Minas Geraes-class battleship

The Minas Geraes class, spelled Minas Gerais in some sources,[B]

consisted of two battleships built for the Brazilian Navy in the early
twentieth century. Named Minas Geraes and São Paulo, the ships
were intended to be Brazil's first step towards becoming an
international power, and they consequently initiated a South
American naval arms race.

In 1904, Brazil began a major naval building program that included

three small battleships. Designing and ordering the ships took two
years, but these plans were scrapped after the revolutionary
"dreadnought" concept rendered the Brazilian design obsolete—two
dreadnoughts were instead ordered from the United Kingdom, making
Minas Geraes at speed during its sea trials. This photo is
Brazil the third country to have ships of this type under construction
commonly misidentified as São Paulo, but it was taken before
—before traditional powers like Germany,France, or Russia. As such,
that ship entered service.[1]
the ships created much uncertainty among the major countries in the
world, many of whom incorrectly speculated the ships were actually Specifications
destined for a rival nation. Similarly, they also caused much Class overview
consternation in Argentina and consequently Chile.
Builders: Armstrong Whitworth
Soon after their delivery in 1910, both Minas Geraes and São Paulo Operators: Brazil
were embroiled in the Revolt of the Lash (Revolta da Chibata), in Preceded by: Deodoro class
which the crews of four Brazilian ships demanded the abolition of
Succeeded by: Rio de Janeiro (later HMS Agincourt)
corporal punishment in the navy. The mutineers surrendered after four
days, when a bill was passed granting amnesty to all those involved. Riachuelo (planned)

In 1922, the two battleships were used to help put down a revolt at Cost: $8,863,842[2][A]
Fort Copacabana. Two years later, lieutenants on São Paulo mutinied In commission: 1910–52
but found little support from other military units, so they sailed to
Completed: 2
Montevideo, Uruguay, and obtained asylum. Minas Geraes was
modernized in the 1930s, but both battleships were too old to General characteristics
participate actively in the Second World War, and instead were Displacement: 18,976 long tons (19,281 tonnes (t)) normal
employed as harbor defense ships in Salvador and Recife. São Paulo
20,900 long tons (21,200 t) atfull load
was sold in 1951 to a British shipbreaker, but was lost in a storm
north of the Azores while being towed to its final destination. Minas Length: 543 ft (165.5 m) overall
Geraes was sold to an Italian scrapper in 1953 and towed to Genoa 530 ft (161.5 m) at waterline
the following year.
Beam: 83 ft (25.3 m) mean
Draft: 25 ft (7.6 m) mean
28 ft (8.5 m) max

Contents Propulsion: 2-shaft Vickers vertical triple expansion

Background 18 Babcock & Wilcox boilers

Bidding and construction 23,500 shp (17,500 kW)
International reaction Speed: 21 knots (24 mph; 39 km/h)
Ships Range: 10,000 nmi (12,000 mi; 19,000 km) at 10 knots
Service histories (12 mph; 19 km/h)
Revolt of the Lash
Armament: 12 × 12 in (305 mm)/45 cal guns(6 × 2)
Later career
Specifications 22 × 4.7 (120 mm)/50 cal guns

Footnotes 18 × 3-pounder (47 mm) guns

Endnotes 8 × 1 pdr (37 mm) guns

References Armor: Belt: 9 in (229 mm)
External links Belt extremities: 6–3 in (152–102 mm)
 Turrets: 12–9–2 to 3 in (305–229–51 to 76 mm;
front–sides–top)
Background Conning tower: 12 in (300 mm)
Brazil's navy fell into obsolescence after an 1889 revolution, which Notes: Specifications are as built
deposed Emperor Dom Pedro II, and an 1893 civil war.[1][4][5][C]
Meanwhile, an Argentine–Chilean dispute over the boundary of Patagonia and control of the Beagle Channel kindled a naval arms race between the
two beginning in the late 1880s and lasting until 1902. Restrictions were placed on the navies of both countries and major vessels under construction in
both navies were sold as part of the British-mediated three pacts which ended the dispute, but both countries retained the numerous vessels built in the
interim.[7][8] As such, by the turn of the 20th century the Brazilian Navy lagged far behind the Chilean and Argentine navies in quality and total
tonnage,[4][5][D] despite Brazil having nearly three times the population of Ar [4][9]
gentina and almost five times the population of Chile.

Soaring demand for coffee and rubber brought Brazil an influx of revenue in the early 1900s.[9] Simultaneously, there was a drive on the part of
prominent Brazilians, most notably the Baron of Rio Branco, to have the country recognized as an international power.[10] A large naval acquisition
program was drawn up and passed by the National Congress of Brazil in October 1904 in accordance with their belief that a powerful navy would be
[1][9][10]
crucial to the achievement of this goal, but it was two years before any ships were ordered.

Two factions argued over the types of ships to be ordered. One favored a navy centered on a small number of large warships, while the other preferred a
larger navy of smaller warships.[10] The latter originally prevailed with a bill authorizing the construction of three small battleships, three armored
cruisers, six destroyers, twelve torpedo boats, three submarines, and two river monitors.[10][11] Though the Brazilian government later eliminated the
armored cruisers for monetary reasons, the Minister of the Navy, Admiral Júlio César de Noronha, signed a contract with Armstrong Whitworth for
three battleships on 23 July 1906.[12] While the first designs for these ships were derived from the Norwegian coastal defense ship Norge and the
British (originally Chilean) Swiftsure class,[E] the contracted ships were to follow Armstrong Whitworth's Design 439 (Design 188 in Vickers' files).
They would displace 11,800 long tons (12,000 tonnes), have a speed of 19 knots (22 mph; 35 km/h), and be protected by belt armor of 9 inches (23 cm)
and deck armor of 1.5 in (3.8 cm). Each ship would be armed with twelve 10-inch (25 cm) guns mounted in six twin turrets. These turrets would be
mounted in a hexagonal configuration, similar to the later GermanNassau-class battleships.[14]

Alarmed, the American ambassador to Brazil sent a cablegram to his Department of State in September 1906, warning them of the destabilization that
would occur if the situation devolved into a full naval arms race. At the same time, the American government under Theodore Roosevelt tried using
diplomatic means to coerce the Brazilians into canceling their ships, but the attempts were dismissed, with the Baron of Rio Branco remarking that
caving to the American demands would render Brazil as powerless as suzerain Cuba. The President of Brazil, Afonso Pena, supported the naval
acquisitions in an address to the National Congress of Brazil in November 1906, as in his opinion the ships were necessary to replace the antiquated and
obsolete vessels of the current navy.[15]

Bidding and construction

Design 439 was modified before these ships were laid down, increasing the displacement to
14,334 long tons (14,564 t) and making them slightly longer and wider. Two of these ships were
laid down by Armstrong atElswick in Newcastle upon Tyne (Minas Geraes and Rio de Janeiro),
while the other was subcontracted out to Vickers in Barrow (São Paulo). However, the new
dreadnought concept, which was showcased upon the completion of the namesake ship in
December 1906, rendered the Brazilian ships obsolete.[17] A transition to a few large warships
was finalized with the selection of Rear Admiral Alexandrino Faria de Alencar for the powerful
post of minister of the navy.[18] The money authorized for naval expansion was redirected by de
Alencar to building two dreadnoughts, with plans for a third dreadnought after the first was
completed, two scout cruisers (which became the Bahia class), ten destroyers (the Pará class),
and three submarines.[18][19] The three battleships on which construction had just begun were
demolished beginning on 7 January 1907.[17]

An entirely new design incorporating the latest dreadnought technology was drawn up by J.R.
Perrett, the head of Elswick Ordnance Company, and approved by the Brazilian government on
20 February 1907.[17][20] Argentina and Chile immediately annulled the 1902 treaty that had
ended their naval arms race, and both planned to expand their own navies, though Chile was
The launch of Minas Geraes on 10
.[4]
delayed by a financialdepression in 1907 and a major earthquake the next year
September 1908. As the ship has not
Minas Geraes, the lead ship, was laid down by Armstrong on 17 April 1907, while its sister ship gone through its fitting-out period, it
weighed only around 9,000long tons
São Paulo followed thirteen days later at Vickers. Construction of the partial hull needed to
(9,100 metric tons) at this time.[16]
launch Minas Geraes was delayed by a four-month strike to 10 September 1908, and São Paulo

[21][22][23][24][25]
followed on 19 April 1909.[21][22][23][24][25] Both were christened in front of large crowds by the wife of Francisco Régis de Oliveira, the Brazilian
ambassador to the United Kingdom.[26][27] After multiple trials of the speed, endurance, efficiency, and weaponry of the ship,[28][29] Minas Geraes
was completed and handed over to Brazil on 5 January 1910.[30] São Paulo followed in July, after its own trials.[31][32] The third dreadnought, which
would have been named Rio de Janeiro and was provided for in the original contract, was laid down on 16 March, but as the ship had already been
eclipsed by new naval technology (chiefly the advent of super-dreadnoughts, beginning with the British HMS Orion), the Brazilian government
[33][F]
canceled it on 7 May and asked Armstrong to prepare a new design.

At this time, the dreadnought design had not been fully validated, despite the success of the British namesake;[36] for example, there were still concerns
that the Minas Geraes class' superfiring turret arrangement—which had not been utilized on the original Dreadnought, but was also being installed on
the American South Carolina class—would cause blast to hurt the crew in the lower turret.[37][38] Any immediate concerns, however, were mitigated
during the firing tests when no ill effects were observed,[38] though the Times (London) reported that there were still concerns registered during São
Paulo's gun trials in June 1910.[32]

International reaction
The start of work on Minas Geraes meant that Brazil had become the third country—
behind the United Kingdom and the United States but ahead of major powers such as
[9][39][G]
Germany, France, Russia and Japan—to have a dreadnought under construction.

The order for the dreadnoughts caused an immediate stir in the United States and Europe;
in the words of the British Navy League Annual, they "astonished the naval world".[41] The
American New York Times opened an article on Minas Geraes' launch with "What on paper
at least is the most powerful warship ever built for any navy ...",[26] while Scientific
American called Minas Geraes "the last word in heavy battleship design and the ... most
powerfully armed warship afloat."[42] Some publications, like the American Advocate of
Peace, decried the dreadnought purchase for its cost, calling it "a showy and pretentious
Minas Geraes conducting its gun trials, at that
naval policy seemingly for the sheer indulgence of national pride" and continuing with "
time the heaviest broadside ever fired off a ship
[sinking] money into useless warships when, it is understood, foreign money has had to be
[43]
borrowed for city improvements in Rio de Janeiro is pitiful politics."

The British House of Commons debated purchasing the ships in March 1908 to bolster the Royal Navy while simultaneously ensuring they would not
be sold to a foreign rival.[17] The topic arose again in July and September, when Arthur Lee expressed his discomfort at the possible final dispositions
of the Brazilian ships, as any sale had the potential to disrupt their "Two-Power Standard".[17][44] International Marine Engineeringanalyzed the effect
of a sale to Japan, stating that the total broadside weight of Japan's line of battle would be increased by 31.6%, and the only ships capable of matching
the Minas Geraes' in the near future would be the AmericanDelaware and German Nassau classes.[45]

Newspapers and journals around the world speculated that Brazil was acting as a proxy for a naval power which would take possession of the two
dreadnoughts soon after completion, as they did not believe that a previously insignificant geopolitical power would contract for such powerful
armament.[46][47] The evidence for a sale seemed strong, as Brazilian attempts to float a multi-million-dollar loan against the value of their coffee crop
in 1908 were unsuccessful.[48] With three dreadnoughts planned (including the upcoming Rio de Janeiro), a Spanish naval journal stated "it was only
natural that rumors [would begin] to circulate supporting the argument that Brazil acted as an intermediary for some great power which would acquire
them before they terminate their construction."[49] Various British papers speculated that either the Germans, Japanese, or Americans were actually
buying the ships, while naval experts in Germany thought the Americans, British, or Japanese were going to take them over.[22][50][51][52] On the other
side of the Atlantic, some American papers theorized that the ships would be sold to the United Kingdom, Germany, or Japan.[53][54][55] The Brazilian
[56] The New York Times remarked:
government was forced to deny these spurious allegations several times.

The rumor is that the three warships ... ordered [in Britain] two years ago will be launched from English shores only to fly the German
flag. It is asserted that these ships, which are named the Sao Paulo, the Minas Geras [sic] and the Rio de Janeiro, and all of which will
be completed by next fall, will be conveyed to the German government on the payment of $30,000,000.

It may be recalled that when orders were placed for the ships ... there was much speculation as to the destiny of the vessels, as no naval
expert could understand how a second-rate power like Brazil needed such formidable engines of war which would represent absolutely
the latest stages of naval construction and armament. Meanwhile, it had been reported that the ships were being built for the Japanese
government, which had a secret understanding with Brazil. But this theory was soon discarded by the fact that relations between these
two countries were not extremely cordial on account of the attitude of Brazil toward the immigration of Japanese laborers.[H] Then it
was semi-officially stated that the ships would never leave the ways except to fly the British flag, but the money for such a purpose
could only be raised by a loan or the Admiralty getting the sum from the sinking fund—contingencies which would naturally become
[53]
public property long before they could be carried out.
Despite the speculation, the United States quickly began courting Brazil as an ally; caught up in the spirit, US naval journals began using terms like
[22]
"Pan Americanism" and "Hemispheric Cooperation".

In South America, the ships came as a rude shock and kindled a naval arms race among Brazil, Argentina, and Chile. The 1902 treaty between the latter
two was canceled upon the Brazilian dreadnought order so both could be free to build their own dreadnoughts.[4] Argentina in particular was alarmed at
the possible power of the ships. The Minister of Foreign Affairs, Manuel Augusto Montes de Oca, remarked that either Minas Geraes or São Paulo
could destroy the entire Argentine and Chilean fleets.[58] While this may have been hyperbole, either one was much more powerful than any single
vessel in the Argentinian fleet.[59] As such, the Argentines quickly responded to the dreadnoughts with an order to the United States for two of their
own, the Rivadavia class, while Chile ordered two of theAlmirante Latorre class from the United Kingdom.[60]

Ships
Ship Builder Laid down Launched Completed Fate
Minas Armstrong Whitworth, 17 April 10 September January
Scrapped 1950s
Geraes Elswick 1907 1908 1910
30 April
São Paulo Vickers 19 April 1909 July 1910 Sank en route to scrapyard, September 1951
1907
Rio de Armstrong Whitworth, 16 March Canceled 7 May 1910, thenre-built to an
– –
Janeiro Elswick 1910 entirely new design

Service histories
After completion, bothMinas Geraes and São Paulo sailed to other countries before arriving in Brazil. Minas Geraes left the Tyne on 5 February 1910
and traveled to Plymouth before beginning a voyage to the United States on 8 February.[61][62] The ship was assigned to escort the American armored
cruiser North Carolina, carrying the body of the former Brazilian ambassador to the United States Joaquim Nabuco, to Rio de Janeiro.[58][63][64] They
arrived in the city on 17 April 1910.[21][58] São Paulo left Greenock on 16 September 1910,[65] and stopped in Cherbourg, France, to embark the
Brazilian President Hermes da Fonseca.[66][67] Departing on the 27th,[68] São Paulo voyaged to Lisbon, Portugal, where Fonseca was a guest of
Portugal's King Manuel II. Soon after they arrived, the 5 October 1910 revolution began.[69] Although the President offered political asylum to the
King and his family, the offer was refused.[70] There was a rumor that the King was on board and revolutionaries attempted to search the ship, but were
denied permission. They also asked for Brazil to land marines "to help in the maintenance of order," but this request was also denied.[71] São Paulo left
Lisbon on 7 October for Rio de Janeiro,[69][72] and docked there on 25 October.[65]

Revolt of the Lash

João Cândido Felisbertowith reporters, officers and sailors on boardMinas Geraes on 26 November 1910, the final day of the revolt
(left); João Cândido handing control of the ship back to the navyright).
(

Soon after São Paulo's arrival, a major rebellion known as the Revolt of the Lash, or Revolta da Chibata, broke out on four of the newest ships in the
Brazilian Navy. The initial spark was provided on 16 November 1910 when Afro-Brazilian sailor Marcelino Rodrigues Menezes was brutally flogged
250 times for insubordination.[I] Many Afro-Brazilian sailors were sons of former slaves, or were former slaves freed under the Lei Áurea (abolition)
but forced to enter the navy. They had been planning a revolt for some time, and Menezes became the catalyst. Further preparations were needed, so the
rebellion was delayed until 22 November. The crewmen of Minas Geraes, São Paulo, the twelve-year-old Deodoro, and the new Bahia quickly took
ficers on Minas Geraes and one each on São Paulo and Bahia were killed.[74]
their vessels with only a minimum of bloodshed: two of
The ships were well-supplied with foodstuffs, ammunition, and coal, and the only demand of
mutineers—led by João Cândido Felisberto—was the abolition of "slavery as practiced by the
Brazilian Navy". They objected to low pay,long hours, inadequate training for incompetent sailors,
and punishments including bôlo (being struck on the hand with a ferrule) and the use of whips or
lashes (chibata), which eventually became a symbol of the revolt. By the 23rd, the National
Congress had begun discussing the possibility of a general amnesty for the sailors. Senator Ruy
Barbosa, long an opponent of slavery, lent a large amount of support, and the measure unanimously
passed the Federal Senate on 24 November. The measure was then sent to the Chamber of
Deputies.[75]
Sailors pose for a photographer on
Humiliated by the revolt, naval officers and the president of Brazil were staunchly opposed to board Minas Geraes, probably during
amnesty, so they quickly began planning to assault the rebel ships. The former believed such an the ship's visit to the United States in
action was necessary to restore the service's honor. Late on the 24th, the President ordered the early 1913.
naval officers to attack the mutineers. Officers crewed some smaller warships and the cruiser Rio
Grande do Sul, Bahia's sister ship with ten 4.7-inch guns. They planned to attack on the morning
of the 25th, when the government expected the mutineers would return to Guanabara Bay. When they did not return and the amnesty measure neared
passage in the Chamber of Deputies, the order was rescinded. After the bill passed 125–23 and the president signed it into law, the mutineers stood
down on the 26th.[76]

During the revolt, the ships were noted by many observers to be well-handled, despite a previous belief that the Brazilian Navy was incapable of
effectively operating the ships even before being split by a rebellion. João Cândido Felisberto ordered all liquor thrown overboard, and discipline on the
ships was recognized as exemplary. The 4.7-inch guns were often used for shots over the city, but the 12-inch were not, which led to a suspicion among
the naval officers that the rebels were incapable of using the weapons. Later research and interviews indicate that Minas Geraes' guns were fully
operational, and whileSão Paulo's could not be turned after salt water contaminated the hydraulic system, British engineers still on board the ship after
the voyage from the United Kingdom were working on the problem. Still, historians have never ascertained how well the mutineers could handle the
ships.[77][78]

Later career
Three years after the mutiny, Minas Geraes was used to transport Brazilian Minister of Foreign Affairs Lauro Müller to the United States.[79][80][81]
The ship returned on 16 July and arrived in Rio de Janeiro on 16 August. In September both Minas Geraes and São Paulo participated in a major
exercise with most of the Brazilian Navy. The need for more modern fire control system was identified as early as late 1913, but no action was
taken.[81][82] When Brazil entered the First World War in 1917, they were offered to the United Kingdom for service in the Grand Fleet, but the British
declined due to the condition the ships were in. They had not been modernized since entering service, and maintenance had been neglected; to illustrate
the problem, when Brazil sent São Paulo to the United States for a modernization in June 1918, fourteen of the eighteen boilers that powered the ship
failed. The ship only finished the voyage to New York with the assistance of the American battleship Nebraska and cruiser Raleigh.[83] Minas Geraes
[81][84]
followed after its sister's return, and the modernization was done between 1 September 1920 and 1 October 1921.

São Paulo made two trips to Europe in 1920. The first conveyed King Albert I and Queen Elisabeth of
Belgium to Brazil for the centennial celebrations. After São Paulo brought them home, the ship
traveled to Portugal to take the bodies of the formerly-exiled Emperor Pedro II and his wife, Teresa
Cristina, back to Brazil.[82][85][J] In July 1922, both battleships helped to quash the first of the Tenente
revolts (Revolução Tenentista), in which the garrison of Rio de Janeiro's Fort Copacabana rebelled and
began bombarding the city. São Paulo shelled the fort, and the rebels surrendered shortly thereafter;
Minas Geraes did not fire its guns.[24][25][70][86][K] In 1924, three lieutenants, including Hercolino
Cascardo, took over São Paulo with other crewmen. They were unsuccessful in swaying any other
Minas Geraes after its 1930s
ships to their cause, except for an old torpedo boat, and soon sailed out of the harbor after firing a six-
modernization, possibly during the
pounder gun at Minas Geraes. Short of food and withcondensers in poor condition, the rebels sailed to
Second World War
Montevideo, where they received asylum. Minas Geraes followed São Paulo, arriving on 11
November and taking back possession of the ship.[88]

Minas Geraes was modernized at the Rio de Janeiro Naval Yard from June 1931 to 1938,[89][L] while São Paulo led a naval force that broke the naval
blockade of Santos during the Constitutionalist Revolution of 1932.[70] Though Brazil had also intended to modernize São Paulo, its poor condition—
she was only able to make 10 knots (12 mph; 19 km/h) instead of its designed speed of 21 knots (24 mph; 39 km/h)—made such action
uneconomical.[90] Soon after Brazil's entrance into the Second World War on 21 August 1942,[91] São Paulo was moved to Recife on 23 August to
defend that port as a harbor defense ship; Minas Geraes played a similar role at Salvador.[81][82][90] Even with the modernization, Minas Geraes was
.[92]
simply too old and vulnerable to actively participate in the war
Both ships were decommissioned after the war, São Paulo on 2 August 1947 and Minas Geraes on 31 December 1952.[24][25] The former was sold to a
British shipbreaker and was towed out of Rio de Janeiro on 20 September 1951. When north of the Azores in a strong storm, the tow line snapped.
Though multiple searches were mounted by American and British aircraft, the ship was never found.[25][90] Minas Geraes was sold to an Italian
company in 1953 and towed toGenoa from 11 March 1954 to 22 April.[24][81][90]

Specifications
The two ships of the Minas Geraes class were 543 feet (166 m)
overall, 530 feet (160 m) at the waterline, and 500 feet (150 m)
between perpendiculars. They had a beam of 83 feet (25 m), a mean
draft of 25 feet (7.6 m), a maximum draft of 28 feet (8.5 m), a
normal displacement of 18,976 long tons (19,281 t), and a
displacement of 20,900 long tons (21,200 t) at full load. At the
beginning of their careers, the ships were crewed by about 900
men.[22]

Minas Geraes and São Paulo were originally armed with twelve 12-
inch/45 caliber, twenty-two 4.7-inch/50 caliber, eighteen 3-pounders
and eight 1-pounder naval guns. The main battery was arranged
with four superfiring turrets, two each fore and aft, and two placed
en echelon. The 4.7-inch secondary guns were placed in casemates
along the side of the ship.[22]
Plans of the Minas Geraes class, showing the armor values f(ig. 1)
The propulsion of the two ships was provided by Vickers vertical and the theoretically possible radii of themain and secondary
batteries (fig. 2 and 3), from the Journal of the United States Artillery
triple expansion engines instead of the steam turbines being used to
(1910)
power most contemporary dreadnoughts. Eighteen boilers provided
power to the engines, which in turn rotated the two three-bladed
propellers with 23,500 shaft horsepower. Their designed top speed was 21 knots (24 mph; 39 km/h), though this was frequently unattainable in their
later careers owing to substandard maintenance and neglect. The ships could carry 2,350 tonnes (2,310 long tons) of coal and 400 tonnes (390 long
tons) of oil, and their original endurance was 10,000 nautical miles (12,000 mi; 19,000 km) when traveling at 10 knots (12 mph; 19 km/h).[22][93]
[94]
During its trials, Minas Geraes was able to steam at 22.29 knots (25.65 mph; 41.28 km/h).

The main armor belt wasKrupp cemented and nine inches (230 mm) thick, but narrowed to six and three inches (150 and 76 mm) closer to each end of
the ships. The barbettes were protected by nine-inch armor, while the turret had a twelve-inch (300 mm) front, eight-inch (200 mm) sides, and a two- to
three-inch (51 to 76 mm) top, and the conning tower had twelve-inch armor. The deck armor had multiple decks of one-and-a-half to two inches
(38 to 51 mm), one inch (25 mm), and one inch.[93]

South American dreadnoughts

From The Naval Annual (1915)

The Minas Geraes class was designed,
constructed, and completed before the other
South American dreadnoughts, but they were
also smaller and not as well-armed. Two later
dreadnoughts, Rio de Janeiro and Riachuelo,
were planned, but the former was sold to the
Ottoman Empire amid falling government
revenues, and the other was canceled.[95]
The Rivadavia class was the second
dreadnought class purchased by a South
American country and the only ones to not be
built by a British company. Ordered in
response to the Minas Geraes class, they
mounted the same-size main battery as the
Brazilian ships (12-inch), but the Argentine
ships were much larger and significantly
better-armored.[22][96][97]
 Almirante Latorre was the last South
American dreadnought built, and was larger
and better armed than its counterparts. The
more efficient arrangement of the five 14-inch
turrets, with all mounted on the centerline
rather than en echelon, allowed the main
battery to fire on a single broadside without
damaging the ship.[98][99]

Footnotes
A. This was a staggering sum of money for the time. After the ships were ordered, a Brazilian newspaper equated the initial purchase
cost for Minas Geraes, São Paulo, and Rio de Janeiro (given as £6,110,100 without accounting for ammunition, which was £605,520,
or necessary upgrades to docks, costing £832,000) as equaling 5,029 kilometres (3,125 mi) of railroad tracks or 30,300 homesteads.
This large sum, however, was dwarfed by later costs for maintenance; the first five years of the ships' commissioned lives cost Brazil
about 60% of the initial cost.[3]
B. "Minas Geraes" was the spelling when the battleship was commissioned, but later changes to Portuguese orthographydeprecated it
in favor of "Minas Gerais". The words are pronounced[ˈminɐʃ ʒeˈɾajʃ] in Portuguese. Ship classes are named for the lead ship, in
this case Minas Geraes.
C. The civil war was begun by secessionists in the southern province ofRio Grande do Sul. In 1893, Rear AdmiralCustódio José de
Mello, the minister of the navy, revolted against President Floriano Peixoto, bringing nearly all of the Brazilian warships currently in
the country with him. Mello's forces tookDesterro when the governor surrendered, and began to coordinate with the secessionists,
but loyal Brazilian forces overwhelmed them both. Most of the rebel naval forces were sailed to Argentina, where their crews
surrendered; the flagship,Aquidabã, held out near Desterro until sunk by a torpedo boat. [6]

D. Chile's naval tonnage was 36,896 long tons (37,488 t), Argentina's 34,425 long tons (34,977 t), and Brazil's 27,661 long tons
(28,105 t).[4]
E. Incidentally, the Swiftsure class, named Constitución and Libertad before being bought by the British, were the two Chilean warships
[13]
sold as part of the 1902 Argentinian–Chilean pacts that ended their naval arms race.
F. Rio de Janeiro was eventually constructed as a much larger ship with fourteen 12-inch guns in seven turrets, all mounted on the
centerline, but it was sold partway through construction to the Ottoman Empire. Later
, shortly after the First World War broke out, the
ship was taken over by the United Kingdom asHMS Agincourt.[34][35]
G. Although Germany laid down their first dreadnought,Nassau, two months after Minas Geraes, the German vessel was completed
first.[9][40]
H. cf. Japanese Brazilian. A series of rumors supporting this theory
, where Brazil was alleged to have placed large armament orders in
the United Kingdom on behalf of Japan (who would then use them against the United States), was strongly denied by the Brazilian
government. Rio Branco, through atelegram sent to the Brazilian ambassador to the United StatesJoaquim Nabuco, based his
counter-argument in the close relationship between Brazilian and American governments, saying "every sensible person will
understand that an honest and respectable government would not lend itself to play the part attributed to Brazil by the inventor of the
news."[57]
I. The sailor's back was later described byJosé Carlos de Carvalho, a retired navy captain assigned by the Brazilian government as
[73]
their representative to the mutineers, as "a mullet sliced open for salting."
J. cf. Legacy of Pedro II of Brazil.
K. Scheina asserts that Minas Geraes shelled the fort,[87] but this is contradicted by multiple other sources.
[24][25][70][86]
 L. The 1938 date is somewhat variable; T opliss states "A ... modernization was undertaken in Brazil during the 1930s. The ship was
placed in repair status on 10 June 1931 and ran sea trials only in 1938, on 22 April and 9 May
. The ship returned to active service
status on 10 June 1938, though all work was not completed until 1940." [89]

Endnotes
1. Topliss, "The Brazilian Dreadnoughts," 240.
2. ONI, Information Concerning Some of the Principal Navies of the World
, 21.
3. Scheina, Naval History, 86.
4. Livermore, "Battleship Diplomacy," 32.
5. Martins, "Colossos do mares," 75.
6. Scheina, Naval History, 67–76, 352.
7. Scheina, Naval History, 45–52.
8. Garrett, "Beagle Channel Dispute," 86–88.
9. Scheina, "Brazil," 403.
10. Scheina, Naval History, 80.
11. English, Armed Forces, 108.
12. Topliss, "The Brazilian Dreadnoughts," 240–245.
13. Scheina, Naval History, 52, 349.
14. Topliss, "The Brazilian Dreadnoughts," 244–246.
15. Livermore, "Battleship Diplomacy," 33.
16. "Brazil," Naval Engineers, 836.
17. Topliss, "The Brazilian Dreadnoughts," 246.
18. Scheina, Naval History, 81.
19. "Brazil," Naval Engineers, 883–84.
20. "Brazil," Naval Engineers, 834.
21. Scheina, Naval History, 321.
22. Scheina, "Brazil," 404.
23. Topliss, "The Brazilian Dreadnoughts," 249.
24. "Minas Geraes I," Serviço de Documentação da Marinha — Histórico de Navios
.
25. "São Paulo I," Serviço de Documentação da Marinha — Histórico de Navios
.
26. "Launch Greatest Warships (https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?
res=F20C17FA385A17738DDDA80994D1405B888CF1D3)," The New York Times, 11 September 1908, 5.
27. "Launch Brazil's Battleship(https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?
res=F00A16FB3E5D12738DDDA90A94DC405B898CF1D3) ," The New York Times, 20 April 1909, 5.
28. "The Brazilian Battleship,"United States Artillery, 185–188.
29. "The Brazilian Battleship,"Scientific American, 240–241.
30. "The Minas Geraes," The Times, 6 January 1910, 4d.
31. "Trials of the Sao Paulo,"The Times, 3 June 1910, 7c.
32. "Gun Trials of the Sao Paulo,"The Times, 4 June 1910, 9b.
33. Topliss, "The Brazilian Dreadnoughts," 249, 254.
34. Topliss, "The Brazilian Dreadnoughts," 281–282.
35. Preston, "Great Britain," 37.
36. Scheina, Naval History, 354.
37. "The Brazilian Battleship,"United States Artillery, 187–188.
38. "The New Brazilian Battleships,"The Times, 22 January 1910, 16f.
39. Whitley, Battleships, 13.
40. Campbell, "Germany," 145.
41. Quoted in Scheina, Naval History, 81 from The Navy League Annual, 1910–1911, 103.
42. "The Brazilian Battleship,"Scientific American, 240.
43. Mead, "Reaction," 238–239.
44. "British and Foreign News(http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&d=EP19080912.2.100)
," Evening Post, 12
September 1908, 13.
45. "The Brazilian Dreadnoughts,"International Marine Engineering, 362–363.
46. Martins, "Colossos do mares," 77.
47. Mead, "Reaction," 238.
48. Topliss, "The Brazilian Dreadnoughts," 247.
49. Quoted in Scheina, Naval History, 354 from Revista General de Marina64 (1908): 724.
50. "British-Brazilian Warships," The Navy, 11–12.
51. "The Brazilian "Dreadnoughts","The Navy, 13–14.
52. "The Race for Naval Supremacy(http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&d=NEM19090406.2.10)
," Nelson Evening
Mail, 6 April 1909, 2.
53. "Germany May Buy English Warships (https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9E0CE4D9123EE233A2575AC0A96E9C946
997D6CF)," The New York Times, 9 August 1908, C8.
54. "Another British Dreadnought and a Brazilian Battleship on the W
ater (http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030214/1908-09-11/
ed-1/seq-4/)," The New York Tribune, 11 September 1908, 4.
55. "Brazil, Japan, and Great Britain(http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030272/1908-07-01/ed-1/seq-6/)
," The Sun (New York),
1 July 1908, 6.
56. "The Reported Purchase of Battleships,"The Navy (Washington), 39; "Brazilian Minister and 'No Ulterior Designs'(http://www.britishn
ewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000711/19090419/071/0002) ," Lancashire Evening Post, 19 April 1909, 2; "Brazilian Battleship
Launched at Barrow (http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000687/19090420/118/0005)," Yorkshire Post and Leeds
Intelligencer, 20 April 1909, 5.
57. "The Reported Purchase of Battleships,"The Navy (Washington), 39.
58. Martins, "Colossos do mares," 76.
59. Scheina, "Argentina," 400.
60. Scheina, Naval History, 82–85.
61. "Naval and Military Intelligence,"The Times, 7 February 1910, 4f.
62. "Naval and Military Intelligence,"The Times, 9 February 1910, 8c.
63. "Minas Geraes Fogbound(https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9D03EFDA1E30E333A25750C0A9659C946196D6CF)
,"
The New York Times, 3 March 1910, 13.
64. Whitley, Battleships, 27–28.
65. Whitley, Battleships, 28.
66. "French Criticise Brazil (https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9F00E2DD1F39E333A25756C2A96F9C946196D6CF)
,"
The New York Times, 25 September 1910, C4.
67. "France and Brazil," The Times, 26 September 1910, 6b.
68. "Marshal Hermes Da Fonseca,"The Times, 28 September 1910, 4e.
69. "Keeping Good Order in New Republic(https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9D03E1DB1F39E333A2575BC0A9669D946
196D6CF)," The New York Times, 8 October 1910, 1–2.
70. Ribeiro, "Os Dreadnoughts."
71. "The Journey from Lisbon,"The Times, 8 October 1910, 5–6a.
72. "Movements of Warships," The Times, 8 October 1910, 6a.
73. Quoted in Morgan, "The Revolt of the Lash," 41.
74. Morgan, "The Revolt of the Lash," 32–38, 50.
75. Morgan, "The Revolt of the Lash," 40–42.
76. Morgan, "The Revolt of the Lash," 44–46.
77. Morgan, "The Revolt of the Lash," 39–40, 48–49, 52.
78. Scheina, Latin America's Wars, 73.
79. "Brazilian Envoy Host on Warship (https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9D02EEDE163DE633A25751C1A9619C946296
D6CF)," The New York Times, 12 July 1913, 7.
80. "Tell Brazil's Envoy of Trade Problems (https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9406E4DF153FE633A2575BC1A9609C946
296D6CF)," The New York Times, 18 June 1913, 14.
81. "E Minas Geraes," Navios De Guerra Brasileiros.
82. "E São Paulo," Navios De Guerra Brasileiros.
83. Whitley, Battleships, 26, 28.
84. Whitley, Battleships, 26.
85. Whitley, Battleships, 28–29.
86. Poggio, "Um encouraçado."
87. Scheina, Naval History, 195.
88. Scheina, Naval History, 77–79.
89. Topliss, "The Brazilian Dreadnoughts," 289.
90. Whitley, Battleships, 29.
91. Scheina, Latin America's Wars, 162–164.
92. Scheina, Latin America's Wars, 164.
93. Topliss, "The Brazilian Battleship," 250.
94. Earle, "Professional Notes," 306.
95. Scheina, Naval History, 82; Vanterpool, "The 'Riachuelo'," 140.
96. Scheina, Naval History, 82.
97. Scheina, "Argentina," 401.
98. Preston, "Great Britain," 38.
99. Whitley, Battleships, 20.

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External links
British diplomatic documentsrelating to the dreadnought race (FO 508/8;Adam Matthew subscription required)
Encouraçados Minas Gerais e São Pauloon YouTube
Minas Geraes slideshow on YouTube
Minas Geraes on Flickr (LOC)

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