sealed), light tectonized section of Hole 959D between 700
in the images. Resistive fractures are mostly and 745 mbsf) and the average strike of the
normal and reverse microfaults and veins filled breakout axes is perpendicular to the maximum
by calcite. The fracturing is localized in a few horizontal compressive stress east-northeast
fault zones, less than 10m thick and consists west-southwest (Mascle et al. 1996). Figure 15
generally of microfaults with very short offsets. shows a break-out occurrence in Hole 959D
The fault zones are strongly correlated with given by a conductive (open) fracture on the
changes in density, porosity and velocity in Hole FMS image. The strike of the breakout axis is
959D. Dispersion of dip and azimuth directions north-south.
are also another characteristic of these sections
DEVELOPMENT OF A TRANSFORM MARGIN 387
Fig. 15. FMS image showing a break-out ocurrence in Hole 959D. The conductive open fracture observed here is
about 35 to 40 cm long with a strike aproximately N-S.
in porosity, density and velocity data at 200 both sites. The scattering of the rotation axes at
mbsf. At site 959 there is a broad pattern of Site 959 may reflect variations in the strike of the
decreasing porosity downhole. Once again, the slope of the ridge with time or the interfering
lowest core porosities are found in Albian strata influence of uplift of the Marginal Ridge and
(Unit V), and an increase to higher porosities is subsidence of the Deep Ivorian Basin.
seen across the transition into the overlying
carbonates (Unit IV), which are also less Conclusion
tectonized (Gon~alves & Ewert 1995). Two
sharp breaks in porosity and velocity are The objective of this study was to evaluate:
observed between the lower Cretaceous sedi-
ments (1040 mbsf) and between Eocene clays- (1) the reliability of both types of measure-
tones at 745 mbsf, representing an angular ments;
unconformity. (2) the extent to which the physical properties
Following the carbonate sedimentation after of the sediments are controlled by the
the late Santonian, the dominant tectonic setting tectonism;
for sedimentation is characterized as a passive (3) the consistency of the structural features in
margin. The tectonically controlled contrasts in the cores with downhole Formation Micro-
sedimentation gave way to deepening of the Scanner (FMS) images which helped to
basin and progressive submergence of the interpret the development of the C6te
margin. Differentiation of the Deep Ivorian d'Ivoire-Ghana margin.
Basin and an increase in biosiliceous, pelagic
and hemipelagic sedimentation was observed. Comparison of in situ wireline log and core
The most characteristic aspects of this zone ares measured physical properties assessed the relia-
the gradual increase of porosity and decrease in bility of either data type. Because the two data
velocity towards the top of the section within the types investigate different volumes of rock and
porcellanites of lithologic subunit IIC. The use different techniques to measure the same
Eocene age of this zone does not mark a major physical properties, differences can be expected
tectonic event; however, it does correlate with in the results. In Sites 959 and 960, however,
the rapid subsidence of the margin. both data types agree reasonably well. Differ-
ences occur mainly between porosity from the
Defo rm a tio n a l records neutron log data and from cores, where the
presence of clay affects the former. The velocity
At Site 959, bedding planes dip predominantly log is affected by hole conditions. This is the case
towards the northwest north-northwest and dips of Hole 960A, where enlarged hole sections
increase with depth. This is interpreted as the affected most of the velocity data.
result of the steady subsidence of the Deep Porosity was the dominant control in acoustic
Ivorian Basin between Albian and early Mio- properties at Site 959. Therefore, reliable deter-
cene. In addition to direct core measurements, in mination of porosity was important in comput-
situ structural measurements were obtained ing velocities. Compressional wave velocity,
using FMS tools in both Holes 959D and density, bulk modulus and rigidity are all closely
960C. The logged intervals cover from the lower linked to porosity and display the same gradual
Oligocene porcellanites (lithologic subunit IIC) compaction effect and high frequency variation
to part of the upper Cretaceous to lower as porosity. A computed velocity log, based on
Palaeocene black claystones (Unit III) in Hole measured core porosity, core density, core
959D; and the Eocene (lithologic subunit IIB) to velocity and on the theoretical equations of
the Turonian-upper Santonian limestone (sub- Gassman (1951), is almost identical to the
unit IVB) in Hole 960C. In Hole 959D, the velocity log in Hole 959D. The only exception
bedding dips northwest, increasing 5~ to 25 ~ to the overall dominance of porosity in affecting
with depth, as expected from seismic data during acoustic properties is the increase in clay content
pre-cruise surveys (Basile et al. 1996). In Hole within the black claystone (lithologic unit III).
960C, beds also dip to the northwest but show In the late Cretaceous, a thick sequence of
no increase with depth. At both sites, dip and organic-rich black claystone (high clay content)
azimuths of the bedding exhibit important accumulated in the Deep Ivorian Basin, decreas-
variations at decimetre to metre scales, inter- ing the density contrast and increasing the
preted as possible slump deposits (Mascle et al. velocity contrast, compared with the effect of
1996). Associated rotation axes for the slumps porosity alone. Also, a hiatus is seen to have
were calculated from sucessive bedding measure- affected the results in the Palaeocene. Empirical
ment, which mainly trend W - N W to N - N E at relations of velocity to porosity fit our data
DEVELOPMENT OF A TRANSFORM MARGIN 389
poorly. Gassman's model (1951) had much Engineers., 52na Annual Fall Conference. Paper
greater success in providing a computed velocity 6859.
log than the empirical equations. However, due ELLIS, D. V. 1986. Neutron porosity logs: what do they
measure? First Break, 4(3), 11-17.
to the regional variations in clay abundance and
GASSNAN, F. 1951. Elastic waves through a packing of
diagenesis, and also due to differences in spheres. Geophysics, 16, 673~585.
sedimentation rate (hiatus), we conclude that a GON~ALVES,C. A. & EWERT, L. 1995. Sedimentary and
reliable method of estimating velocity for high structural relationship of the C6te d'Ivoire-
porosity sediments needs a few measurements of Ghana Transform M a r g i n ~ D P Leg 159: evi-
velocity available to constrain the solution. dence from downhole logging measurements
FMS images helped us to identify the different (abstract). LOS, 76, F597.
structural features present between the two main HAMILTON, E. L. 1971. Prediction of in situ acoustic
deformation processes. It was also possible to and elastic properties of marine sediments.
reorientate cores from the images. Dispersion of Geophysics, 36, 225-284.
1979. Sound velocity gradients in marine
dips and azimuths measured from the FMS sediments. Journal of Acoustic Association of
images helped in identifying zones of micro- America, 65, 909-922.
faults. Break-outs and subvertical-to-vertical JARRARD, R. D., DADEY, K. A. & BUSH, W. H. 1989.
faults were also observed in the FMS data and Velocity and density of sediments of Eirik Ridge,
allowed the identification of the direction of Labrador Sea: control by porosity and miner-
maximum stress present on this continental alogy. In. SRIVASTAVA, S. P., ARTHUR, M.,
margin. CLEMENT, B. et al. (eds) Proceedings ODP
This paper has shown that core-log integra- Scientific Results 105, College Station, TX (Ocean
tion can play an important role in understanding Drilling Program).
MASCLE, J., LOHMANN,G. P., CLIFT, P. D. et al. 1996.
the evolution of this type of margin beyond that Proceedings ODP Initial Reports, 159: College
already discovered through remote geophysical Station, TX (Ocean Drilling Program).
surveying techniques. However, care must be OCEAN DRILLING PROGRAM (ODP). 1991. Wireline
taken in c o m p a r i n g both datasets, mainly logging manual, volumes 1-3, ODP (LDEO),
because of the different measuring techniques Palisides, N.Y.
and the different scales involved. PEZARD, P. A., LOVELL,M. A. & HISCOTT, R. N. 1992.
Downhole electrical images in volcaniclastic
sequences of the Izu-Bonin forearc basin, western
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P. T A R T A R O T T I l, M. A Y A D I 2, P. A. P E Z A R D 2'3, C. L A V E R N E 3, & F. D. D E
LAROUZIERE 2
1Dipartimento di Geologia, Paleontologia e Geofisica, Universit~ di Padova, via Giotto n.1,
1-35137 Padova, Italia
2 Laboratoire de Mesures en Forage, Institut M~diterranden de Technologie, Technopdle de
Chdteau-Gombert , F-13451 Marseille Cedex 20, France
3 Laboratoire de P&rologie Magmatique, C N R S URA 1277, Facultd des Sciences et
Techniques de Saint Jdrdme, Avenue Escadrille Normandie-Niemen, F- 13397 Marseille
Cedex 20, France
Abstract: We used a database derived from the integration of core material and geophysical
downhole measurements in order to investigate the relationships between fracturing and
alteration in the volcanic section of DSDP/ODP Hole 504B. The studied crustal section
(from top of the basement to 1000 mbsf (metres below sea floor)) consists of low resistivity/
high porosity pillow lavas associated with breccias and rubble material, alternating with
high resistivity/low porosity massive basalt flows. A positive correlation between DLL (Dual
Laterolog)-derived porosity and occurrence of breccias in the core suggests that breccias
more than fractures contribute to the electrical resistivity signal. A structural analysis
performed from core suggests that most fractures and veins are steeply dipping, and may
represent tectonic features or cracks due to contractional cooling of the crust, the latter
being more abundant in pillows. Fractures and veins recorded on core tend to be clustered in
massive units or thin flows. This result may derive from criteria adopted during structural
measurements and must be taken with care. The natural radioactivity (GR) profile
delineates two main alteration zones in the volcanic section: an oxidizing zone with
increased potassium above, and a reducing one without K gain below. Most of the GR
maxima are found to be correlated with celadonite-bearing alteration halos. GR minima are
frequently located at the boundaries between domains of contrasting fracture orientation,
where metasomatic reactions may have occurred due to contrasting permeability.
Hole 504B (Costa Rica Rift, Pacific Ocean) is structure, and mineralogy) and downhole geo-
the only bore-hole to penetrate the oceanic crust physical data (electrical resistivity, natural gam-
through the volcanic extrusives into the under- ma ray, dual laterolog fracture porosity, and
lying sheeted dyke complex. For this reason it borehole wall images recorded with the forma-
has become an important in situ reference tion microscanner or 'FMS') in the uppermost
section for the study of the physical and volcanic section of DSDP/ODP Hole 504B,
chemical structure of the oceanic crust. Drilling down to a depth of 1000 mbsf. By using a
operations during seven DSDP/ODP cruises multi-scalar approach (i.e. from submillimetric
devoted to deepening Hole 504B attained an to metric scale) we have focused our study on
average recovery percentage of 29.8% in the highly resistive massive basalts and intervals
volcanic section, fairly typical of DSDP/ODP with the highest values of fracture porosity from
basement holes but that makes the cored downhole measurements, in order to investigate
material poorly representative of the drilled the relationships between fracturating and al-
crust. For this reason, lithological stratigraphy teration in the upper oceanic crust.
must necessarily be integrated with continuous At Site 504, the oceanic crust shows the effect
log stratigraphy obtained by downhole geophy- of heterogeneous alteration related to the
sical measurements. circulation of seawater in the uppermost volca-
In this paper we present the initial results of a nic section and upwelling hydrothermal fluids in
study based on the integration of core (lithology, the transition zone and dykes (Alt et al. 1985,
TARTAROTTI,P., AYADI, M., PEZARD, P. A., LAVERNE, C. & DE LAROUZIERE,F. D. 1998. Multi-scalar 391
structure at DSDP/ODP Site 504, Costa Rica Rift, II: fracturing and alteration. An integrated study
from core, downhole measurements and borehole wall images In: HARVEY, P. K. & LOVELL,M. A. (eds)
Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 391-412
392 P. TARTAROTTI E T AL.
1986, 1989, 1993, 1996a, 1996b; CRRUST 1982; the crustal section (i.e. Layer 2A) consist of
Cann et al. 1983; Dick et al. 1992). The upper highly porous and permeable volcanic rocks
320m of the volcanic section (upper-pillow (Newmark et al. 1985), whilst the original
'UPAZ' alteration zone; Alt et al. 1986; Laverne porosity has been mostly sealed by secondary
1987) was affected by oxidizing 'sea floor minerals in the underlying 500m (Layer 2B).
weathering' occurring at high water-rock ratios The transition from volcanic rocks to sheeted
and low temperatures (< 60~ that produced dykes records an abrupt change in physical
Fe-oxyhydroxide, saponite, celadonite, arago- properties: acoustic and seismic velocities in-
nite, phillipsite, and minor calcite. The lower crease, whereas bulk permeability and porosity
portion of the volcanic section (lower-pillow drop by orders of magnitude (Anderson et al.
'LPAZ' alteration zone) is characterized by 1982; Detrick et al. 1995). This sharp geophysi-
reactions at lower water-rock ratios and slightly cal boundary at the top of the sheeted dykes is
higher temperatures (60 to 110~ that mainly not mirrored by petrological data that suggests a
produced saponite and pyrite as secondary rather transitional boundary (Alt et al. 1986;
minerals. Becker et al. 1988; Dick et al. 1992).
The transition from oxidative seawater altera-
tion (UPAZ) to a reducing environment (LPAZ) Basement lithostratigraphy
corresponds to a permeability barrier which
separates two distinct hydrological regimes The volcanic section drilled at Site 504 is capped
(Pezard & Anderson 1989; Pezard et al. 1992). by a 274.5 m-thick sedimentary layer and ex-
Such a barrier is identified in the electrical tends to a depth of about 846 mbsf (Cann et al.
resistivity profile by the resistive Unit 27 1983; Adamson 1985). This 571.5m thick sec-
described from core as a massive flow (Cann et tion, which includes the basement drilled during
al. 1983). Late Ca-Na zeolites occur within the Leg 69, Leg 70 and the top 10m recovered
entire volcanic section, but they are particularly during Leg 83 (Cann et al. 1983; Anderson et al.
abundant around 550 mbsf, in the UPAZ. 1985) consists of intercalated pillow lavas, pillow
Zeolites are intrepreted as related to off-axis breccias and hyaloclastites, massive units (flows
discharge of low-temperature evolved fluids (Alt or sills), thin flows, breccias, and minor dykes
et al. 1996b). (Adamson 1985; Fig. 1). Massive units usually
The transition zone from pillows to dykes and give long lengths of full-diameter cores, and may
the sheeted dykes were hydrothermally altered have a thickness of up to 25m, although a
under greenschist facies conditions (greenschist thickness of 15 to 17m is more common.
facies 'GFAZ' alteration zone) with chlorite, Electrical resistivity data suggest that core
actinolite, albite, titanite and epidote, followed recovery in this section is biased toward massive
by zeolite facies conditions. These two super- units, and give an estimate of the pillow basalt
imposed metamorphic conditions have been plus breccia percentage as high as 70% (Pezard
attributed to hydrothermal alteration that took et al. 1992; Ayadi et al. 1998).
place, respectively, on-axis at temperatures of The transition zone from the volcanic section
250~176 and off-axis at lower temperatures to the underlying sheeted dykes and massive
(150~176 The occurrence of early calcic units extends from 846 to 1055 mbsf. Dykes are
plagioclase and hornblende in the deep dyke recognized by the occurrence of a fine-grained/
section suggests episodes with temperatures chilled rock adjacent to a coarser host rock. The
higher than 400~ This mineral assemblage rocks of the transition zone are represented by
has been interpreted as caused by an early pillows and dykes that are commonly fractured
alteration event characteristic of an axial mid- and brecciated and show a pervasive hydro-
ocean ridge reaction zone (Laverne et al. 1995; thermal alteration (Alt et al. 1985, 1986, 1989).
Vanko et al. 1996). The top of the transition zone is characterized by
Coring operations during seven DSDP/ODP more abundant pillows and breccias than its
drilling cruises at Hole 504B have been accom- bottom, where dykes and massive units are more
panied by a series of downhole geophysical common. In the upper transition zone, rock
measurements (e.g. acoustic, electrical resistivity, alteration is very similar to that in the upper
temperature, hole size, natural gamma and volcanic section. From 898 mbsf downward,
density) that provided a comprehensive and alteration abrubtly changes and the rocks are
downward continuous database of physical more recrystallized. A stockwork-like sulfide
properties for the upper oceanic crust (Anderson mineralization (Honnorez et al. 1985) occurs
et al. 1982; Newmarket al. 1985; Becker et al. between 900 and 920 mbsf, within the pillow/
1988; Dick et al. 1992 and refs. therein). dyke transition. This zone consists of highly
Acoustic data suggest that the upper 100m of fractured pillow lavas with abundant breccias
FRACTURING AND ALTERATION AT SITE 504 393
Fig. 1. Basement lithostratigraphy of the studied crustal section at DSDP/ODP Hole 504B with location of the
main brecciated intervals (br). (Modified after Adamson 1985).
and a network of mineralized veins, mainly average of 1.82 fractures cm -1 were found in
composed of quartz and sulfide. oriented core pieces. Pillow units have an
average of 1.0 fracture every 2 cm or less while
Core observations massive ones have an average of 1.0 fracture
every 2 cm or more. The thickest massive flows
Structural features (macro-scale) have fractures every 3.5 to 4.5cm, with an
apparent tendency for the fracture density to
Before the O D P Legs 140 and 148 that drilled increase with depth. Slickensides have also been
the deepest part of Hole 504B (Dick et al. 1992; detected on a few fracture faces during D S D P
Alt et al. t993) specialist structural studies were Leg 69.
not standard procedure at this hole. Unpub- More recently, detailed measurements on drill
lished fracture data are reported in Adamson cores have been carried out in the volcanic
(1985). During DSDP Legs 69, 70, and 83, section and transition zone. Structural data of
numbers of fractures were counted on oriented the volcanic section of Hole 504B are reported
core in order to have an evaluation of the extent by Alt et al. (1996c) who measured a total of
of fracturing in different units (Cann et al. 1983). 5280 veins (3424 veins in the upper volcanic
However, no measurements of fracture and/or section) for an average of 31.6 veins m -1. A
vein orientation were made during these cruises. structural study of the transition zone between
According to such fracture density estimate, an 840 and 958.5 mbsf was presented by Agar
394 P. TARTAROTTI E T AL.
(1990, 1991), although no orientation data of the features are likely to be related to tectonic
structures were supplied. This interval is inferred processes (although an origin due to contrac-
to be a long-lived deformation zone likely to be tional cooling cannot be completely ruled out).
related to a fault (Kinoshita et al. 1989; Becker In that way, fracture and vein orientation data
et al. 1989; Agar 1990, 1991). may be more reliable than those obtained from
The occurrence of breccias is well documented irregular structures. For this purpose, fractures
in the core descriptions from DSDP Legs 69, 70, that are clearly drilling-induced (e.g. disking
and 83. During Legs 69 and 70, autoclastic fractures, petal-centreline fractures) were not
breccias cemented by clays were recovered more counted. Fractures and veins showing typical
frequently at the base of the hole (about 770 patterns of contractional cooling (e.g. triple
mbsf). This type of material is expected to be junction, T-intersections; Pollard & Aydin
more abundant than indicated by core recovery 1988; radial or concentric arrays, with respect
(Fig. 1). Alt et al. (1996c) evaluated the amount to the curved chilled margin in pillows lavas;
of breccias in the volcanic section of Hole 504B Fig. 2a) were avoided during measurements. We
to be as much as 9.2%. In the section drilled also did not count vein networks related to
during Leg 83, highly brecciated material has incipient brecciation and interpillow veins char-
been described as hyaloclastites in pillows and as acterized by sinuous shape and cm-scale thick-
rubble surfaces of massive flows (Anderson et al. ness, that clearly derive from filling of interstitial
1985). However, a definite interpretation of the spaces between pillows.
origin of some breccias (sedimentary vs. tec- Fractures and veins were preferentially mea-
tonic) is still lacking, often because the nature of sured in relatively continuous cores without
a breccia in a drill core is uncertain and rubble zones. The counted fractures usually
ambiguous (Agar 1994; Barany & Karson have apertures less than 1 mm. The measured
1989; Alt et al. 1996c; Harper & Tartarotti veins range from less than 1 mm to 15mm in
1996). width, and are filled with several types of
We have focused our structural study on minerals. On the basis of the colour of vein
fractures, veins, and brecciated intervals. The infilling in hand specimen, veins were classified
structural dataset used in this paper is an in one of the following categories: dark green,
unpublished log of fractures, veins, and breccias light green, red, black, and white. Under the
at hand-specimen scale, based on direct core microscope, green minerals were recognized as
observations made by P.T. and F.d.L. on a visit clay-minerals (Fig. 2b); black and red minerals
to the ODP West Coast Repository at La Jolla, are Fe-oxides and/or Fe-hydroxides, and finally
CA. These data are complemented by downhole white minerals may be zeolites, anhydrite, or Ca-
and continuous rock physical properties and carbonate. Ca-carbonates (likely aragonite or
FMS images (see Ayadi et al. 1998), and calcite) occur as fibrous or blocky crystals
presented in order to study: (Tartarotti et al. 1996).
(i) the structure of the crust in relation to Breccias and rubble. Breccias and rubble are very
tectonic processes; abundant in the volcanic section. Alt et al.
(ii) the effects of fracturing, veining and (1996c) indicate the presence of 6% breccia in
brecciation on the bulk characteristics of the upper 320m of the volcanic section, and
the rock. 19% breccia in the lower volcanic section.
The occurrence of breccias in the core was
Fractures and veins. A total of 1112 macroscopic carefully checked and positioned with respect to
fractures and veins were measured on 797 core the lithostratigraphy (Fig. 1). Different types of
pieces oriented for 'way-up' relative to the core breccias were identified on the basis of clast
barrel (taken as reference frame). We restrict the shapes and nature of the matrix. However, many
term fracture to open planar features without breccias are texturally similar, and a distinction
any mineral infilling, and the term vein to filled between types is not always clear. The first type
features. of breccia is represented by hyaloclastites. This
The total of fractures and veins has been breccia is usually observed near pillow rims and
filtered during data collection in order to: consists of clasts coming from the various parts
of the pillow (mainly glass shards and subvar-
(i) include only naturally-formed features; iolitic basalts). Clasts are cemented by green clay
(ii) consider, among these latter, only planar minerals and carbonate.
and continuous fractures and veins. A second type of breccia consists of angular
clasts with the same c o m p o s i t i o n as the
We assume that fractures and veins with these surrounding rock (Fig. 2c). In some cases, clasts
FRACTURING AND ALTERATION AT SITE 504 395
"~ ,,-k o
"9
C~
r r~ r 3
~ ,.o ,~.~
.=_D~
{,-4
tr'3
.m
~D
c.l
,'No~
e,i .= .~ N
9, - 0 O ~
396 P. TARTAROTTI E T AL.
ml'
pt dip
The third type is of uncertain origin. The ,,270 o.
clasts are made of glass and basalt, and are
somewhat rounded. The matrix consists of clasts
(ram to cm-scale) cemented by clay minerals.
This breccia may be sedimentary in origin due to beddi
mass wasting along escarpments and slopes or, plat
alternatively, may derive from the disaggrega- Fig. 3. Definition of artificial coordinates in core, as
tion of the 'jigsaw-puzzle'. used on Ocean Drilling Program cores and in this
Another type of breccia is encountered in the study. Measurements of structural features were made
stockwork-like mineralization zone. In the with respect to these coordinates.
stockwork zone, the pillows were affected by
major brecciation interpreted to postdate early
breccias and fractures (Agar 1990). This breccia archive half relative to local reference coordi-
is interpreted by Agar (1990) to be caused by nates, i.e. the core barrel reference frame. The
hydrofracturing on the basis of the suspension of plane normal to the axis of the borehole is
angular clasts in the matrix, but it differs from referred to as the horizontal plane. On this
the 'jigsaw-puzzle' breccias in the nature of the plane, a 360 ~ net is used with a pseudo-north
matrix which consists of quartz, epidote, and (000 ~ at the bottom line of the working half
sulfides. (Fig. 3), i.e. with a pseudo-south (180 ~ at the
Finally, cataclastic zones have been observed bottom line of the archive half that we used for
in core coming from an inferred fault zone, at measuring. The split surface of the core, there-
around 900 mbsf, and probably associated with fore, lies in a plane striking 090o-270 ~ and
shear zones (Fig. 2d). Rubble consists of loose dipping vertically. Dip direction (azimuth) of the
fragments of rock, with sizes ranging from mm structural features in any core piece could be
to cm. corrected to geographic coordinates using pa-
laeomagnetic measurements, and dip values
D a t a acquisition a n d correction procedure. De- could be corrected to true vertical if the hole
termining the orientation of observed structures deviation to vertical is taken into account.
in the core is problematic. The drilling process Corrections of the dip direction values to
causes fracturing and rotation of core such that geographic coordinates from palaeomagnetic
the relative rotation of any section or core piece measurements are not available for the upper
may occur around the core axis. The structural portion of Hole 504B. Correction to vertical can
study is limited by the fact that the core may be neglected because the hole deviation from
only be oriented for 'way-up', and indication of vertical has been estimated to be generally under
azimuth is possible only if palaeomagnetic 5.5 ~ with values under 2.0 ~ from 600 to 1400
corrections are available. Consequently, the mbsf (Alt et al. 1993), which is within the
orientation of core must initially be made accuracy in determining the dip angles on core.
relative to a local reference frame, and then be Depth values of fractures, veins and breccias
corrected to true North and true vertical. were computed with the help of a computerized
The convention adopted in the present study program proposed by Agrinier & Agrinier
for the measurement of azimuth and dip of (1994). This program is based on a model
fractures and veins is that introduced by the assuming that the individual probability density
Ocean Drilling Program (ODP Leg 135: Ma- of sampling during coring is uniform, and that
cLeod et al. 1992; Parson et al. 1992; ODP Leg the relative position of the rock pieces are
140: Dick et al. 1992), and is illustrated in Fig. 3. preserved in the core. Depth values obtained
The ODP cores are sectioned along the axis of by this method were compared with those
the core. One half is stored as 'archive', the other obtained by the DSDP/ODP conventional sys-
is used for sampling ('working half). Fracture tem (Alt et al. 1993). A difference of the order of
and vein orientations were measured in the 10cm was evaluated between the two methods,
FRACTURING AND ALTERATION AT SITE 504 397
Fig. 4. Distribution of planes density (number of plane per metre of core) derived from cores (measured raw data).
(a) Total core planes density. (b) Open fractures and veins density. (e) vein aperture.
which can be considered negligible and beyond highest recovery (Fig. 4a). This is because the
the accuracy in determining depth in deep drill measurements were aquired mostly in long and
holes. continuous cores. Generally, veins are more
In this study, 423 fractures and 689 veins were abundant than fractures (Fig. 4b).
measured on vertically oriented core pieces, i.e. The raw data extracted from core (Fig. 4) are
pieces that clearly could not have rotated top to not representative of the drilled crustal section
bottom about a horizontal axis in the core liner. because the average core recovery is low and the
Fracture and vein orientation was obtained on selection used during measurements tends to
core pieces by direct measurement of azimuth select the structural features. In order to reduce
and dip by the use of a compass, extrapolating the bias due to low recovery, a correction was
the structural feature to a planar surface in applied to the raw data from core to compute a
space, with an accuracy of 10 ~ Fracture and more precise fracture and vein density. The
vein density (raw data) in the examined crustal number of fractures/veins was computed for
section of Hole 504B are plotted in Fig. 4. The each m-long interval, then divided by the local
distribution of the total core planes (i.e. number recovery. As a given interval may be split
of fractures + veins) is non-uniform down the between two different core sections, the com-
hole, with the total plane density tending to be puted recovery is obtained from:
higher at those depths corresponding to the
398 P. TARTAROTTI ET AL.
Results
Fracture and vein orientation. The histograms of Distribution o f breccias and rubble. Breccia and
corrected dip angle for fractures and veins are rubble are very abundant in the drilled crustal
FRACTURING AND ALTERATION AT SITE 504 399
(personal observations and data reported in feldspar is very scarce (one occurrence). Phillip-
literature, e.g. Honnorez et al. 1983; Kurnosov site mainly occurs in veins and as glass replace-
et al. 1983; Noak et al. 1983). The studied thin ment. Celadonite and celadonite-smectite
sections are not fully representative of the mixtures are much more abundant than phillip-
penetrated interval because the average recovery site and are restricted to black and red alteration
was relatively low, and thin sections are derived halos which are typical of oceanic basalts altered
from a selection of core samples. at low temperatures in oxidizing conditions (Alt
The distribution with depth of alteration et al. 1996b; Belarouchi et al. 1996; Laverne et
minerals, as observed in thin section, is illu- al. 1996).
strated in Figure 7. This distribution refers to
depth intervals at which the minerals represent Downhole measurements
the most abundant secondary phase in the
studied thin section. The most common second- Downhole measurements of rock physical prop-
ary minerals are: clay minerals (i.e. smectite, erties provide a continuous and m-scale descrip-
including mixed layer smectite-chlorite) and tion of crustal structures. The extensive
celadonite, zeolites, Fe-oxhydroxides, chlorite, downhole measurements program conducted at
prehnite, talc, quartz, actinolite, Fe-sulfides, and DSDP/ODP Site 504 over the years has pro-
analcime. These minerals may replace primary duced a comprehensive dataset that may be
minerals (e.g. olivine) and glass, or fill fractures, compared with structural and petrographic data
voids, vesicles and cracks (Fig. 2b). Smectite is obtained from cores.
the most abundant mineral in the studied section
(270 mbsf to 1000 mbsf; Fig. 7), and occurs Electrical resistivity
either in the rock groundmass or in veins.
Zeolites (including both Na- and Ca-zeolites) Electrical resistivity data were recorded in Hole
are clustered between 528 and 572 mbsf, and 504B with a lateral device, the Dual Laterolog
between 900 and 1000 mbsf. (DLL) tool of Schlumberger. Lateral devices are
Fe-oxhydroxides are the next most abundant largely influenced by anisotropy and provide
minerals from 270 mbsf down to 600 mbsf, accurate data at high resistivity values, such as
occurring either in the rock groundmass or as those obtained in crystalline formations. The
vein infilling. Celadonite is scarce and occurs sensor was designed to provide, at different
only down to 650 mbsf. Celadonite was mainly frequencies, two measurements of electrical
observed in samples of pillows. Chlorite is resistivity often referred to as deep (LLd) and
present in the deepest part of the studied section, shallow (LLs) due to their respective horizontal
appearing at about 900 mbsf within samples penetration into the rock. Resistivity data
from thin flows. Carbonate is scarce and does recorded by the dual laterolog (DLL) resistivity
not occur below 600 mbsf. It was observed only probe during Legs 83, 111, and 148 in the upper
in samples from massive basalts. Prehnite was part of the hole are extremely reproducible, and
detected in a few samples from 550 and 850 may be represented by the latest electrical
mbsf, at shallower depths than those reported in resistivity profile (Fig. 8b). From this profile,
Alt et al. (1986). Quartz is present from 800 an estimate of 'apparent' porosity was computed
down to 1000 mbsf, and mainly occurs in pillow (Becker 1985; Becker et al. 1989; Pezard &
units. Actinolite appears in the deepest part of Anderson 1989; Pezard 1990), in order to
the studied section. Talc and Fe-sulfides are the discriminate individual lithological units such
most abundant mineral at around 700 mbsf. as pillows and massive flows, and to constrain
Analcime is scarce in samples from 600 mbsf. the large-scale morphology of the crust as
The K-rich minerals (i.e. celadonite, K-feld- synthetised in the following.
spar, phillipsite) are mostly located in the top From the highly porous and altered seismic
part of the basement, down to 570 mbsf (Fig. 7). Layers 2A and 2B to the sheeted dykes of Layer
This zone was altered by large volumes of 2C, an increase of about two orders of
seawater, freely circulating through the upper- magnitude in resistivity values was observed,
most volcanic pile, causing greater oxidation i.e. from the average value of 10.0f~m in the
and alkali-enrichment of the rocks (Alt et al. pillows to the average value of 250.0 f~m in the
1996b). In contrast, deeper volcanic sections are dykes (Pezard & Anderson 1989).
characterized by more restricted circulation of The resistivity profile reported in Fig. 8b
seawater and evolved fluid compositions under shows the occurrence of relatively high resistiv-
more reducing conditions (Fig. 7). Chemical ity layers corresponding to massive and thick
analyses of these minerals are reported by (about 150 m) lithostratigraphic units as defined
Honnorez et al. (1983) and Laverne (1987). K- from core observations. They are Units 2D, 22,
FRACTURING A N D ALTERATION AT SITE 504 401
.~
~=t5
....O
e'~ O .,...,
b-Y:,~
r~
3~
tt~
~ ' ~
o~
9 ~ . ~
..~ ~ ~
402 P. TARTAROTTI E T AL.
24, 27, 30, 34, 37, 64, and Unit 73 (Fig. 1) and and vertical structures might cancel out, and
correspond to depth intervals where the highest only a minimum estimate of fracture porosity is
recovery percentages were obtained (Fig. 8a). obtained (t-DEE).
Unit 2D is considered as the upper limit of an Horizontal and vertical fracture porosity data
underpressured aquifer located within Layer 2A. as derived from electrical resistivity are reported
One exception is massive Unit 9 that shows low in the profile of Fig. 8c. This profile represents
resistivity values (Fig. 8b). Other massive and an important tool for understanding the dis-
thin basaltic layers have lower resistivity than tribution of fractures orientation with depth,
the thick massive units listed above. These thin which may have an important role in the
units are Units 11, 17, 32, 44, 46, and Unit 49 geometry of hydrological circulation.
(Figs 1 & 8b). In the resistivity profile of Fig. 8b, Fracture porosity data (FP) at Hole 504B
spikes of relatively high resistivity also occur at (Newmarket al. 1985; Pezard & Anderson 1989,
around 280, 400, 765, and 850 mbsf. These 1990; Pezard et al. 1992, 1996) suggest that
spikes correspond to thin flows (at 280, 400 and Layer 2A is characterized by the highest porosity
765 mbsf) and to dykes (850 mbsf) as defined values, mainly related to the presence of
from core observations (Fig. 1). Another high horizontal fractures (horizontal fracture poros-
resistivity unit of intrusive origin is located at ity - - HFP) down to 405 mbsf, below which a
898 mbsf (Fig. 8b). This unit likely corresponds regime of mostly vertical fractures is inferred.
to DSDP Unit 57 that caps the stockwork-like The section of most intense fracturing is 30m
section discovered during Leg 83 (Anderson et thick and bound on top by Unit 2D (from 311 to
al. 1985). 325 mbsf). This section corresponds to the
A comparison between the electrical resistivity under-pressured aquifer (Anderson & Zoback
profile and the mineralogical zonation in Hole 1982; Anderson et al. 1985) that defines the
504B has suggested that certain low-porosity upper limit of the main zone of water intake into
massive units appear to constitute either perme- the crust, although thinner permeable zones
ability barriers or alteration boundaries (Pezard might be located above Unit 2D. From the top
& Anderson 1989). of Layer 2B (405 mbsf) downhole, vertical
fractures dominate (vertical fracture porosity
Porosity evaluation - - VFP) in DLL data. The lowest computed
porosity (a fraction of a percent) corresponds to
Several estimates of porosity may be obtained a thick lava flow in the extrusive section (Unit
from DLL electrical resistivity. A first estimate 27). Below this particular unit, Unit 28 corre-
might be derived directly from the deep pene- sponds to the only interval outside Layer 2A
trating measurement (LEd) using Archie's Law where intense subhorizontal fracturing was
(Archie 1942; Brace et al., 1965; Becker, 1985) observed on BHTV images ( N e w m a r k e t al.
and considered as representative of the 'total' 1985).
porosity of the rock. A second estimate may be In the uppermost part of the basement,
derived by accounting for surface conductivity massive Unit 2D (from 309.6 to 323 mbsf),
due to the presence of clay minerals (Pezard records a low fracture porosity and separates an
1990; Pezard et al. 1996; Revil et al. 1996), upper zone where horizontal fracturing dom-
producing an estimate of the porous fraction inates (from 279.7 to 293.3 mbsf) from a lower
where fluids are free to move in the basement. one where vertical fracturing dominates (i.e. the
A third estimate may be derived from the aquifer; Figs 8b,c). Above Unit 2D and in
difference between the two measurements (LLs contact with it, a short interval of vertical
and LEd) after correction for hole size effect fracturing occurs between 302.3 and 306.2 mbsf.
(Pezard & Anderson 1990). Due to the tool Unit 2D is separated from the aquifer by a thin
geometry and strong focusing, the presence of zone of high horizontal fracture porosity at 323
sub-horizontal conductive features preferentially mbsf. The aquifer is the first important zone of
decreases the deep measurement more than the vertical fracture porosity, extending from 323.9
shallow one. In contrast, the deep resistivity to 333.1 mbsf. Below the aquifer, other zones of
measurement (LEd) is always higher than the vertical fracture porosity alternate with zones of
shallow one (LLs) where fractures are subver- either generally low fracture porosity or hor-
tical. Thus, comparison of the two DLL izontal fracture porosity (Fig. 8c).
measurements provides an evaluation of poros- Thick massive units that show high resistivity
ity in anisotropic media. The porosity estimate is have relatively low DEE-derived fracture poros-
a minimum because of a possible conflict ity, with the exception of Unit 9 (Figs 8b,c).
between horizontal (h-DEE) and vertical (v- Thin massive, low resistivity units also have low
DLL) structures. The effect of both horizontal fracture porosity, with the exception of Units 44,
F R A C T U R I N G A N D ALTERATION AT SITE 504 403
t~ N
0
0
. . . . . . . . .
~ - ~~ ~ o ~ ~ - ~
r~
ZZZZZZ
r~
a,
0
404 P. TARTAROTTI ET AL.
Fig. 9. Composite profiles of geophysical logs and mineralogy log from the studied section. (a) Recovery
percentage. (b) Electrical resistivity, on the left, and DLL-derived fracture porosity, on the right. Zones from 1 to
10 are reported. (c) Natural radioactivity profile, on the left; distribution of K-rich minerals and secondary
minerals derived from petrographic observation in thin sections, on the centre and right. (d) Distribution of red
and black alteration halos derived from visual observation on cores and petrographic observations.
46, and 49 occurring near the inferred fault zone mostly consist of massive units and thin flows
(Figs 8b,c). (Table l; Fig. 8).
For the purpose of this study, the fracture
porosity profile has been divided into a number F M S image analysis
of zones which record the highest values of
vertical or horizontal fracture porosity (Table 1, The Formation MicroScanner (FMS) creates a
Fig. 8c). These zones also often correspond to picture of the borehole wall by mapping its
depth intervals where relatively low recovery electrical conductance using an array of electro-
percentages were obtained (Fig. 8a). These zones des (Liithi & Banavar 1988). During ODP Leg
of high VFP are found to occur regularly 148 (Alt et al. 1993), FMS images were recorded
downhole, about every 80 m, and to alternate over the entire length of Hole 504B basement,
with zones where low fracture porosity dom- utilizing a device characterized by four pad-
inates (although isolated spikes of relatively high mounted electrodes (Pezard 1990). The images
VFP occur at 373, 390, 656, 755 and 989 mbsf; recorded by the FMS show c o n d u c t i v i t y
Fig. 8c). The zones with low fracture porosity changes, like those resulting from beds of a
FRACTURING AND ALTERATION AT SITE 504 405
different nature or from different fracture in- Similarly, natural radioactivity minima corre-
filling (e.g. open spaces vs mineralized fractures). sponds to both VFP highs and VFP lows (Fig.
Data processing is required to convert the raw 9c). The lowest GR values are commonly
data into a colour-scale image representative of located at the boundary between domains of
conductivity changes. The images are analysed contrasting fracture orientation, e.g. at 322.4
by interpretative software in order to obtain a mbsf (top of the aquifer), 405 mbsf (top of Zone
structural data set (e.g. fracture aperture, 3), 467.5 mbsf (top of Zone 4), 510.2 mbsf
fracture orientation, etc.). FMS data processing (bottom of Zone 4), 544.66 mbsf.
and analysis in Hole 504B is described by Ayadi
et al. (1988). Interpretation of core-log FMS data
In this paper, we are interested in the FMS-
derived plane density (Fig. Be). This profile The main characteristics of Hole 504B core and
shows a slight plane density decrease from the log data (Figs 8 & 9) include:
top of the basement down to 800 mbsf, and then
an increase from 800 to 1100 mbsf. This increase (i) the absence of overwhelming large-scale
is interpreted as a fault zone (Pezard et al. 1997; trends;
Ayadi et al. 1988). Palaeomagnetic data support (ii) a step-like decrease in natural radioactivity
this interpretation, indicating tilting of the between the UPAZ and LPAZ (Fig. 9c);
volcanic section (Furuta & Levi 1983; Becker (iii) a tendency of data highs to cluster (e.g.
et al. 1988; Kinoshita et al. 1989). Above this zones of intense fracturing/veining, high
faulted section, high FMS fracture density fracture porosity and K-content, hence
values are recorded at 440, 510, 570 mbsf, where natural radioactivity).
core recovery is very low or zero (Fig. 8a). High
plane density values from core are obtained at In order to study the effect of fracturing and
about 440 mbsf (Fig. 8e). alteration on the physical properties of the upper
oceanic crust, we present a detailed comparison
N a t u r a l radioactivity of core and downhole geophysical data.
Gamma ray density logs were run in Hole 504B P h y s i c a l properties a n d lithology
during DSDP/ODP Legs 83, l 1 l, and 148
together with other geophysical logs. During The relationship between geophysical properties
DSDP Leg 83, an active source neutron porosity and lithology of the upper crust in Hole 504B
log and a gamma-ray (GR)-density log were run may be inferred by comparing geophysical
from 274.5 to 1287.5 mbsf (Anderson et al. profiles and basement lithostratigraphy, or
1985). The active source nuclear log offers a FMS and core plane densities (Figs 1 & 8).
method of calculating the quantity of hydroxyl Some massive basaltic units are identified by
minerals present over the entire well bore length. relatively high resistivity (Fig. 8b) and by low
This method is based on the nuclear physics of fracture porosity (Fig. 8c). One exception is Unit
neutron and gamma ray propagation and gives a 9 that shows low resistivity and relatively high
measure of the amount of alteration within the fracture porosity. This unit consists of massive
logged section. pillow basalts with abundant red alteration
The standard GR data, including the thorium, halos (Core 20), and of brecciated pillow lava
potassium, and uranium activity are reported in (Core 21). On the other hand, other massive
Fig. 9c. The natural radioactivity signal shows units have low resistivity and low fracture
an overall intermittent trend down the hole. porosity (with the exception of Units 44, 46,
However, the highest GR values (as high as 8 and 49 that show high fracture porosity). These
G A p i = 8 x 109 Api) occur within the upper units are thinner than the high resistivity units
pillow alteration zone (UPAZ) of Hole 504B. (Fig. 1). Massive units commonly give long and
From 570 mbsf down, an overall decrease of GR continuous cores, as testified by relatively high
values is obtained. The upper part of the profile recovery (Fig. 8a).
is also characterized by the occurrence of K-rich Low resistivity/high FP zones commonly
minerals, as detected from petrographic obser- correspond to relatively low recovery percen-
vations (Fig. 9c). tages (Fig. 8a,b,c). Crustal sections characterized
Compared with the DLL-derived FP profile by the highest FP (Zones 1 to 10; Fig. 8c) consist
(Fig. 9b), natural radioactivity maxima corre- of pillows with minor flows. The occurrence of
spond to both VFP highs (e.g. Zone 2, the horizontal or sub-horizontal lava flows may
aquifer) and VFP lows (e.g. at 400, 460, 550, and locally affect the geometry of fracture orienta-
625 mbsf), suggesting a weak correlation. tion, as in Zone 1 where HFP prevails, in
406 P. TARTAROTTI ET AL.
contrast with other zones which are character- consists mainly of massive basalts and pillows.
ized by high VFP values. Zone 2 corresponds to Thus, the recorded values of VFP may not be
the aquifer and mainly consists of pillows with directly correlated with lithology. Zone 8 corre-
abundant breccias and rubble. This interval sponds to a VFP high at 780 mbsf, and consists
represents an extensively fractured and brec- of pillows and breccias. Breccias of core 64R-3
ciated section, as suggested by the presence of occurring at 778.0 mbsf may be correlated with
brecciated samples (Table 1). Zone 3 is char- the high porosity values in this interval. Zone 9,
acterized by two main peaks of VFP. In this corresponding to the top part of the main fault
interval, a very low core recovery (from 10 to zone met in Hole 504B, is characterized by
21%) was obtained, probably due to the pervasive VFP, with spikes as high as 8.3 %. This
abundant breccias. The VFP spikes at 411 and basement section is made of pillow lavas
419 mbsf likely also corresponds to brecciated frequently cut by veins arranged in networks,
levels, as suggested by the occurrence of breccias breccias and minor massive basalts, sometimes
at about 407 mbsf and 421 mbsf in cores 19R-2 associated with breccias. Massive units (scarce),
and 21R-1 (according to the DSDP nomencla- alternating with pillows and breccias may
ture), respectively. This pillowed section, ex- account for the low values of VFP (823.8 mbsf).
tending from core 19R-1 to the top of core 21R- From Zone 9 down, VFP values remain
1, includes a massive layer (core 20R-l, massive relatively low ( < 1 . 0 % porosity). Zone 10
Unit 9?), interpreted as a probable single cooling represents one of the few zones with non zero
unit (Cann et al. 1983) that may account for the VFP values. The VFP high corresponds to
VFP 'low' located at 413.9 mbsf between two brecciated intervals within the 'stockwork-like'
VFP spikes (Fig. 8c). Zone 4 corresponds to a section, where rocks mainly consist of altered
section consisting of pillows and breccias. The pillows commonly cut by veins or vein networks.
basalts are frequently cut by a network of veins In conclusion, it appears that the crustal zones
filled with dark green minerals (smectites) which at Hole 504B characterized by the highest FP
may be associated with breccias. VFP peaks and and lowest resistivity correspond to the most
brecciated levels appear as related (i.e. VFP brecciated pillow lavas units, which generally
spikes located at 478, 480, and 485 mbsf related also produces the lowest recovery values. That
to breccias in cores 28R-2, 28R-3, 29R-1, probably means that breccia and rubble strongly
respectively). From core 29R-1 down, a more affect the electrical signal during geophysical
massive basalt recovered in core 29R-2 can be logging. This interpretation is corroborated by
related to the FP low located at about 490 mbsf. data of core observations in the volcanic section
No core was recovered down to core 32R-1 of Hole 504B reported by Alt et al. (1996c) that
(507.5 mbsf). This gap corresponds to an indicate the occurrence of breccias at interval
interval with VFP peaks at 498 and 505 mbsf. depths corresponding to Zones 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
Zone 5 is a long section (from 564 to 622 mbsf) and 9.
consisting of pillows and breccias in the upper
part, massive basalts in the middle, and breccias Physical properties and fracturing
in the lower part. Breccias are also reported in
this depth interval by Alt et al. (1996c). Zone 5 The density distributions of fractures and veins
includes a highly fractured zone, located at 570 from cores (Fig. 8d, e) show that peaks of
mbsf, as inferred by FMS data (Pezard et al. fracturation mostly correspond to thin basaltic
1997; Ayadi et al. 1988). flows and massive units, i.e. to high resistivity
Massive Unit 27 is located in the middle of and low porosity units (Fig. 8b, c) for which
Zone 5 (below the fractured zone at 570 mbsf) relatively high recovery percentages were ob-
and is characterized by low VFP values. Two tained (Fig. 8a). Thick massive units record high
VFP spikes at 569.35 and 617.2 mbsf may fracture and/or vein densities, with the exception
account for the occurrence of rubbles and of massive Unit 30 (Fig. 8b,d). This unit consists
breccias in cores 38R-2 and 44R-2, respectively. of massive basalt with breccias in Core section
Zone 6 is made of massive basalts in the upper 47R-2. Thinner massive units also show peaks of
part, and pillows with breccias in the remaining high fracture/vein density, with the exception of
part. The two VFP peaks occurring in this Unit 32, consisting of massive basalt with
interval may be explained by the presence of breccias at Core sections 48R-1 and 48R-2. This
breccias in cores 53R-1, 54R-1, and 56R-1. In result is apparently contradictory, but in fact
these cores, brecciated basalts are frequently reflects the criteria applied during structural
associated with pillows intersected by networks analysis in cores, i.e. to select only planar and
of veins filled with smectite. Zone 7 is a short continuous fractures/veins and to avoid drilling-
crustal section located at about 730 mbsf and induced fractures or those with triple junction
FRACTURING A N D ALTERATION AT SITE 504 407
FMS Planes
Unit 2D
3 5 [ ! ! ! i ! ! i i 7 ! ! i ! ! ! 50 r . . . . : : : : : : : :
.......
' f
5 15 ~ 35 45 55 65 75 85 5 [5 5 35 45 5 65 75 8
Dip (~ Dip( ~)
FMS Planes
CorePlan~ Unit 24
Unit~
35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
501 ~ i i i i ~ i i i :, i I
i ! : ! ! i i i i ! ! ! ] ! !
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1 i ::. i i . i
3o ..i...i-...i..i i i i iZ-.T..!..i.i.!.-.i-.. I
i i i l l i i i i i ! i i i l l [..i..-i...i........i-.[..:....~:..~....- i
i ! ! ] i ! :
2S '?Fi"?pFzii""!Fi!i-ii
o 0
5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85
~ p (o) Dip( c )
Unit 27
35 5O
40
i ;iiii
~_ ...i..-;-..?-..i-..! -- .:....! ..i i.- i---i....
i' :: 9 i-i ~o
Jo---i----!--. i F ! - ! i :: :.
35 ! i i i ! i : i
!::!
!
:;
:-
.. ::
i /
/ ,/
"~
z 20 / /
i ! i ! ! if: : : : : : : ! z i i : ! i i/ /
0 0
5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85
Dip (~ Dip(~)
Fig. 10. Histograms of dip values of core total planes and planes derived from FMS images from massive units
(corrected data).
and T-intersection patterns. The core planes eruptions during crustal accretion.
density shows that density highs occur every 80 In massive Units 2D, 24, 27, and 34 the total
to 100m, suggesting the occurrence o f evenly core planes orientation (dip angle) show that
spaced zones of fractures. This spatial periodi- steep planes prevail in all such intervals (Fig.
city may reflect the episodic character o f lava 10). This result is comparable with the orienta-
408 P. TARTAROTTI ET AL.
tion of FMS planes, although in Units 2D, 24 permeability (Rose 1995), thus explaining the
and 34 sub-horizontal planes are also frequent GR decrease (Fig. 9b,c).
(Fig. 10). Variations in natural radioactivity (GR)
The FMS planes density profile shows the downhole should be related to inhomogeneities
presence of two intervals that appear to be more in the extent and type of basalt alteration, which
fractured than the rest of the basement. The in turn may be affected by the distribution of
lower interval is located between 800 and 1100 fracture porosity in the crust. For this reason,
mbsf and corresponds to the main fault zone the downhole log has been integrated with
(Fig. Be). This zone is also characterized by high mineralogy, as collected from core and thin
FP values (Fig. 8c). The upper interval is located section observations. In Fig. 9c we have plotted
between 400 and 575 mbsf, and also corresponds the occurrence of K-bearing minerals (including
to a highly fractured zone (Ayadi et al. 1998) celadonite, phillipsite, and K-feldspar) and of all
characterized by low resistivity and high FP secondary minerals in order to compensate for
(Fig. 8b,c). the bias due to under-sampled or even un-
sampled sections (e.g. from 490 to 507 mbsf).
P h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s a n d alteration When comparing the natural radioactivity
(GR) and K-bearing minerals logs, correlations
The distribution of secondary minerals in the at two different scales may be envisaged:
volcanics of Hole 504B is here compared to
geophysical profiles, namely with FP and GR (1) at a large scale, the distinction between the
(Figs 7, 8 & 9). Two main observations can be UPAZ and the LPAZ is clearly observed in
made. the GR, with a relatively sharp boundary
Firstly, the distribution of zeolites is concen- at 570 mbsf, at the top of Unit 27. This
trated between 528 and 572 mbsf, and between depth corresponds to the base of the highly
900 and 1000 mbsf. In the bottom 100m of the fractured zone inferred by Ayadi et al.
studied section, zeolites and prehnite occur (1998). In the LPAZ, the GR signal is
together with actinolite, epidote, quartz, chlorite relatively smooth and low, becoming
(Fig. 7). The two depth intervals of 528-572 smoother with depth. In the LPAZ, the
mbsf and 900-1000 mbsf are located close to two average GR value is on the order of 2.5
highly fractured zones, one between 400 and 575 GAPI, with only two peaks higher than 5.0
mbsf and the other between 800 and 1100 mbsf. GAPI. The GR signal is much more
Rocks at around 575 mbsf are characterized by irregular in the UPAZ, and several depth
high VFP, high FMS planes density and by the intervals have values higher than 5.0 GAPI.
occurrence of breccias (Fig. 8). In the second This difference in the background noise can
interval (from 900 to 1000 mbsf) VFP and FMS be partly explained by the common occur-
planes density increases towards the bottom rence of Fe-hydroxides in the UPAZ, while
while breccias are ubiquitous (Fig. 8). These these are absent in the LPAZ (Fig. 9 d).
observations suggest that such intervals are, at Even if the K-content of these minerals is
least in part, highly porous and fractured zones, low, it could affect the GR signal.
or fault zones that may represent preferential (2) At a smaller scale, it appears that the GR
conduits for fluid circulation (Nehlig & Juteau peaks of the UPAZ do not exactly match
1988). Zeolites are interpreted as deriving from the occurrence of K-minerals. If we con-
low-T evolved fluids, due to late off-axis hydro- sider the occurrence of K-bearing minerals,
thermal processes (Alt et al. 1996b). The we have seen that phillipsite mainly fills
occurrence of zeolites together with actinolite, veins and replaces glass. Celadonite and
chlorite, epidote, quartz (i.e. minerals of the celadonite-smectite mixture are much more
greenschist facies) between 900 and 1000 mbsf abundant than phillipsite and occur in red
suggests that this crustal zone underwent suc- and black alteration halos. Such oxidized
cessive stages of fracturing/faulting and miner- halos are parallel to fractures and exposed
alization due to circulating fluids, as suggested surfaces. The grey-coloured internal part of
by Alt et al. (1986) and Agar (1990, 1991). the samples do not contain any celadonite
Secondly, there is not any strong correlation but only saponite, which has low potassium
between GR and fracture porosity (Fig. 9). GR content. Recent logging of Hole 504B drill
minima, however, are frequently located at the core reveals that red halos comprise at least
boundaries between domains of contrasting FP, 27% of the upper volcanic section (Alt et
i.e. contrasting fracture orientation. Along such al. 1996a). The distribution of red and
boundaries, metasomatic rections, e.g. leaching black halos (percentage of alteration halos
of alkalis, may have occurred due to contrasting for each core interval; Alt et al. 1996a) is
FRACTURING AND ALTERATION AT SITE 504 409
reported in Fig. 9c. The highest percentage breccias should be tested in order to check its
of red halos does not perfectly correlate influence on signals. The most porous units are
with the GR signals. However, in some encountered about every 80m and may be
cases (e.g. from 310 to 315 mbsf; from 510 interpreted as tectonized zones (e.g. highly
to 585 mbsf) the correlation is good. Thus, fractured zones, cataclastic zones, and/or fault
it is possible that many GR peaks corre- zones; see also Ayadi et al. 1998).
spond to zones where alteration halos Many massive units in the studied section are
occur. The orientation of halos in space characterized by high resistivity and low FP.
with respect to the drill hole (e. g. the Units with such features are generally thick (100
logging tool) may influence the signal shape m scale). They are intersected by fractures and
and intensity. Furthermore, the average veins, as attested by core observations. How-
low recovery percentage obtained in Hole ever, such fracture and vein densities do not
504B and the selection made during sam- seem to contribute much to the DLL-derived
pling may prevent a continuous correlation fracture porosity. Spikes of high fracture/vein
between core and logging data downhole. density occur every 80 to 100m, pointing out the
presence of fracture spacing likely related to the
As a conclusion, the natural radioactivity log episodic character of lava eruptions during
clearly reflects two different types of low crustal accretion. Fractures and veins in massive
temperature alteration undergone by the effusive units are mostly steeply dipping and may be
section of Hole 504B: related to contractional cooling effects (Lister
1974) and/or to the regional tectonic stress field.
(1) the oxidizing type with K-uptake in the Massive Unit 27 appears to be less porous and
UPAZ; fractured than other massive units. This result
(2) the reducing type, with only slight gain of confirms that Unit 27 may represent a perme-
K in the LPAZ. ability barrier which separates two different
hydrological domains in the upper crust, as
Most of the GR peaks in the UPAZ are suggested by Pezard & Anderson (1989). In
probably correlated to the occurrence of cela- contrast to thick massive units, thin (< 100m
donite-bearing alteration halos, but the poor thickness) massive units are characterized by
recovery and heterogeneity of alteration effects relatively low resistivity and low fracture poros-
may explain why this correlation is not visible ity. They are also cut by fractures and veins. It is
along the entire section. possible that different electrical resistivity values
are caused in this case by different thickness of
Conclusions massive layers.
Two zones located between 400 and 575 mbsf
A set of geophysical logs (electrical resistivity and between 800 and 1100 mbsf, respectively,
measurements and derived fracture porosity, are characterized by low resistivity, high fracture
natural radioactivity, and fractures mapped porosity, high core and FMS planes density, and
from high-resolution electrical images) carried by the occurrence of breccias. The upper zone is
out in D S D P / O D P Hole 504B have been interpreted as a highly fractured zone (Ayadi et
compared with lithological and mineralogical al. 1998). It is characterized by a high concen-
data as determined in rock cores and in thin tration of Ca- and Na-zeolites. This depth
sections. By integrating core and log data, we interval is also located at the base of the UPAZ,
analysed the structure of the upper oceanic crust as pointed out in GR data. The deeper zone
from the m to the sub-mm scale. This multi- corresponds to the main fault inferred by Becker
scalar study points out the following results. et al. (1988), Kinoshita et al. (1989), Furuta &
The upper oceanic crust in Hole 504B (from Levi (1983), Pezard et al. (1997), and Ayadi et al.
top of the basement to 1000 mbsf) consists of (1998). This zone is characterized by the
low resistivity-high porosity layers, mostly occurrence of zeolites, prehnite and actinolite + -
corresponding to pillow lavas associated with chlorite, i.e. low- and high-T minerals. In this
breccias and rubble material, alternating with fault zone, the alteration has been so intense that
high resistivity-low porosity layers, which the mechanical and physical properties are
mainly correspond to massive flows. The high found to be modified, especially between 900
fracture porosity signal (mainly vertical) corre- and 1050 mbsf (Pariso & Johnson 1991; Pezard
lates well with the occurrence of breccias in et al. 1997). These observations suggest that the
pillows. This means that breccia may strongly morphology and the structural setting, e.g.
affect the electrical signal during downhole log. fracture density/orientation, brecciation, and
The mineral composition of clasts and matrix in faulting of the oceanic crust strongly affect the
410 P. TARTAROTTI E T AL.
electrical experiments in DSDP hole 504B. In: POLLARD, D. D. & Aydin, A. 1988. Progress in
BECKER, K., SAKAI, H. et al. (eds) Proceedings of understanding jointing over the past century.
the ODP, Scientific Results, 111, 133-146. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 100,
- - & - - 1990. Electrical Resistivity, Aniso- 1181-1204.
tropy, and Tectonic Context., Transactions of REVIL, A., DAROT, M. & PEZARD,P. A. 1996. Electrical
SPWLA, Paper M, 31st Annual Logging Sympo- conduction in oceanic dikes, Hole 504B. In: ALT,
sium, Lafayette, USA. J. C., KINOSHITA,H., STOKKING,L. B. & MICHAEL,
, , RYAN, W. B. F., BECKER,K., ALT, J. P. J. (eds) Proceeding of the ODP, Scientific
C. & GENRE, P. 1992. Accretion, structure, and Results, 148, 297-305.
hydrology of intermediate spreading-rate oceanic RosE, N. M. 1995. Geochemical consequences of fluid
crust from drillhole experiments and seafloor flow in porous basaltic crust containing perme-
observations. Marine Geophysical Research, 14, ability contrasts. Geochimica et Cosmochimica
93-123. Acta, 59, 4381-4392.
--, BECKER,K., REVIL, A., AYADI,M. & HARVEY, TARTAROTTI, P., VANKO, D. A., HARPER, G. D. &
P. 1996. Fractures, porosity, and stress in the DILEK, Y. 1996. Crack-seal veins in Upper Layer
dolerites of Hole 504B, Costa Rica Rift. In: ALT, 2 in Hole 896A. In: ALT, J.C., KINOSHITA, H.,
J. C., K1NOSHITA,H., STOKKING,L. B. & MICHAEL, STOKKING, L. B. & MICHAEL, P. J. (eds.),
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- - , AYADI, M., REVIL, A., BRONNER, G. & VANKO, D. A., LAVERNE, C., TARTAROTTI, P. & ALT,
WILKENS, R. 1997. Detailed structure of an J.C. 1996. Chemistry and origin of secondary
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Index
volcanic cycles, at mid-ocean ridge 298, 306-8 wireline velocity log, Sellafield 100-2
volume of sample, incompatibility problems 274
Voring Plateau 363
X-ray diffraction (XRD) 204
use in modal analysis 26
Wessex Basin 65-7 method 29, 31
density survey results 31-5
methods 71, 74 results discussed 35-7
results 72, 73 X-ray scanning
results discussed 78 correlation with FDL 17
gamma ray survey database 17-18
methods 67-8, 71 methods 18-21
results 69, 70 results 21-3
results discussed 74-8 results discussed 23-4
whisker plot, velocity 103 uses 17
wireline depth v. drilling depth 275
wireline heave compensation 278
zeolite in ocean crust 319, 321,323, 408
Core-Log Integration
edited by
P. K. Harvey and M.A. Lovell
(Department of Geology, University of Leicester, UK)
In recent years there has been increased interest in this problem, both in
industry and academia, due to developments in technology which offer
access to new types of information and, in the case of industry, pressure
for improved reservoir models and hydrocarbon recovery. The application
of new numerical methods for analysing and modelling core and log data,
the availability of core scanning facilities, and novel core measurements in
both two and three dimensions, currently provide a framework for the
development of new and exciting approaches to core-log integration.
• 432 pages
• 31 papers
• index