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Abstract
Many types of English word-formation processes such as affixation, conversion,
compounding, blending, reduplication, clipping, derivation, echoing, acronomy,
initialism, backformation, antonomasia, etc. and their application and retention are
merely described from a formal or functional morphological perspective. However, their
typological variation is not studied from a causal dispositional (from the perspective of
WHY which generates, specifies, and directs the HOW to bring about the WHAT at
WHERE and WHEN), socio-cognitive linguistic perspective of choice as in Ka:rmik
Linguistic Theory (KLT) - based on the universal sciences of creation, living, and
language as scientific evidence - as far as I know. In this view, language is not only used
dispositionally for living in a context but it is also created by living in the context for
living in it as ka:rmik (via dispositional) action. According to the KLT Principle of
Dispositional Discrete Permutation, “When we live, we dispositionally language
the world in/by its experience through limited uses of limited means in
(un)limited permutations”
In this paper, an attempt has been made to motivate the word-formation processes as
dispositionally generated-specified-directed-materialized choices according to the
Principle of Dispositional Discrete Permutation (PDDP) in the Ka:rmik Linguistic
Theory and show that “language is as it is because of what disposition does: as
the workman, so is his work”.
I. INTRODUCTION
In the literature available on word-formation processes, they are described and
explained either in terms of formalism or functionalism but not in terms of
disposition. To elaborate more, a word-formation process is motivated in terms of
what the process is and what the structure of the process (as in formalism) is or
how the process is functional and as a result of its function what form it takes (as
in functionalism) or how it is conceptualized (as in cognitivism).
These views are atomistic in their formulation since language has all the form-
function-meaning-style-context (discourse) parts as its radii in an interconnected-
interrelated-interdependent (I-I-I) radial network to constitute the whole circle of
language as shown below.
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Form
Context Function
Language
Style Meaning
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WHY
Concept
D.V. : Manner ● D. Comp. Pattern D. C. M. F. of Action
HOW WHAT Structure D. M. F. Result
Place Time Experience
In KLT, there are some principles laid down to provide a principled account of
language formation-application-transmission-perpetuation (FATP). They are as
follows.
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Under PSS, we have many strategies out of which Principle of Exploration of Variables
(EV) is an important principle, under which there are three sub-principles which
are:
1. ECV (Exploration of Contextual Variables); 2. PEV (Productive Extension of
Variables);
3. CNV (Creation of New Variables); and 4. CNV (D) (Creation of New
Variables by Deletion);
3. The Principle of Qualification and Quantification in Linguistic Processes;
4. Principle of Application, Transmission, and Perpetuation and ICCCAS;
4. Principle of Integration into the System by I-I-Iing, NwNing and A-W-F;
5. Principle of Ka:rmik Processing by Ka:rmikpoeisis (Experiential Autopoeisis,
Dissipation, Bifurcation
and Branching)
These main principles along with others are used to motivate the creation as well
as use of every type of lingual action in a context. These principles are applied in
a systematic procedure as follows.
1. 2. KLT Procedure
In practice, KLT is applied
first, by data collection
(which gives us the WHAT of language in question for analysis);
second, patterning and structuring the data into clearly identifiable categories,
types, and classes (which gives the HOW of language in terms of its
Organization);
third, discovering concepts and principles from the patterned and structured
data
(which gives the HOW of language in terms of its Principles for Organization);
fourth, developing systemic choice networks for the system
(which gives the HOW of language in terms of its Dispositional
Conceptualization); and
fifth, motivating systemic choices from disposition and building up the language
as a dispositional sociocognitive linguistic system created and used for the
construction of ka:rmik reality via dispositional reality via actional reality.
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but dispositionally created by such factors as laziness, carelessness, and imitation. Here,
it is certainly a case of the motor skills of the vocal organs and / or the temperament of the
speakers / speech community. So also in the case of typological choices in word-formation
processes: Kyrgyz prefers mainly suffixation and no prefixation is available (personal
communication Shakhriza 2016), Mandarin Chinese is preponderantly moving towards
compounds – because of disyllabic words; Xavante has 48 clicks whereas Indian
languages have no phonemic clicks;
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including its functionality. Therefore, in such a view, it is atomic and simplistic to think
that linguitecture (architecture of language as per Halliday) is functional.
On the whole, it is submitted that the idea that function decides linguitecture
has to be critically re-examined in SFL.
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material form as their sub-networks. What is more, these two networks with their
sub-networks are interconnected-interrelated-interdependent (I-I-I) in forming
the word. [This networking is neatly captured in the Principles of Networks-within-
Networks and I-I-Iing Networks in radial networks in the Ka:rmik Linguistic Theory
as will be shown later]. Third, what is cognized to be this and that to be so and so
in such and such form is realized (materially manifested as a sound form
semiotically representing meaning) by the Principle of Material Form Realization. In
Stekauer’s approach, the cognitive processing is not captured comprehensively
even though he mentions the conceptual level and the phonological level. In KLT,
there is the concept-pattern and structure-material form level motivated from
disposition-desire-effort-action-result-experience process by disposition-dispositional
bias-response bias-choice-variation-result-experience processing of action by gradual
evolution. This is done by establishing a route from the
i. Universal Sciences of [Action-Living-Lingual action] of supracosm-
macrocosm-microcosm
– to –
ii. the Individual/Collective [Intuitive Understanding of a Phenomenon (IPU) –
Troubleshooting – Problem Solving Strategies (PSS) – Solution] by Exploration of
Variables
– through –
iii. [Exploration of Contextual Variables (ECV) – Productive Extension of
Variables (PEV) – Creation of New Variables (CNV) – Deletion of Variables (DV)]
– by –
iv. Networking networks and networks-within-networks (NwN)
– in –
v. an Interconnected-Interrelated- Interdependent (I-I-I) and Atomic- (W)holistic
framework.
Therefore, according to KLT, all these approaches are not holistic and they cannot
provide a comprehensive description of the word-formation processes (see
Bhuvaneswar 2013a for more details on the atomicity of these approaches).
Hence, there is a need to make such a holistic motivation of the word-formation
processes in English and other languages in general.
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Let us first know the basic constituents in a word and see how these constituents
function in the creation of WFPs.
The relationship between stem (root), base (base morpheme) and word can be
captured by the following equation:
(4) Stem/Word Base Word Affixation/Analogy
[ apparently transforms into; gradually evolves into; through the process of ]
This is with reference to words formed from stems as bases (roots in morphology)
and bases (base morphemes according to Quirk et al 1986: 1520). However, we also
need to know how stems are formed and that requires a semiotic exploration into
why, how and what sounds are used as symbols in their variety-range-depth in
the formation of words.
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Human beings who are created in this universe in an I-I-I network with other
living and non-living systems in their variety-range-depth exist and conduct their
samsa:ram (existing by experiencing pleasure and pain as living) in a context. In
this connection, they created language owing to the dispositional functional
pressure (D.F.P.) built up in them for ((coordination of) coordination of action) ((C)
COA), first, as a tool with a very limited number of sounds and words and
developed it into a rich system with numerous words and many sentence patterns
to be used as a resource for (C) COA to the fulfill their complex desires and
construct actional-dispositional-ka:rmik (cause-effect experiential) realities for the
ultimate experience of the results of action.
We say they created language because of the empirical evidence of human beings
creating words in a historical process but not genetically inheriting them from
Nature lock, stock and barrel. In this process, they consciously made choices and
absorbed emergent choices unconsciously to develop the linguistic system by gradual
evolution as they used, transmitted, and perpetuated it. Obviously, these choices
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3. 2. 4. Linguitecture and The Principle of Choice of the System (P. Ch. S.)
According to P. Ch. S., a ka:rmik system is developed by a multidimensional
networking of a number of phenomena in a very systematic manner through
dispositional creativity of the individual members in a group standardized at the
collective level and further transmitted to the individuals from the collective
level. This process is captured in the ICCCSA networks in KLT.
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Extensive research is needed to understand the entire theory of action and its
qualification by disposition; how language is created for living, and by living in
the context of human creation. Annambhatta’s Tarka Samgraha can be very useful
to explore the numerous possibilities in which disposition can qualify action.
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Synchronically, these patterns get entrenched in the system and are propagated
diachronically in wave-forms (starting from a point and flowing on to another
point in their journey to reach and wet the shore of language evolution)
establishing the pattern by ICCCSA (individual-collective-contextual-conjunction
and standardization of action). For example, the a:nushangik (the following
member in a set inheriting the properties of the former in addition to its own)
process of sentence formation is considered a gradual evolution process: sounds
becoming phonemes; phonemes joining together to form syllables; syllables
joining together to form words; and words joining together to form phrases,
clauses and sentences. Another example is the regular form -ed of the past tense
in English illustrates this process. The regular form -ed has not been created all of
a sudden but gradually evolved over time synchronically and diachronically in a
ka:rmik, gradual evolution process: creation of the new variable -ed, its application
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In the generative framework, rules are absolute and they cannot be violated; in
OT, they are semi-absolute in the sense that the rules are universal and cannot be
discredited per se but they can be violated for choosing the best candidate by
competition. In KLT, however, the linguistic rules are not absolute, but the rules
in the Universal Science of Action (US A) are absolute and inviolable. [US Action
is the way in which Mother Nature is constituted and why it is constituted to be
this and that to be so and so and how it functions in such and such manner.] Again,
the US of Lingual Action (US LA) is absolute like the constitutive rules of a game
of chess as it is derived from the US A but the way in which languages are
formed is not absolute like the way in which a player plays a game of chess – he
may change his procedure, strategy, techniques, and tactics during the course of
his play. The rules in US LA are absolute in terms of the properties of sound in
Physics and at the same time, they are flexible because they are dispositionally
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In (7), the non-gemination rule is both violated and followed and again in (8), the
gemination rule is both followed and flouted. So what happens here is rules are
dispositionalized. In pennu, the gemination rule is followed but an alternative pen
is also allowed by adapting the loanword as it is without any changes. In a
similar way, both sha:Tu and sha:TTu are accommodated without any violation.
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Hence, rules complement each other but not compete by constraint ranking and
violation. In Australian English, there are 12 hypocoristics for the single word
sandwich: sammie, sanger, sando, sanbo, sango, sandie, sangie, sanguidge, sambo,
sammo, sammidge, and sarnie. In the loan word adaptation, we have both syllabuses
and syllabi as the plural forms of syllabus. Both of them cannot be put in a
framework of constraint ranking and violation a priori; if done so, one of them
only should be realized and not the other. On the other hand, both of them can be
given a principled account, if they are motivated a priori by ICCCSA through
dispositional choices.
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a wheel and hence the strata are equal like the spokes in it arranged in a radial
framework. What it means is that there is no inherent hierarchy in the whole
system since each part in the whole is as important as any other part in the
construction of experience and is critical by its presence since its absence
collapses the system. For example, phonology is as important as semantics which
is as important as syntax and vice versa since the absence of any one of them
collapses the system as a whole. The apparent linearity in processing with
beginning and end points has no hierarchical grading but is only circular with
these points becoming entry and exit points with equal values; it is neither
vertical with a top and bottom nor horizontal with first and last points with
graded values. The entire processing with its I-I-Ied NwNs in an AWF is
dispositionalized and experientialized to become ka:rmikpoeisis. Hence a ka:rmik
process is not simply holarchical in an autopoeitic and dissipational structure but
much more than that by being cause-effect experiential and hence ka:rmikarchical
and ka:rmikpoeitic.
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The innovation can take place in two ways: adhya:sam (superimposition) and
apava:dam (ablation). In adhya:sam, there is no knowledgeable intentional
exclusion of the other variables as in optimality theory; what happens is the
creator of a WFP hits upon the idea by a flash of creativity without reference to the
other variables. For example, abbreviation as a WFP might have been thought of
independently as a word-shortening process without the rejection of other
processes such as affixation or compounding. On the other hand, in apava:dam,
there is knowledgeable intentional exclusion of the other variables by rejecting
them as not this, not this but that process of elimination by a rigorous process
using vimarsca (analyticity) – the same is also true in the choice of the system at
both the lower and higher levels of language; in other words, it operates at both
the sub-network and the main network under Networks-within-Networks.
After innovation (i.e., creation of a new variable (CNV)), the innovated form gets
established to give the established form (EF). This EF becomes the base for future
WFPs and productive extension of the (new) variable (PEV) takes place, usually,
by Analogical Word-formation Processing (A WF P) by Token-formation (TF)
and Categorization (Cat). As a concept of a WFP is subjected to analyticity (powers
of observation, analysis and classification, logic and reasoning, interpretation,
and identification), a pattern and structure (arrangement) of the concept emerges.
Finally, this P&S of the Concept is materialized by the application of HPPA
(Habituated Performance Patterns (or acquired Skills) of Action)).
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is created. It is further transmitted and applied to create its tokens and categories
in their variety-range-depth.
Part II
4. Motivation of the Major English Word-formation Processes in KLT
The Ka:rmik Linguistic Theory evolved in a bottom-up process of IUP (intuitive
understanding of a phenomenon), TS (troubleshooting), and developing PSS
(problem solving strategies) and dispositional creatively discovering or creating a
solution to the concerned problem. In the process of finding solutions, the
procedure is linear and involves the following five stages:
1. IUP and TS; 2. Data Collection; 3. Patterning and Structuration of the Data by
Descriptive Classification; 4. Discovery of Concepts and Principles by Analyticity and
Reversal of Ordering by Effect-to-Cause Logic, and 5. Causal Motivation and Procedure
Confirmation by Dispositionalization.
The five stage procedure as outlined in the Procedure Section 1. 2 (Page 4) will be
followed to motivate WFPs in English.
1. 2. KLT Procedure
In practice, KLT is applied.
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1. Affixation
2. Conversion,
[3. Back-formation, 4. Backwords]
English [5. Reduplication, 6. Compounding,
WFPs 7. Blending]
[8. Clipping, 9. Dimunitives]
[10. Acronym, 11. Initialism]
[12. Borrowing, 13. Calque]
This gives the HOW of language in terms of its Organization. (See the PPTs for
the P&S of the data). The data and its patterning and structuration have not been
given here since they are already available in Quirk, and since it is voluminous,
but shown in the PPts for want of space here.)
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other outside function that brought about this change. So, we need to motivate
the choice of different word-formation processes from a higher level, the level of
disposition which GCSDMs all lingual action according to the following
equations.
This choice is cognized to be this or that as so and so in such and such manner.
This unit cognition is indicated by the term cogneme in Ka:rmik Linguistic
Theory. Finally what is dispositionally cognized is realized in the context. Thus
we get a word formed in a particular pattern and structure in a particular
phonetic form. (see Bhuvaneswar 2013b for a detailed discussion of how QLB
Affixation WFP is created and spread). Such a word is standardized by ICCCSA
(as already shown in a graph) and stored in the cultural memory of the language
community.
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decades. Later on this nelogistic process became a trend and became a pattern
and became a WFP in Telugu spilling into English also. A similar procedure also
should occur in other types of word-formation in English. For example, the
recent intrusion of duplifixation from Hebrew into English is not because of any
functional necessity but because of language contact and its influence in the
recent times only. This is another problem for functionalists to address – WHY
only now and not before?
These processes are succinctly captured by the cognition graphs in KLT given
below.
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Sattva
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Cog. R
5. Conclusion
In the analysis conducted above, it has been shown how words are created –
applied- transmitted – retained – perpetuated in the ka:rmik linguistic paradigm
which integrates form-function-meaning-cognition-disposition in a unified
linguistic framework and shows that language is as it is because it is intended to
be like that to do what it does.
References
1. Bhuvaneswar, Chilukuri (2013 a). “Proverbial Linguistics: Theory and Practice
in the Ka:rmik Linguistic Paradigm - Creation and Development of Proverbs
(Fourth Part of the Plenary Speech). (Eds. ). BENAYOUN, Jean-
Michel/KÜBLER, Natalie/ZOUOGBO, Jean-Philippe (2013). Sainte Jemme:
Universitaire Sainte Jemme
2. Bhuvaneswar, Chilukuri (2013 b). “Dispositional Creativity in QLB as a Telugu
Word-Formation Process: Evidence for Ka:rmik Linguistic Theory”. IJDL, Vol.
XLII No. 2, June 2013. Thiruvananthapuram: Dravidian Linguistics
Association. 150 -195.
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