Application of travelling -wave methods to the
calculation of transient-fault currents and voltages in
power-system networks
J.P. Bickford, M.Sc, Ph.D., C.Eng., M.I.E.E., and
M.H. Abdel-Rahman, M.Sc., Ph.D.
Indexing terms: Waves, Transients, Power systems, Cables and overhead lines, Lightning and lightning
protection
Abstract: A travelling-wave method Jbased on the Bewley lattice diagram for the calculation of transient-fault
currents and voltages in power-system networks is described. The application of the method to situations
which include developing and simultaneous faults, sequential switching and surge-diverter action is
demonstrated.
1 Introduction
For many years digital-computer methods have been
employed for the calculation of transient phenomena on
power-system networks caused by switching operations.
The computational techniques used may be broadly
classified into frequency-domain methods based on the
Fourier transform1'2"3 and time-domain methods using a
travelling-wave approach,3"9 and in both cases a considerable
amount of effort has been devoted to validating the results
obtained.10"13 The use of such methods has tended to
concentrate on the calculation of voltage transients mainly
because of their importance in circuit-breaker design and in
the determination of line -energisation overvoltages for the
purposes of attaining economical system-insulation levels.
Recent years have seen a strong desire on the part of power-
system engineers to achieve rapid fault-clearance times
which in turn necessitate faster response times from the
protective gear. As a consequence, the travelling-wave
components in the fault current have become of
importance both in the manner in which they effect relay
performance and as a possible means of very rapid fault
detection.14
A need has therefore been established for the ability to
calculate transient-fault currents and voltages and in theory
there is no reason why this should not be satisfied by the
application of the methods already developed for the
calculation of transient overvoltages. This has already been
achieved in the case of the Fourier-transform method and a
number of results have been published in the literature.15'16
Operating in the time domain, with travelling-wave methods
it is relatively easy to simulate events such as developing
and simultaneous faults and the nonsimultaneous operation
of the three poles of a circuit breaker. The ease and
flexibility with which such time-related operations can be
represented suggest that a travelling-wave approach in the
form of the lattice-diagram method could have a useful
application in the calculation of transient-fault currents.
The application of the lattice-diagram method to the
Paper 638C, first received lsi October 1*79 and m revised rorm 9tn
January 1*80
Dr. Bickford is, and Dr. Abdel-Rahman was formerly, with the
Department of Electrical Engineering & Electronics, University of
Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, PO Box 88,
Manchester M60 1QD, England. Dr. Abdel-Rahman is now with
El-Mansoura University, El-Mansoura, Egypt
IEEPROC, Vol. 127, Pt. C, No. 3, MAY 1980
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calculation of transient overvoltages has been described
previously.3'7'8'9 Although basically the method is
applicable to lossless lines it has been developed by various
investigators' to include the effects of losses and the
frequency-dependent nature of the system parameters.3' ^ * 7
Other developments of the method have enabled nonlinear
resistors and surge-diverter action to be simulated.4* 7 A
companion paper17 demonstrates the application of the
method to the calculation of transient-fault currents and
voltages in a simple case and shows that the results obtained
compare favourably with those obtained using the modified
Fourier-transform method. This paper outlines the method
and describes the facilities available on a more compre-
hensive lattice-diagram program which has been developed.
Results are presented to demonstrate the flexibility of the
method when applied to a study of more complex system
conditions.
2 Method
The application of the lattice-diagram method to the
calculation, of surges on overhead lines and cables is
described in many books on power systems. In the method,
originally devised by Bewley,18 lines and cables are
specified by their surge impedances and travel times. The
reflected and refracted voltages and currents at junctions
and terminations of the lines and cables are calculated by
the use of reflection and refraction coefficients KR and KT
defined for a single-phase system as
and
2R
K.T —
Re+Zc
where Zc is the surge impedance of the line or cable on
which the wave is travelling and Re is the effective surge
impedance seen by the wave when it reaches the junction or
termination.
Whereas in single-phase calculations, the reflection and
refraction coefficients at discontinuities are calculated from
the individual line surge impedances, for three-phase
153
0143-7046/80/03153 + 16 $01-50/0
calculations these individual surge impedances are replaced
by surge-impedance matrices which enable the mutual
effects between phases to be represented.
The basic data required by the method consist of the
lengths of the lines comprising the network and their surge
impedances. A basic time interval 6 must be chosen for
each transient calculation and should have a value which is
less than the travel time of the shortest line to be
represented. In simulating the system it is convenient to
assume that all circuits have the same velocity of propagation
and that this is equal to the velocity of light. This is not-
always the case in an actual system where notably under-
ground cables have a propagation velocity considerably less
than that of light. In such cases it is necessary to
compensate for the difference between the actual and
assumed velocities by increasing the length of the circuit in
the simulation, to make the propagation time at the
velocity of light equal to that of the actual circuit.
Assuming the velocity of propagation to be that of light,
the travel times of the lines in the system can be
determined from their lengths and expressed as multiples
of the basic time interval. At each termination of a line and
at all junctions of a line with other lines or circuits, the
reflection and refraction coefficients must be determined
for each line from the surge-impedance matrices of all lines
connected to that junction.
When using the method with the digital computer, the
lattice diagram itself is dispensed with and is replaced by a
branch timetable. The timetable is set out in time divisions
equal to the basic time interval chosen for the study. A
record of the progress of travelling waves on each line in the
system is maintained against this timetable.
Lumped, series and shunt inductances and capacitances
may be represented by short transmission lines8"9 having
travel times equal to 0/2 in the case of shunt inductances
and capacitances, and equal to 6 in the case of series
inductances and capacitances. Such a line to represent a
shunt inductance must be short-circuited at its remote end,
and in the case of shunt capacitance must be open-circuited
at its remote end.
With the lattice-diagram method, the waveforms of
voltages applied to the system are synthesised by the use of
step functions. For example, in the case of a power-
frequency voltage being applied to a point in the network,
the voltage wave is divided up into time intervals equal to
the basic time interval chosen for the study. The voltage
difference occurring at each time interval is then applied to
the network in the form of a step increment of voltage at
each interval. With the lattice-diagram method, no difficulty
is experienced in the representation of impedance
discontinuities such as those which arise due to three-phase
switching operations with and without switching resistors.
The surge-impedance matrix used to represent a
transmission line is calculated using a separate program at
the predominant frequency of the transient or, if this is not
known, at a frequency based on the travel time of the line
being switched. The calculation of the surge-impedance
matrix includes the effect of bundled conductors, earth
wires and conductor sag. The effect of the earth path on
the surge-impedance matrix at this frequency is allowed for
by the use of Carson's formulae.19 In the transmission-line
representation used, the true self and mutual-phase surge
impedances are used rather than symmetrical component
quantities which would of necessity impose the assumption
that the line was transposed.
154
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2.1 Current calculations
The branch timetable contains a record of the progress of
all voltage waves travelling on the system being represented.
With each voltage wave there is an associated current wave
and the value of the current entering a particular branch of
the system may be calculated from the voltage waves. The
current Im at end m of the branch between busbars m and n,
at any particular instant of time, may be obtained from
=
An ( 2 Vmn — 2 Vnm )\Zmn
where Vmn are voltage waves travelling from m to n and
Vnm are voltage waves travelling in the reverse direction.
Similarly the current entering the branch at busbar n
may be determined.
2.2 Fault sim ula tion
Both earthed and unearthed faults may be represented and
their occurrence is simulated by the closure of a switch
which connects an appropriate impedance to the system at
the point of fault. An earthed fault may be represented
simply by a shunt resistor connected between each phase
and earth, the value of the resistor in the faulted phases
being set to zero or to some value to represent the fault
impedance. Alternatively, and in the case of unearthed
faults, the methods of Hyashi20 may be followed and the
fault represented by the network of conductances shown in
Fig. 1. In this diagram Gn, G22 and G33 represent
conductances between each phase and earth, and G 12 , G23
and Gj3 represent conductances between pairs of phases.
The conductances are given the appropriate values to
represent the required fault conditions. The network of
Fig. 1 may be expressed in nodal admittance form as
[G\ —
Gu + Gi2 -G12 -G13
— G12 G22 + Gy2 ' I-G23 ~G23
-G13 -G23 G33 + Gl3-\" G23
2.3 Representation of surge diverters
A nonlinear shunt resistor may be used directly to represent
a gapless surge diverter.21 If a conventional surge diverter
with active arc gaps is to be simulated it is important22 that
the characteristic of the arc gap is also represented. Such a
characteristic is shown in Fig. 2a and may be divided into
three parts. Initially, for a time 7\ after diverter sparkover
Fig. 1 Fault admittances
IEEPROC, Vol. 127, Pt. C, No. 3, MAY 1980
the voltage is practically constant and of negligible value. of propagation and attenuation so that voltage waves in
At time Tx the voltage starts to increase almost linearly each mode may be attenuated and retarded independently
until it reaches a ceiling value vg at time T2. Thereafter, the of the others. One of the modes in this modal domain has
voltage remains virtually constant at this value until the a propagation constant which is much larger than those of
diverter current is interrupted. Specification of the values the other modes. Waves associated with this mode travel
7\, T2 and vg enables the gap characteristic to be simulated. with a reduced velocity and higher attenuation than do the
It is also necessary to represent the nonlinear resistor waves associated with the other modes. As the large
which has a characteristic of the form propagation constant associated with this mode is mainly
due to earth-penetration effects, this mode is called the
v = hi* earth mode and corresponds to the zero-sequence
Since the characteristic of the resistor is a function of its component if the line is transposed. If, however, the line is
operating conditions, it is insufficient to work only in terms untransposed and has a vertical configuration, the earth-
of voltage increment, and the actual voltage at the point in mode distribution between the conductors differs from that
the system to which the nonlinear resistor is connected of the idealised zero sequence and leads to differences in
must be determined. To achieve this, the voltage at the propagation on the conductors. For a three-phase line, the
point of connection is calculated at each time interval other two modal components have velocities very nearly
ignoring the presence of the resistor. This point is then equal to that of light and their attenuation is comparatively
represented by a generator having an interval voltage equal small.
to that just calculated neglecting the nonlinear resistor, and
an impedance equal to the surge impedance seen looking
into the busbar with the nonlinear resistor removed. The vG(t)
circuit consisting of this generator and the nonlinear
resistor is then solved for the resistor current as illustrated
in Fig. 2b and c using the following equation:
Vo = Vg+ZJNi + Kip
where Vg is the arc-gap voltage as shown in Fig. 2. In the
case of a gapless surge diverter, Vg is set to zero. The above
equation is solved using a Newton-Raphson method to give
the current /. The difference between this current and that
similarly determined for the previous time interval time t
represents the current increment to be injected into the
network in order to give the voltage with the surge diverter
in circuit. It is convenient to convert this injected current
into an applied voltage by multiplication by the effective
surge impedance seen looking into the busbar to which the
surge divertor is connected.
The active-gap surge diverter is connected into the
system when the busbar voltage exceeds the sparkover
voltage and is removed from the circuit when the diverter
current falls below the extinguishing current. In the case of
a gapless diverter there are no arc gaps and the nonlinear
resistor is in circuit continuously.

2.4 Represen ta tion o f losses

In the case of a single line above earth, the effect of line
losses is to attenuate and retard a voltage wave travelling
along the line, but in the more complicated polyphase case,
mutual coupling exists between the phases and second-
order changes of voltage in each phase are functions of the
voltages in the other phases. Losses in such cases cannot be
represented by simply attenuating and retarding the voltages
in each phase. Matrix theory provides a solution to the
problem by introducing a transformation matrix of a
suitable form to diagonalise the matrix equation. This
approach is well described by Wedepohl23"24 and consists of
finding the eigen values and eigenvectors of the ZY matrix
of the line where Z and Y stand for the series impedance
and shunt admittance of the line, respectively. In this way
it is possible to represent the line by a number of modes of
propagation, the voltages of which travel independently of Fig. 2 Surge diverter
one another and are free of mutual effects. There are as
a Characteristic of surge-diverter arc gap
many modes as there are active conductors in the system. b Surge-diverter representation
Each modal component has its own characteristic velocity c Surge-diverter equivalent circuit

IEEPROC, Vol. 127, Pt. C, No. 3, MAY 1980 155

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 If three-phase line losses are to be represented, the phase
surge-impedance matrix calculated at the predominant
frequency of the transient is used for the calculation of the
reflection and refraction coefficients. As the voltage steps
which comprise the applied voltage enter the line, they are
transformed into the modal domain where they are
attenuated and distorted 3 ' 7 before being transformed back
into the real or phase domain when they arrive at the
remote end of the line. Similarly, all reflected and
transmitted waves are dealt with in the same manner.
The modal voltages are distorted in accordance with the
modal step responses, which are calculated prior to the
main calculation from frequency responses obtained,
including earth-penetration effects, by the use of Carson's
formulas. In this way, Fourier methods are used to obtain a
standardised response for the line which is then used to
modify all voltage steps entering the line.
If line losses are not to be represented, the calculation is
carried out entirely in the real domain, and a knowledge of
the modal transformation matrices is not necessary.
2.5 Switches
The program can represent three-phase switching oper-
ations3' 7 at a number of points in the network. The phases
of each switch can be opened or closed nonsimultaneously
at prespecified instants of time. Alternatively, a switch can
be specified to open at a current zero. Multistage switching
resistors can be included in all switches.
The switches can be used to energise and de-energise
circuits or to apply faults to the system. In addition, it is
possible to specify a flashover level at a busbar so that when
the voltage at such a busbar reaches the flashover level, it is
automatically short-circuited to earth to represent a flash-
over in the actual system.
2.6 Initial conditions of voltage and current
Computation is initiated by the operation of a switch in the
power-system network which is being simulated. Initial
conditions of current may be specified if the current is to
be interrupted by the opening of a switch. Initial voltage
conditions are required for the busbars to which a switch is
connected and also for any other busbars for which the
transient voltages are to be calculated.
The initial voltages may be sinusoidal, in which case the
frequency must be specified as data together with the
magnitude and phase angle of the voltage in each phase.
Zero frequency implies a d.c. voltage and this option may
be used to represent trapped charge voltages on transmission
lines which are to be energised.
A facility is also available by which it is possible to apply
voltage steps to each phase at a particular location in the
system in order to determine the step response of the
network at that point.
Impulse waves may be generated and applied to the
system to represent lightning surges. The voltage generated
is given by an equation of the form
V = E(e-at-e-pt)
The value of E is such that the amplitude of the impulse
wave is unity and the values of the exponential constants a
and (5 can be chosen to give the particular impulse wave
shape required, e.g. 1-2/50 wave, 1/50 wave, 0/5 wave etc.
It is possible to apply sinusoidal and impulse voltages to the
system simultaneously.
156
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3 Calculation of fault voltages and currents
In this and the following Sections, examples are given of
the application of the method to the calculation of transient
voltages and current under various fault conditions. In all
cases the transmission line is assumed to be a.400kV line
having a vertical configuration. Details of the line are given
in Appendix 10.1. In the examples, line losses are
represented by including the attenuation of the aerial and
earth modes and the distortion of the earth mode.
The operation of the system protection may be
adversely affected by transient components in the system
voltages and currents under fault conditions. The effect on '
relay performance depends upon the magnitudes and
frequencies of these components. The transient frequency
is of course largely determined by the wave-propagation
time of the length of line between the fault and the line
termination. To a lesser extent it is also dependent upon the
type of fault, and this is evident if the waveforms for the
three-phase and single-phase fault currents of Fig. 3 are
compared. The Figure shows the sending and receiving-end
current waveforms of phase one under conditions of a
three-phase, two-phase and single-phase to earth fault being
applied at the end of the 189 km line remote from the
source. In all cases the fault is applied at a peak of the
phase-one voltage and with the system on no load. In the
case of the single-phase fault, the current path is dominated
by the earth return and the lower propagation velocity, and
increased losses of the earth mode account for the reduction
in frequency and amplitude evident in the waveforms of
Fig. 3e and /.
In practice, shunt capacitance is present at the source
busbar and accounts for the high-frequency spikes which
appear in the sending-end waveforms of Fig. 3 each time a
travelling wave arrives from the faulted end of the line.
These spikes are propagated along the line and appear also
in the receiving-end waveforms. The effect of neglecting the
capacitance in calculations is shown by the sending-end
waveforms of Fig. 4 for the case of a two-phase to earth
fault applied at the end of the line to phases one and three.
It may be noticed that when the capacitance is neglected,
spikes virtually disappear from the current waveforms
whereas those on the voltage waveforms increase appreciably
in magnitude.
The situation is somewhat different in the case of the
energisation of a prefaulted line where representation of the
shunt capacitance again introduces high-frequency spikes
into the current waveform, but in addition causes a spike
on the sending-end voltage at the instant of energisation.
This is because initially under transient conditions the
capacitance, and hence the source, appear as low impedance
and conditions are those of energisation from an infinite
source. This situation lasts for only a very short time after •
which conditions are governed by the source inductance,
and the normal exponential rise of voltage that occurs with
an inductive source takes place. This continues until the
arrival of the reflection of the initial spike from the faulted
end of the line with a sign reversal. This is illustrated by the
waveforms of Fig. 4e and / , and for the length of line and
source inductance considered, the exponential rise of
voltage due to the inductance is completed before the
arrival of the first reflection. For shorter lengths of line or
other values of source inductance this may not be the case,
so that neglecting the source shunt capacitance in
calculations could give a sending-end voltage appreciably
reduced in magnitude.
IEEPR0C, Vol. 127, Pt. C, No. 3, MA Y1980
 In all the above cases it is assumed that the source high-frequency spikes. If the source busbar is fed from both
busbar is fed only by generators and transformers. The transformers and transmission lines, the reflection
losses in the source are neglected and their effect in practice coefficient at the busbar will be changed, leading to
will be to cause some reduction in the magnitude of the considerable changes in the voltage and current waveforms.

189 km

0 " 2 U 6 8 1O\ 12 0 2 A 6 8 10M 12 14

kA

6 8 10 12 V*. 16, 18 2 I* 6 8 10 12 4 14
) 2

kA
kA
U 4

2 2

0 ^ 0
0 2 4 6 8 \ 10 12 14 16 18,/ 6 2 4 6 8 \1O 12 14^ 16 I8t/
/ms -2
ms
-2

-U -4

-6 -6

Fig. 3 Sending and receiving-end fault currents of phase one

a Sending-end current, three-phase to earth fault
b Receiving-end current, three-phase to earth fault
c Sending-end current, two-phase to earth fault
d Receiving-end current, two-phase to earth fault
e Sending-end current, single-phase fault
/ Receiving-end current, single-phase fault

IEEPROC, Vol. 127, Pt. C, No. 3, MA Y 1980 157

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 8 10 12' U 16 18|

10 12- K 16 18
ms:

kA
25
20

1-5
10

05

00 TZ 0-6 _O:8...1O. --12-'v' \l

.00 v 0-2 0-4 0 6 0 8 10 \1 ,.YU. ms
-0 5
-0 5
-10

-10 -1-5

-2 0
-2 5

Fig. 4 Sending-end voltages and currents showing effect of source

capacitance (1, 2 and 3 refer to phases 1, 2 and 3). Double-phase to
earth fault applied to phases 1 and 3
a Voltage, no source capacitance represented
b Current, no source capacitance represented
c Voltage, source capacitance represented
d Current, source capacitance represented
Energisation of prefaulted line, double-phase to earth fault on
phases 1 and 3
e Voltage, source capacitance represented
/ Current, source capacitance represented

158 IEEPROC, Vol. 127, Pt. C, No. 3, MAY 1980

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 0034H 4 Developing faults
400 kV 189 km
Frequently a fault is confined initially to one phase, but
due to ionisation may extend rapidly to involve the other
phases. Such a situation is illustrated by the sending-end
current waveforms of Fig. 5 for a fault occurring on an
unloaded line at the end remote from the source. A single-
phase fault on phase one occurs at a peak of the voltage
wave and develops into a double-phase fault after 3-5 ms.
and eventually into a full three-phase fault after a further
ikA
3-5 ms.
In this case the shunt capacitance at the source is not
represented but otherwise initially the phase one current is
identical to that of Fig. 3e. A noticeable change in the
waveform of phase one occurs at 3-5 ms when the second
phase is faulted, and an increase in both the frequency and
Qit, -v- : -- . . the amplitude of the transient component may be observed.
0 0 2-5 S O " 75 100 125 150 l75~ A further example of a developing fault is that of a two-
phase fault becoming a double-phase to earth fault. The
voltage and current waveforms of Fig. 6 are for the
condition of simultaneous energisation, at the instant of
peak voltage on phase one, of the three phases of a line on
which there is a short circuit at the remote end between
phases one and three.. Fig. 7 shows the same conditions
Fig. 5 Sending-end current waveforms for a developing fault (1, 2 with the exception that after 10 ms the fault is extended to
and 3 refer to phases 1, 2 and 3) include earth. Comparison of the waveforms of Figs. 6 and 7

0-1H 400 kV
189 km

~[~0iuF

ms

25 ms

Fig. 6 Sending- and receiving-end voltages and currents due to

energisation of a line with a phase-to-phase fault on phases 1 and 3
(1, 2 and 3 refer to phases 1, 2 and 3)
a Sending-end voltages
b Receiving-end voltages
c Sending-end currents
d Receiving-end currents

IEEPROC, Vol. 127, Pt. C, No. 3, MA Y1980 159

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shows that a considerable smoothing of the healthy phase
voltage takes place after the fault goes to earth. There is
also a marked displacement of the faulty phase currents
with some small increase in their magnitude.
5 Simultaneous transients
In some circumstances, the system may be subjected
simultaneously to transient voltages and currents originating
at more than one point in the network. A cross-country
fault is such an example and one involving two single-phase
faults is shown in Fig. 8. Single-phase faults occur 15 km
from the ends of the two circuits with a time displacement
of 3-3 ms. The initial fault on circuit 2 occurs on phase one
at a time when the voltage has its maximum value and the
second fault on circuit 1 occurs on phase three. The
voltages at the ends of the system and the currents flowing
into each circuit are shown in Fig. 8. The effect of the
different source inductances is noticeable in both the
magnitudes of the fault currents and in the amplitude of
the transient component.
The situation where a line is struck by lightning while it
is being energised is illustrated in Fig. 9. Phase one of the
line is energised at a peak of the voltage wave with phases
OiH
Fig. 7 Developing fault: sending- and receiving-end voltages and
currents when a phase to phase fault on phases 1 and 3 goes to earth
at 10ms (1, 2 and 3 refer to phases 1, 2 and 3)
a Sending-end voltages
b Receiving-end voltages
c Sending-end currents
d Receiving-end currents
160
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two and three being energised 2 ms and l-2ms later,
respectively. At l-5ms, a lightning surge occurs on phase
one at a point 3 km from the end of the line, this distance
being chosen as it corresponds to the time step used in the
calculation. It is specified in the data for the example that
the receiving-end busbar should fault to earth if its voltage
exceeds 3-5 p.u. This it does at 1-5 ms in the case of phase
one, and 2-8 ms in the case of phase 3, as a consequence of
the energisation overvoltage combined with that of the
lightning surge. The sending-end voltages and currents are
shown in Fig. 9 and the waveforms at the receiving end are
given in Fig. 10. The waveforms contain three
superimposed transient components due to the energisation
operation, the lightning surge and the faulting to earth of
phases one and three at the receiving end of the line. The
current waveforms contain a considerable high-frequency
component and are markedly different in appearance from
those of Fig. 7 which are also for a dcuble-phase to earth
fault.
Under the same conditions but with an active-gap surge
diverter connected at the receiving end of the line, the
voltages and currents at the sending and receiving ends of
the line are shown in Figs. 11 and 12, respectively. The
characteristics of the surge diverter are given in Appendix
10 \ 15 20' 25 ms
20- 25 ms
IEEPROC, Vol. 127, Pt. C, No. 3, MAY 1980
 ,189km 15km B
circuit 2

F
0 1H 03H

L- G
189km phase 1
15 km

T
L-G
circuit 1 AOOkV

phase 3

-10

kA

/ 3

: " 5 "• 15

-8

-10

Fig. 8 Application of two single-phase faults, at t = 0 to phase 1

of circuit 2, at t = 33 ms to phase 3 of circuit 1 (1, 2 aru 3 refer to
phases 1, 2 and 3)
a Voltages at end A
b Voltages at end B
c Currents entering circuit 1 at end A
d Currents entering circuit 1 at end B
e Currents entering circuit 1 at end A
/ Currents entering circuit 2 at end B

IEEPROC, Vol. 127, Pt. C, No. 3, MA Y1980 161

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 lightning

189km
3km

-T- 0 1 uF

p.u.

phasei

p.u.
kA
•, phase 2
i phase 2

'•'•1
..,/ •, , • _ \ , , , Ol t\tf }*. , .tr*^ , , «.. , , ^ ^
OOi f-•, ">-^ 1 7 u
2-51' 5 0 7-5 1 0 0 '"12 5 15 0 5 m s 00 25 50 f 7-5 ' 10 -0 •" 12 5 * 1 5 0 175 m

p.u.

kA
phase3

phase 3,

0 fl2-5 ;50 7-5' 10-0 12 5 150 17 5 ! T L ;

? 2° ?5!\5; 0 7 5
, 10-0 12 5 15 0 17~5ln7

-U
-2

-3

Fig. 9 Sending-end voltages and currents due to a receiving-end

fault caused by a lightning surge occurring during energisation of the
line
a, b, c Sending-end voltages
d, e,/, Sending-end currents

162 IEEPROC, Vol. 127, Pt. C, No. 3, MA Y1980

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10.2. Initially the surge diverter on phase one operates, and
subsequently at about 28ms that on phase three also
operates. Comparison of the waveforms shows that the
provision of surge-diverter protection under these conditions
leads to reduced current magnitudes and a marginal
reduction in the phase-three sending-end voltage.
6 Autoreclosure operations
In autoreclosure schemes, dead times are usually of the
order of seconds but the inclusion of such long delays in
transient calculations would lead to very long computation
times. To avoid this, the dead time in the present
calculation has been reduced to approximately 20 ms. The
system considered is that of Fig. 13, and is a 189 km line to
which a single-phase fault is applied at the receiving end on
phase one at the instant of voltage peak. The effects of
single phase autoreclosure are shown by the faulty phase
voltage and current waveforms of Fig. 13. To reduce
computation time it is specified that the fault current
should be interrupted at the first current zero. This occurs
at 9 2 ms and the current in the faulty phase is interrupted
by the circuit breaker at the source end of the line. The
waveforms show the fault-application transient voltages and
currents, and transient-recovery voltage components, that
on the source side being undamped as no source side losses
are represented. The data for the calculation specify that
the fault should be removed from the line at the first

p.u.

phase 1 phase1

0 25 50 75 10 0 125 150 17 5
ms

p.u.

;2-5 50 75 100 \ 12 5 15 0 17 -5

V
kA

phase 3
p.u.
2
0
25 50 7-5 100 12-5 15 0 17 5 ms 0 0 2 5 JI50 7-5., 10 0'i/ 12 5 150 17 5'ms
-2
phase 3
-4
-6
1

Fig. 10 Receiving-end voltages and currents for conditions of

Fig. 9
a, b, c Receiving-end voltages
d, e Receiving-end currents

IEEPROC, Vol. 127, Pt. C, No. 3, MA Y1980 163

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 receiving-end current zero after interruption has taken place
at the sending end. As a consequence the fault is removed
at 10-3 ms, after which a residual voltage is evident in the
voltage waveforms at both ends of the line. The currents are
zero during this period as the program calculates current
entering the line and both ends are now open-circuited.
Reclosure takes place at 30 ms and leads to the appearance
of reenergisation transient voltages and currents.
An unsuccessful autoreclosure operation on the same
system and under the same fault conditions is shown in Fig.
14. The waveforms are identical to those of Fig. 13 up to a
time of 10-3 ms but in this case the fault is not removed
and the receiving-end voltage remains zero.
A residual voltage and current may be observed at the
sending and receiving ends, respectively, which are decaying
to zero when re-energisation takes place at 30 ms.

lightning

189km

3km

OluF

PU.

25

20
kA
15
phase 1 phase 1.
10

0-5

0 0
2" 3 f 4\J 5 6 M,7 8 9 ms 0 1 2
-0 5

-10

-1-5L

p.u.
20 kA
phase2
1-5
2-
phase 2
10
1 .
0-5 •

00 .' _H—_i i 'i . i i —

0L
0 1\'. 2» '.." 3 "4 5 "' 6 7 8 9 ms 0 1 l\ 3 S\ 6^7 8 |9\
-0-5

kA

phase 3
p.u.
phase3 1 •
05
y-"•!,.. i.
00
0 lfc 2 3 VA 5 6 7 ': 1; ms •>

-0-5

-10
-21
-1-5

-2 0

Fig. 11 Sending-end voltages and currents due to lightning surge

occurring during energisation of line including effects of surge-
diverter operation
a, b, c Sending-end voltages
d,e,f Sendign-end currents

164 IEE PROC, Vol. 127, Pt. C, No. 3, MA Y1980

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Comparison of the sending-end voltages of Figs. 14 and 13 when applied to the calculation of transient-fault currents
indicates that after re-energisation takes place, the and voltages has been demonstrated. Its advantages are that,
reflections arriving at the sending end are reversed in sign. working in the time domain, the representation of
This is clearly shown in the case of the first reflection developing and simultaneous faults, sequential switching
arriving at about 31 5 ms and of course is due to a change and nonlinear elements such as surge diverters can readily
from + 1 to — 1 in the receiving-end reflection coefficient. be incorporated in the program and that the computer time
7 Conclusions
and storage required are relatively small.
The major approximation in the method is that the
The versatility of the lattice-diagram method of solution modal transformation and characteristic-impedance

kA

phase 1 phase).

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ,ms

p.u.
phase 2 to.
2 0 ! •*'!?

15 •• 'i
"fi'-
1
• ' '''<

i
.10 i ';

1 <:.
1
05 •A'

v
'. .
00 1 ,. k ':
0 3 8 9 ms
-0 5
-1 0
-15
-20

p.u. j
15 phase3
10
0-5 kA
00 0
( :5 I6 I 3 ;' U 5 6 7
-05 -1
!4 phase 3
-10 -2
r
-15
•• i ''i -3
-2 0
-2 5
-3 0

Fig. 12 Receiving-end voltages and currents corresponding to the

condition of Fig. 11
a, b, c Receiving-end voltage
d, e Receiving-end currents

IEEPROC, Vol. 127, Pt. C, No. 3, MA Y1980 165

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 01H 400 kV
189km

15 20 25 30 V35 ms

p.u.

10 15 V\>20 25 30 /35 ms

-15

kA

25

20
15

10

0 5
00
10 15 20 25 30
AA 35 \, 15 20 25 30 35
"ms
-OS
ms
-10

Fig. 13 Voltage and currents of phase 1 during successful single-

phase autoreclosure operation
a Source side voltage
b Voltage at sending end of line
c Sending-end current
d Receiving-end voltage
e Receiving-end current

166 IEEPROC, Vol. 127, Pt. C, No. 3, MAY 1980

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matrices are assumed to consist of real terms only and are
evaluated at a single frequency. The effects of this
approximation are discussed in more detail in a companion
paper17 where the results obtained are shown to contain no
significant differences when compared with those obtained
using the modified Fourier transform. This has been noted
previously10 when comparing the results of transient
overvoltage calculations and in this application the method
has been found to give results which are in good agreement
with field test results3' 10~13
Although comparison with field results might be
considered to be the optimum test, it is virtually impossible
to achieve complete and exact agreement between
computed results and those of field tests. This is so if only
because of the inherent inaccuracies in the field
measurements themselves and because of errors in the
system data particularly in those cases where it is required
over a wide frequency range. It is thus quite difficult to
establish the absolute accuracy of a particular technique.
Investigations carried out by CIGRE 12 ' 13 suggest that
agreement in general might be expected to be within ± 7%,
although in some cases the deviation might exceed 20%.
8 Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank Professor C.B. Cooper of the
Department of Electrical Engineering and Electronics,

0 1H

p.u

5 10 15 20 25 30

-15

1-5

1-0 i.

05
! ' ! • ! •

x
01 5\ \0j 15 V 2 0 V 25
J
-05 •A I ''

Fig. 14 Voltages and currents of phase 1 during unsuccesful

single-phase autoreclosure operation
a Source side voltage
b Voltage at sending end of line
c Sending-end current
d Receiving-end current
IEEPROC, Vol. 127, Pt. C, No. 3, MA Y1980 167

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UMIST for providing the necessary research facilities. 18 BEWLEY, L.V.: Travelling waves on transmission systems'
(Wiley, 1951)
Dr. Abdel-Rahman wishes to thank El-Mansoura University
19 CARSON, J.R.: 'Wave propagation in overhead wires with
for granting study leave and the Egyptian Government for ground return', Bell Syst. Tech. J., 1926, 5, pp. 539-554
providing financial support. 20 HYASHI, S.: 'Surges on transmission systems' (Donki Shoin Inc.,
Japan, 1955)
9 References 21 SAKSHAUG, E.C., KRESGE, J.S., and MISEK, S.A.: 'A new
concept in station arrestor design', IEEE. Trans., 1977, PAS-96
1 BATTISSON, M.J. DAY, S.J., MULLINEUX, N., PARTON, K.C., pp. 647-654
and REED, J.R.: 'Calculation of switching phenomena in power 22 CARRARA, G., CLERICI, A., MAZZA, G., and TASCHINI, A.:
systems', Proc. IEE, 1967, 114, (4), pp. 478-486 'TNA and laboratory study of the switching surge behaviour of
2 WEDEPOHL, L.M., and MOHAMED, S.E.T.: 'Transient analysis lightning arrestors', ibid., 1969, PAS-88, pp. 1449-1457
of multiconductor transmission lines with special reference to 23 WEDEPOHL, L.M.: 'Application of matrix methods to the
nonlinear problems', ibid. 1970, 117, (5), pp. 979-988 solution of travelling-wave phenomena in polyphase systems',
3 BICKFORD, J.P., MULLINEUX, N., and REED, J.R.: Proc. IEE, 1963,110, (12), pp. 2200-2212
'Computation of power system transients' IEE Monograph 18, 24 GALLOWAY, R.H., SHORROCKS, W.B., and WEDEPOHL,
(Peter Peregrinus, 1976) L.M.: 'Calculation of electrical parameters for short and long
4 AMETANI, A.: 'Modified travelling-wave techniques to solve polyphase transmission lines', ibid., 1964, 111, (12), pp. 2051 —
electrical transients on lumped and distributed constant circuits', 2059
Proc. IEE., 1973, 120 (4), pp. 497-504
5 DOMMEL, H.W.: 'Digital computer solution of electro-magnetic
transients in single and multiphase networks', IEEE Trans.,
1969, PAS-88, pp. 388-399 10 Appendix
6 WASLEY, R.G., and SELVAVINAYAGAMOORTHY, S.:
'Forward and backward response functions for transmission line
transient analysis', ibid., 1973, PAS-93, pp. 685-690 10.1 Transmission-line data
7 BICKFORD, J. P., and DOEPEL, P.S.: 'Calculation of switching The configuration of the line used in the studies is given in
transients with particular reference to line energisation', Proc.
IEE, 1967, 114 (4), pp. 465-477 Reference 17. The surge-impedance matrix of the line at a
8 BARTHOLD, L.O., and CARTER, G.K.: 'Digital travelling wave frequency of 394 Hz with an earth resistivity of 30 £2m is
solutions', AIEE Trans., 1961, 80, Pt. Ill, pp. 812-820 given by
9 MCELROY, A.J., and PORTER, R.M.: 'Digital computer
calculations of transients in electrical networks', IEEE Trans.,
1963, PAS-82, pp. 88-96
364-3 1080 68-3 top conductor
10 BATTISSON, M.J., BICKFORD, J.P., CORCORAN, J.C.W.,
JACKSON, R.L., SCOTT, M., and WARD, R.J.S.: 'British 1080 366-7 109-6 middle conductor
investigations on the switching of long EHV transmission lines': [Z]
CIGRE, Paper 13.02,1970 68-3 109-6 352-4 bottom conductor
11 BOLTON, E., BATTISSON, M.J., BICKFORD, J.P.,DWEK,M.G.,
JACKSON, R.H., and SCOTT, M.: 'Short-line fault tests on the
CEGB 275 kV system', Proc. IEE, 1970,117, (4), pp. 771-784
12 CIGRE Working Group 13.05: 'The calculation of switching In deriving the surge-impedance matrix the four sub-
surges — II network representation for energisation and conductors of each phase have been bundled into an
re-energisation studies on lines fed by an inductive source', equivalent conductor and the earth wire has been eliminated
Electro, 1974, 32, pp. 17-42 from the matrix. In the cases studied, phase 1 has been
13 CIGRfi Working Group 13.05: 'The calculation of switching taken as the top conductor of the line and phase 2 as the
surges — III transmission line representation for energisation and
re-energisation studies with complex feeding networks', ibid., bottom conductor.
1979,62, pp. 45-78
14 ESZTERGALYOS, J., YEE, M.T., CHAMIA, M., and
LIBERMAN, S.: 'The development and operation of an ultra 10.2 Surge-diverter data
high speed relaying system for EHV lines', CIGRE, Paper 34.04,
1978 With reference to Fig. 2, the characteristics of the surge
15 JOHNS, A.T., and AGGARWAL, R.K.: 'Digital simulation of diverter are assumed as follows:
faulted e.h.v. transmission lines with particular reference to very-
high-speed protection', Proc. IEE, 1976, 123, (4), pp. 353-359
16 JOHNS, A.T., and EL-KATEB, M.M.T.: 'Developments in
techniques for simulating faults in e.h.v. transmission systems', Sparkover voltage 3-5 p.u
ibid, 1978, 125, (3), pp. 221-229 Ti 320/ns
17 BICKFORD, J.P., SANDERSON, J.V.H., ABDELSALEM, M.M., T2 5 0 0 MS
MOHAMED, S.E.T., MORAIS, S.A., and OLAPADE, O.: 0-7 p.u
'Developments in the calculation of waveforms and frequency v8 0-25
spectra for transient fault currents and voltages', ibid., 1980,
127, (3), pp. 000-000 K 197

John Bickford was born on 17th University of Strathclyde. Since 1975 he has been a lecturer
January 1929. After gaining a B.Sc. at UMIST. He has served on the CIGRfi working group
Tech. from UMIST in 1953, he 13—05, and is currently a member of the British Advisory
worked at the University of Toronto, Panel on CIGRE Committee 13; he was a member of the
and at A Reyrolle & Co. before IEE Professional Group Committee P8 from 1975 to 1978.
returning to UMIST to gain his M.Sc.
Tech. in 1957. He worked for 12
years, up to 1969, at AEI/GEC
Power Systems Engineering Depart-
ment, after which he became lecturer
in Electrical Engineering at the

168 IEE PROC, Vol. 127, Pt. C, No. 3, MA Y1980

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