Beaufort scale

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Force 12 at sea
The Beaufort scale /'bo?f?rt/ is an empirical measure that relates wind speed to
observed conditions at sea or on land. Its full name is the Beaufort wind force
scale.

Contents [hide]
1 History
2 Modern scale
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
History[edit]
The scale was devised in 1805 by Irish-born Francis Beaufort (later Rear Admiral
Sir Francis Beaufort), a Royal Navy officer, while serving on HMS Woolwich. The
scale that carries Beaufort's name had a long and complex evolution from the
previous work of others (including Daniel Defoe the century before) to when
Beaufort was Hydrographer of the Navy in the 1830s when it was adopted officially
and first used during the voyage of HMS Beagle under Captain Robert FitzRoy, later
to set up the first Meteorological Office (Met Office) in Britain giving regular
weather forecasts.[1] In the early 19th century, naval officers made regular
weather observations, but there was no standard scale and so they could be very
subjective � one man's "stiff breeze" might be another's "soft breeze". Beaufort
succeeded in standardising the scale.

Sir Francis Beaufort

The initial scale of thirteen classes (zero to twelve) did not reference wind speed
numbers but related qualitative wind conditions to effects on the sails of a
frigate, then the main ship of the Royal Navy, from "just sufficient to give
steerage" to "that which no canvas sails could withstand".[2]

The scale was made a standard for ship's log entries on Royal Navy vessels in the
late 1830s and was adapted to non-naval use from the 1850s, with scale numbers
corresponding to cup anemometer rotations. In 1916, to accommodate the growth of
steam power, the descriptions were changed to how the sea, not the sails, behaved
and extended to land observations. Rotations to scale numbers were standardized
only in 1923. George Simpson, C.B.E. (later Sir George Simpson), director of the UK
Meteorological Office, was responsible for this and for the addition of the land-
based descriptors.[1] The measure was slightly altered some decades later to
improve its utility for meteorologists. Today, many countries have abandoned the
scale and use the metric system based units, m/s or km/h, instead,[citation needed]
but the severe weather warnings given to the public are still approximately the
same as when using the Beaufort scale.

The Beaufort scale was extended in 1946, when forces 13 to 17 were added.[3]
However, forces 13 to 17 were intended to apply only to special cases, such as
tropical cyclones. Nowadays, the extended scale is only used in Taiwan and mainland
China, which are often affected by typhoons. Internationally, WMO Manual on Marine
Meteorological Services (2012 edition) defined the Beaufort Scale only up to force
12 and there was no recommendation on the use of the extended scale.[4]

Wind speed on the 1946 Beaufort scale is based on the empirical relationship:[5]

v = 0.836 B3/2 m/s

Where v is the equivalent wind speed at 10 metres above the sea surface and B is
Beaufort scale number. For example, B = 9.5 is related to 24.5 m/s which is equal
to the lower limit of "10 Beaufort". Using this formula the highest winds in
hurricanes would be 23 in the scale.

Today, hurricane-force winds are sometimes described as Beaufort scale 12 through

16, very roughly related to the respective category speeds of the Saffir�Simpson
hurricane scale, by which actual hurricanes are measured, where Category 1 is
equivalent to Beaufort 12. However, the extended Beaufort numbers above 13 do not
match the Saffir�Simpson scale. Category 1 tornadoes on the Fujita and TORRO scales
also begin roughly at the end of level 12 of the Beaufort scale, but are
independent scales � although the TORRO scale wind values are based on the 3/2
power law relating wind velocity to Beaufort force.[6]

Wave heights in the scale are for conditions in the open ocean, not along the
shore.

Modern scale[edit]
Beaufort number Description Wind speed Wave height Sea conditions Land
conditions Sea state photo Associated warning flag
0 Calm < 1 km/h 0 m Sea like a mirror Smoke rises vertically. Beaufort
scale 0.jpg
< 1 mph
< 1 knot 0 ft
< 0.3 m/s
1 Light air 1�5 km/h 0�0.2 m Ripples with appearance of scales are
formed, without foam crests Direction shown by smoke drift but not by wind vanes.
Beaufort scale 1.jpg
1�3 mph
1�3 knots 0�1 ft
0.3�1.5 m/s
2 Light breeze 6�11 km/h 0.2�0.5 m Small wavelets still short but more
pronounced; crests have a glassy appearance but do not break Wind felt on face;
leaves rustle; wind vane moved by wind. Beaufort scale 2.jpg
4�7 mph
4�6 knots 1�2 ft
1.6�3.3 m/s
3 Gentle breeze 12�19 km/h 0.5�1 m Large wavelets; crests begin to
break; foam of glassy appearance; perhaps scattered white horses Leaves and small
twigs in constant motion; light flags extended. Beaufort scale 3.jpg
8�12 mph
7�10 knots 2�3.5 ft
3.4�5.5 m/s
4 Moderate breeze 20�28 km/h 1�2 m Small waves becoming longer; fairly
frequent white horses Raises dust and loose paper; small branches moved.
Beaufort scale 4.jpg
13�18 mph
11�16 knots 3.5�6 ft
5.5�7.9 m/s
5 Fresh breeze 29�38 km/h 2�3 m Moderate waves taking a more pronounced
long form; many white horses are formed; chance of some spray Small trees in
leaf begin to sway; crested wavelets form on inland waters.Beaufort scale 5.jpg
19�24 mph
17�21 knots 6�9 ft
8�10.7 m/s
6 Strong breeze 39�49 km/h 3�4 m Large waves begin to form; the white foam
crests are more extensive everywhere; probably some spray Large branches in
motion; whistling heard in telegraph wires; umbrellas used with difficulty.
Beaufort scale 6.jpg Gale pennant.svg
25�31 mph
22�27 knots 9�13 ft
10.8�13.8 m/s
7 High wind,
moderate gale,
near gale 50�61 km/h 4�5.5 m Sea heaps up and white foam from breaking waves
begins to be blown in streaks along the direction of the wind; spindrift begins to
be seen Whole trees in motion; inconvenience felt when walking against the
wind. Beaufort scale 7.jpg Gale pennant.svg
32�38 mph
28�33 knots 13�19 ft
13.9�17.1 m/s
8 Gale,
fresh gale 62�74 km/h 5.5�7.5 m Moderately high waves of greater length; edges
of crests break into spindrift; foam is blown in well-marked streaks along the
direction of the wind Twigs break off trees; generally impedes progress.
Beaufort scale 8.jpg Gale pennant.svg
Gale pennant.svg
39�46 mph
34�40 knots 18�25 ft
17.2�20.7 m/s
9 Strong/severe gale 75�88 km/h 7�10 m High waves; dense streaks of
foam along the direction of the wind; sea begins to roll; spray affects visibility
Slight structural damage (chimney pots and slates removed).Beaufort scale
9.jpg Gale pennant.svg
Gale pennant.svg
47�54 mph
41�47 knots 23�32 ft
20.8�24.4 m/s
10 Storm,[7]
whole gale 89�102 km/h 9�12.5 m Very high waves with long overhanging crests;
resulting foam in great patches is blown in dense white streaks along the direction
of the wind; on the whole the surface of the sea takes on a white appearance;
rolling of the sea becomes heavy; visibility affected Seldom experienced inland;
trees uprooted; considerable structural damage. Beaufort scale 10.jpg Storm
warning.svg
55�63 mph
48�55 knots 29�41 ft
24.5�28.4 m/s
11 Violent storm 103�117 km/h 11.5�16 m Exceptionally high waves;
small- and medium-sized ships might be for a long time lost to view behind the
waves; sea is covered with long white patches of foam; everywhere the edges of the
wave crests are blown into foam; visibility affected Very rarely experienced;
accompanied by widespread damage. Beaufort scale 11.jpg Storm warning.svg
64�72 mph
56�63 knots 37�52 ft
28.5�32.6 m/s
12 Hurricane force [7] ? 118 km/h ? 14 m The air is filled with foam
and spray; sea is completely white with driving spray; visibility very seriously
affected Devastation. Beaufort scale 12.jpg Storm warning.svg

Storm warning.svg
? 73 mph
? 64 knots ? 46 ft
? 32.7 m/s
References: Met Office,[8] Royal Meteorological Society,[9] Encyclopadia
Britannica[10]
The wind speeds in different units are not mathematically equivalent; e.g. 12�19
km/h is not equivalent to 8�12 mph, and both are not equivalent to 7�10 knots. The
reason is that the Beaufort scale is not an exact nor an objective scale. It was
based on visual and subjective observation of a ship and of the sea. The
corresponding integral wind speeds were determined later, but the values in
different units were never made equivalent.

The scale is used in the Shipping Forecasts broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in the United
Kingdom, and in the Sea Area Forecast from Met �ireann, the Irish Meteorological
Service. Met �ireann issues a "Small Craft Warning" if winds of Beaufort force 6
(mean wind speed exceeding 22 knots) are expected up to 10 nautical miles offshore.
Other warnings are issued by Met �ireann for Irish coastal waters, which are
regarded as extending 30 miles out from the coastline, and the Irish Sea or part
thereof: "Gale Warnings" are issued if winds of Beaufort force 8 are expected;
"Strong Gale Warnings" are issued if winds of Beaufort force 9 or frequent gusts of
at least 52 knots are expected.; "Storm Force Warnings" are issued if Beaufort
force 10 or frequent gusts of at least 61 knots are expected; "Violent Storm Force
Warnings" are issued if Beaufort force 11 or frequent gusts of at least 69 knots
are expected; "Hurricane Force Warnings" are issued if winds of greater than 64
knots are expected.

This scale is also widely used in the Netherlands, Germany,[11] Greece, China,
Taiwan, Hong Kong, Malta and Macau, although with some differences between them.
Taiwan uses the Beaufort scale with the extension to 17 noted above. China also
switched to this extended version without prior notice on the morning of 15 May
2006,[12] and the extended scale was immediately put to use for Typhoon Chanchu.
Hong Kong and Macau retain force 12 as the maximum.

In the United States, winds of force 6 or 7 result in the issuance of a small craft
advisory, with force 8 or 9 winds bringing about a gale warning, force 10 or 11 a
storm warning ("a tropical storm warning" being issued instead of the latter two if
the winds relate to a tropical cyclone), and force 12 a hurricane-force wind
warning (or hurricane warning if related to a tropical cyclone). A set of red
warning flags (daylight) and red warning lights (night time) is displayed at shore
establishments which coincide with the various levels of warning.

In Canada, maritime winds forecast to be in the range of 6 to 7 are designated as

"strong"; 8 to 9 "gale force"; 10 to 11 "storm force"; 12 "hurricane force".
Appropriate wind warnings are issued by Environment Canada's Meteorological Service
of Canada: strong wind warning, gale (force wind) warning, storm (force wind)
warning and hurricane-force wind warning. These designations were standardized
nationally in 2008, whereas "light wind" can refer to 0 to 12 or 0 to 15 knots and
"moderate wind" 12 to 19 or 16 to 19 knots, depending on regional custom,
definition or practice. Prior to 2008, a "strong wind warning" would have been
referred to as a "small craft warning" by Environment Canada, similar to US
terminology. (Canada and the USA have the Great Lakes in common.)

Beaufort Wind Scale

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Calm Light Air Light Breeze Gentle Breeze Moderate Breeze Fresh Breeze
Strong Breeze Near Gale Gale Strong Gale Storm Violent Storm
Hurricane Force
Light Winds High Winds Gale-force Storm-force Hurricane-force
<1 mph
<1 knot
<0.3 m/s 1�3 mph
1�3 knots
0.3�1.5 m/s 4�7 mph
4�6 knots
1.6�3.3 m/s 8�12 mph
7�10 knots
3.4�5.5 m/s 13�18 mph
11�16 knots
5.5�7.9 m/s 18�24 mph
17�21 knots
8.0�10.7 m/s 25�31 mph
22�27 knots
10.8�13.8 m/s 31�38 mph
28�33 knots
13.9�17.1 m/s 39�46 mph
34�40 knots
17.2�20.7 m/s 47-54 mph
41�47 knots
20.8�24.4 m/s 55�63 mph
48�55 knots
24.5�28.4 m/s 64�72 mph
56�63 knots
28.5�32.6 m/s ?73 mph
?63 knots
?32.7 m/s
See also[edit]
Bowditch's American Practical Navigator
CLIWOC
Enhanced Fujita Scale
Douglas Sea Scale
Fujita scale
Saffir�Simpson scale
Sea state
Squall
TORRO scale
Tropical cyclone
References[edit]
Huler, Scott (2004). Defining the Wind: The Beaufort Scale, and How a 19th-Century
Admiral Turned Science into Poetry. Crown. ISBN 1-4000-4884-2.
^ Jump up to: a b "National Meteorological Library and Archive Fact sheet 6 � The
Beaufort Scale" (PDF). Met Office. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 October
2012. Retrieved 13 May 2011.
Jump up ^ Oliver, John E. (2005). Encyclopedia of world climatology. Springer.
Jump up ^ Walter J. Saucier (1955). Principles of Meteorological Analysis.
Retrieved on 2009-01-09.
Jump up ^ http://library.wmo.int/pmb_ged/wmo_558_en-v1.pdf
Jump up ^ Tom Beer (1997). Environmental Oceanography. CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-8425-
7.
Jump up ^ Maiden, Terence. "T-Scale: Origins and Scientific Basis". TORRO. Archived
from the original on 5 February 2012. Retrieved 4 January 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b The names "storm" and "hurricane" on the Beaufort scale refer
only to wind strength, and do not necessarily mean that other severe weather (for
instance, a thunderstorm or tropical cyclone) is present. To avoid confusion,
strong wind warnings will often speak of e.g. "hurricane-force winds".
Jump up ^ "Beaufort wind force scale". Met Office. Retrieved November 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Beaufort Scale". Royal Meteorological Society. Retrieved November 27,
2015.
Jump up ^ "Beaufort Scale". Encyclopadia Britannica. Retrieved November 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Wetterlexikon - Beaufort-Skala" (in German). Deutscher Wetterdienst.
Archived from the original on 12 December 2013. Retrieved 2014-02-14.
Jump up ^ "???????"??"????_????_???". news.sina.com.cn.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Beaufort Scale.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopadia Britannica article Beaufort
Scale.
Film of Wind Scale
Historical Wind Speed Equivalents Of The Beaufort Scale
Howtoons Poster showing effects on land/sea effects at each step.
Introduction to Physical Oceanography, Open Source Textbook, oceanworld.tamu.edu,
cites the original definition formula in chapter 4. Possibly available from
University of Colorado [1].
Ireland's Beaufort was Windscale Inventor�by Dr John de Courcy Ireland
OceanWeather.com gives current graphics for wind, waves and temperature.
Online calculator: Beaufort scale
The Weather Legacy of Francis Beaufort�The history of the Beaufort Scale
Radio interview with Scott Huler
Beaufort wind force scale. Met Office
US Economic Costs of High Winds at NOAA Economics
Authority control
GND: 4348932-1
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