THE ATTENUATION AND DISTORTION OF TRAVELLING WAVES ON
OVERHEAD POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS AT VOLTAGES
BELOW THE CORONA LIMIT*
By B. G. GATES, Ph.D., Associate Member.t
(Paper first received 11th February, and in revised form 6th July, 1938.)
SUMMARY
A solution due to Jacottet, of the problem of the distortion
of a vertical-fronted voltage wave of infinite length as it
travels along a simple line, is used as a basis for the develop-
ment of formulae and curves for the attenuation and distortion
of chopped waves, and of waves with vertical or finite fronts
and exponential tails. These results are employed to show
how to obtain limiting values for the original shape and
amplitude, and distance travelled of a wave recorded at any
point on a simple line, and also to calculate its behaviour at
any other point.
Using Bekku's method of subdivision of waves, formulae and
curves are developed to calculate the attenuation and distor-
tion of waves on single- and three-phase power transmission
systems for disturbances in any or all lines, and it is shown
how phenomena observed in practice may be accounted for.
The effect of earth wires is also considered.
The results obtained are compared with oscillograms of
artificially produced surges in three-phase power transmission
lines, and excellent agreement is obtained.
(1) INTRODUCTION
The study of the behaviour of travelling waves on
overhead transmission systems at voltages below the
corona limit is of considerable importance, particularly
on the very large number of systems which operate at
voltages up to about 11 kV. In such systems the corona
voltage is usually many times the normal working voltage,
so that the impulse flash-over voltage of the line insulators
is of the same order as or less than the corona voltage,
i.e. surges not causing insulator flash-over 'must have
maximum values not appreciably exceeding the corona
voltage, while those causing flash-over are " chopped "
at a similar maximum value.
It thus appears necessary to consider two types of
wave, viz. chopped waves and waves with tails dying
away exponentially. It is also found necessary to dis-
tinguish between waves travelling on different numbers
of conductors on single- and three-phase lines, but the
problem is first considered from the standpoint of a
simple line and it is then extended to include single- and
three-phase power transmission lines, with and without
earth wires.
It is easily shown that the solution of the well-known
" telegraph " equation}: is inadequate to account for the
attenuation and distortion observed in travelling waves
on overhead power transmission systems. At voltages
• The Papers Committee invite written communications, for consideration
with a view to publication, on papers published in the Journal without being
read at a meeting. Communications (except those from abroad) should reach
the Secretary of The Institution not later than one month after publication of
the paper to which they relate.
t Royal Aircraft Establishment, Hants.
j See Reference (1).
[711]
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below the corona limit, the only important sources of
attenuation and distortion in overhead lines, other than
those included in the " telegraph " equation, are electro-
magnetic radiation, reflections at insulators, and eddy
currents in the line conductors and in the earth wires and
earth. CarsonJ has shown that in practical systems the
effect of the first is negligible, and a simple calculation
shows that the effect of the insulators can also be neg-
lected (save under exceptional conditions at atmospheric
pollution and humidity). The effect of eddy currents,
neglecting leakage, has been studied by Jacottet§ for the
case of a wave of vertical front and infinite length
(Heaviside's " Unit " wave) on a simple circuit consisting
of two wires remote from earth, or of one wire with earth
return. The results he obtains are used as a basis for the
following Sections.
(2) SIMPLE SYSTEMS
(a) Waves of unit shape (see Fig. 1)
Jacottet's solution, for the shape at a point distant x
from the origin of a voltage wave initially of amplitude E
and of unit shape is
(1)
where ex = ordinate of the wave at x at time t,
v = velocity of propagation,
and a = a constant depending only on the line charac-
teristics.
Formulae and typical values for a are given in Table 3
(see Appendix).
He also shows that on overhead lines v is exactly equal
to the velocity of light, irrespective of the nature of the
conductors or of the earth. This is due to the fact that
the rapidly changing currents involved in travelling waves
do not penetrate to an appreciable depth into either the
conductors or the earth, so that the circuit inductance is
due only to the linkages external to these.
If the origin of time is taken as the instant of arrival of
the wave at the point x, equation (1) may be written
• • (2)
E
t See Reference (2). § Ibid., (3).
x
II Erfa: = —y- \ S *dx and is known as the " error function" or the " prob-
v^Jo
ability-integral" [see " Elements of Probability," by H. LEVY and T.. ROTH
(Clarendon Press, Oxford), for properties and a table of values].
 712 GATES: THE ATTENUATION AND DISTORTION OF TRAVELLING

This equation is plotted in Fig. 1 as a curve between From equations (2) and (3), this oc^ond wave becomes
eJE and tl(o2x2), showing that the original vertical-fronted at the point x,
wave is distorted into one having a curved, sloping front,
but since
k\(l- E r f - ^ - U - ftflfl - Erf .™ . 1
f r^f ^) = 0 J V 2^/tJ [_ 2y/{t - 9)J
Hence the total wave for t > 9 is given by
the ultimate maximum value of the assumed infinite wave
is undiminished. This anomalous result is due to the
simple approximate formula for the effective circuit re- e~=k
sistance employed by Jacottet in his analysis, which,
while closely accurate for rapidly changing currents, fails
when applied to the infinitely long and more and more -k - kd[l - Erf
slowly rising tail portion of the wave. - 0)
L
Jacottet also extended this solution to include finite
rectangular waves, thus removing the anomaly mentioned
above, but as such waves seldom occur in practice the
results have little useful application. As shown in the
- 40" "t-9

Introduction, the important types are chopped waves and Thus the total wave is given by equation (3) for
waves with exponential tails. 0 < t < 9 and by equation (4) for t > 9. Using Simpson's
I0
1-0 Initia wave
/ OX/yfi9=0
- — 0 8
0 8 —i
/
-—-— /
0-6
0-6 ex /
ex
E
0-4
-«—
'W///M 1°
0-4 / / \
InitiaJ waye v/V0- )-5
/ /
0-2
/ 0-2 V

/
0 0 25 05 075 10 1-25 1-5 1-75 20
tie
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
(b) Chopped w a v e s (see Fig. 2) rule for integrating, the wave-shape for ax\y/9 = 0-5 has
Lightning strokes are the principal source of insulator been plotted in Fig. 2 and this shows how the wave-front
flash-overs on overhead transmission lines, and they are is flattened, the maximum is depressed, and a tail is
characterized by very steep wave-fronts. On the types developed. It is also seen that the maximum value
of system under consideration, the rate of rise of voltage occurs very nearly at t = 9 (actually slightly later), so
may be treated as practically constant up to the time that to a first approximation the maximum value is
of flash-over, whereat the voltage falls suddenly to zero. obtained by putting the upper limit equal to 9 in equation
Thus the wave-shape is triangular as indicated by the (3), giving
initial wave shown in Fig. 2.
If the initial wave-front a t x = 0 is represented by dt
e o = kt
then the shape of the wave-front after travelling a The original maximum was
distance x is given by the application of Duhamel's e0 = k9
theorem to equation ,(2) as
so that the attenuation ratio is
e* = dt (3)
2y/t
If 9 is the duration of the original wave to the flash-
over point, then the maximum voltage attained initially is
e o = k9
and the sudden fall,in voltage at t = 9 is equivalent to
the addition of a second initial wave
e 0 = — kt = — k(t — 9) — kd for t > 9 This is a function of ax/\/9 only and its value is

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 WAVES ON OVERHEAD POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 713

plotted in Fig. 3. This is the attenuation curve for This equation is solved by trial, and values of fy/0 are
chopped voltage waves in a simple system: it is interest- obtained for various values of ax/s/d) these are plotted
ing to note that this curve may be extremely well repre- in Fig. 3. From this, when a 4-microsecond chopped
sented by the expression wave has been attenuated to half value as considered
above, it has developed a tail falling to half the maximum
in a time such as to make tyd = 1 • 2 or fy = 4 • 8 micro-
seconds, i.e. only 0-8 microseconds after the maximum.
over almost the entire range plotted, i.e. the attenuation Thus the tail is still very short even when the wave has
of chopped waves is very closely exponential. To the been heavily attenuated.
scale employed in the Figure, the two curves are These curves also provide means whereby the past
indistinguishable. history and original characteristics may be estimated for
To assess the order of the numerical values involved, a chopped wave recorded at some distance from its point
note that the maximum value of a chopped wave is of origin. For example, suppose that a 20-kV, 4/5-micro-
attenuated to one-half when ax\s/Q = 0-6 approxi- second wave is recorded on the simple line already con-
mately. Hence, considering a wave between one wire sidered for which a = 1-3 x 10~9. For this wave
and earth for which a may be taken as 1-3 X 10~9 (see 0 = 4 microseconds and fy/0 = 1-25; hence, from Fig. 3,
Appendix), the corresponding distance of travel for a ax/-\/d = 0-68 and the attenuation ratio is 0-44. From
wave, say 4 microseconds in length, is these,
0-6 X V ( 4
X 10 6
~ ) ,^ 5 * n -, ax = 0-68V(4 X 10-6) = 1-36 X 10- 3
— 5 = n9-2
n x 10 cm. = 5-7 miles
and
1-3 X 10- 9 1-36 X 10*~3
The corresponding distances for waves of other lengths • x= —§• = 1-045 x 1 0 6 c m . = 6 - 5 miles
are proportional to the square roots of their lengths.
and the original maximum value was
10 2-0
20
\ / = 45 kV
0 8 1-8 0-44
•> / It has been shown above that chopped waves do not
0^6 1-6 1 have time to develop very long tails before they are
attenuated to negligible amplitudes; hence, since the
eo T1 9
0 4 1-4 /
above calculation depends on the measurement of the
interval between a possibly ill-defined maximum and
0-2 12 another point not far removed from it, the estimates of
past history and distance travelled must not be regarded
as precise if they are based on oscillograms which do not
0 10 •

02 0-4 0-6 08 1-0 1-2 14 1-6 permit the accurate location of the necessary points,
even when the value of a for the line is known fairly
definitely.
Fig. 3
To obtain the length of the tail of the distorted chopped (c) Waves with vertical fronts and exponential tails
wave, we may proceed as follows. (see Fig. 4)
The time t% at which the tail has died away to half the It is now necessary to consider the behaviour of waves
•maximum is given by the solution of the equation made having initially the form
up from equations (4) and (5) thus:—
eo=Ee~at (6)
(l _ Erf It is possible to apply Duhamel's theorem to equa-
tions (2) and (6) but the resulting solution is cumbrous.
A very close approximation to the required result using
= Jc | ( 1 _ Erf - Erf simple functions is obtained as follows:—
j
If the two expressions

•or - 0-53 • (7)

and

are plotted as shown respectively by the full and dotted

line curves in Fig. 4, it is found that over a very wide
range they closely approach coincidence, so that equa-
tion (7) can be used to replace equation (6) if

a =

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714 GATES: THE ATTENUATION AND DISTORTION OF TRAVELLING
10

\\
0-8
\ \ \ Initial wave

vs.
0 6
/
r/2>=0-25
J
^ ^
0-4 1
1
0-2
1 . ^ ^
=1-0
y /

0-4 0-6 0-8 1-0 1-2 1-4 1-6

Fig. 4

or, if <f> is the time for the tail of the original wave to fall original wave has its front flattened, its maximum value
to half the maximum, reduced, and its tail spread out in a way similar to the
, lOge 2 chopped wave.
a The maximum value ix of the wave at the point x is

and (8) 1-0

The behaviour of a wave of the shape expressed by 0 8\

equation (7) is now easily deduced from equation (2) as \
follows:—
The wave-shape at the point x0 of an infinite and 1
initially vertical-fronted wave is given by
t
f£o _ j _ Erf gx o (9)
0 4
E 2y/t -----x
02 — - — .
and at x + x0 by

• (10) 0 0-2 0-4 0-6 0-8 1-0 1-2 1-4 1-6

E 2-y/t
(Txlb
Thus a wave initially of the shape given by equation (9)
attains the shape given by equation (10) after travelling a Fig. 5
distance x. Now equation (7) may be rewritten
found by differentiating the right-hand side of equation
1 • 53( 1 - Erf
(11) and equating to zero: this gives
2 (<rx + b)*/ , ax + 6\
and hence, from equations (2), (9), and (10), after travelling 1-53 X-r-t «—(-*•
a distance x this wave becomes
ax
f
E
=
( 1 " Erf _ 1.53
0- 2y/t whence

= 1.53 2y/t 2-y/t - 0 - 5 3 (11) -53 for maximum = —l = (12)

6 b
This is, to a close degree of approximation, the shape
at the point a; of a wave originally of the shape given by
4 log
•{••"O+li
equation (6). The corresponding values of ix/E axe found by sub-
Equation (11) is plotted for two values of axjb as stituting these values of tmfb2 in equation (11). The
chain-dotted curves in Fig. 4, and these show that the results so obtained are plotted in Fig. 5 as a curve

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 WAVES ON OVERHEAD POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 715

between iJE and ax\b. This is the attenuation curve for the attenuation ratio for ax/b = 0*5 is 0-43, so that it
voltage waves originally of exponential shape. would have had a maximum value of 50/0-43 = 1 1 6 kV
To assess the numerical order of the quantities in- and a tail falling to half value in
volved, consider a 0/20-microsecond wave on a simple line
assuming, as before, a = 1-3 x 10~9. For this wave /4 x 10- 3 \ 2
( „„-—) = 8 - 3 microseconds
6 = l-386V(20 X 10-6) = 6-2 x 10~3
\ 1-386 /
From Fig. 5, an exponential wave is attenuated to
half its original value in a distance such that ax\b = 0-4 If a is again assumed to be 1 • 3 X6 10- 9
approximately, i.e. = 1-54 x 10 cm. = 9-6 miles
1-3 3 1
2 xX10-10-

. = H
" ' ' i
^ - i
= !-9 x 10«cm. = 11-8 miles The behaviour of the real incident wave can now be
| i
I ' D X i-v calculated for any point along the line. For example, at
a point 10 miles down the line x has increased to 19-6
As in the case of chopped waves, the corresponding miles = 3-15 X 106 cm., giving a value of
distances for waves of other lengths are proportional to
b, i.e. to the square roots of the lengths of the waves. ax _ 1-3 x 10- 9 X 3-15 X 106
= 1-02
T~ 4 x 10- 3
(d) Extension to waves with finite fronts From Figs. 5 and 6 the following values are obtained:
By successive approximations, the value of t/b2 for a Attenuation ratio = 0-25, tm\t± = 0-33, and V V 6 = 1*43,
point on the tail of a wave given by equation (11) where giving a maximum value of 0-25 x 116 = 29kV,
«l = (1-43 X 4 x 10-3)2 = 33 microseconds, a n d ^ = 33
0-5 X 0-33 = 11 microseconds, so that after travelling 10
miles the original 50-kV, 5/20-microsecond wave becomes
a 29-kV, 11/33-microsecond wave.
0-4 If the wave considered were not the incident wave, but
fb^. were simply a record taken at some point on the line, then
03 the data obtained for the possible original exponential

0^2
/I wave give an upper limit for the amplitude and distance
away of the original wave. For example, if the 50-kV,
5/20-microsecond wave were recorded, the curves show
/ that it could not have originated more than 9-6 miles
0-1

0" 0 25 0-5 075 1-0

I 1-25 15
ox/b an
Fig. 6
the voltage is equal to half the maximum can be obtained
for various values of ax/b; if this be called fy/62, then
division gives
In Fig. 6, y/t^b *s Pitted against tm/t^ and so also are
the corresponding values of ax/b. These curves now
permit the values of 6 and ax to be found correspond-
ing to a wave of any length of front and tail. For
example, suppose that an incident wave ,has a peak
value of 50 kV and a shape 5/20-microseconds: for this
tmm = 5/20 = 0-25, whence, from Fig. 6, ax/b = 0-5
and \Aj/& = 1" 12. From these
_ V(20 x 10-6)
b= = 4 X 10- 3
112
3 3
and ax = 0-5 x 4 x 10- = 2 X 10~
This wave can now be treated as if it had originally
had a vertical front and exponential tail but had started
from a point distant x back along the line. From Fig. 5
1-75 20
away and could not have-had a peak value of more than
116 kV or a tail of more than 8-3 microseconds to half
value.
It will be noted from Fig. 6 that for values of t^t^ up
to 0 • 1 we may write, to a close degree of approximation.
£f = o, = 0-722, and 6 = l-386\/<i
6
These results show that waves whose lengths of front do
not exceed one-tenth of their lengths to half maximum
on the tail may be treated as vertical-fronted waves for
the purpose of calculating the attention and distortion.
They also show that the front of an initially vertical-
fronted wave is flattened very rapidly indeed down to
approximately one-tenth of the tail length to half
maximum, but thereafter the flattening is much slower.
Finally, they show that if a wave be recorded whose
front is shorter than one-tenth of its tail length to half
maximum, then the distance to the point of origin is
very short indeed, i.e. within a few hundred feet.
(3) PRACTICAL POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
(a) Subdivision of waves (without earth wires)
"When waves on practical power systems are considered,
the above simple procedure requires modification owing
to the fact that waves are induced in all the remaining
conductors besides those carrying the main waves. These
induced waves travel at the same speed as the main

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 716 GATES: THE ATTENUATION AND DISTORTION OF TRAVELLING

waves, and their presence causes a modification in the

type and rate of attenuation and distortion experienced
by the main waves. By an analysis similar to the well-
known method of symmetrical components, Bekku* has
shown that on a symmetrical, completely transposed,
three-phase overhead transmission line supported at a
finite distance above the earth and without an earth wire,
the waves on the three lines may be split up into two
groups, viz.:—
Group A:—Three waves identical on all three lines.
Group B:—Three waves whose sum is zero.
Table 1
Proportion in Group A (all lines)
Impact on
-£ = (1 - m)
where a is calculated for Group A waves.
This expression is plotted in Fig. 7 for values of m
between 0 • 4 and 1 • 0, and these curves are the attenua-
tion curves for chopped voltage waves on single- and
three-phase systems. Taking m = 0 • 6 for a wave on one
line, the curves show that the distance required to
attenuate a chopped wave to half its original maximum
Proportion in Group B
Three-phase Single-phase

Three-phase Single-phase Lines struck Lines not struck Lines struck Lines not struck

1 line m in ; 1—m - ftl - m) 1 —m - (1 - m)

2 lines ?n 1 1—m - 2(1 - m) 0 0
3 lines 1 0 0

The proportions of the total waves falling into each value, as compared with that required on a single
of these depend on the relative effective line impedances wire parallel to the earth, is increased in the ratio
for the two groups and on whether the original wave was 1 • 4/0 -6 = 2-3 times (approximately).
incident upon one, two, or three lines. This analysis
may also be applied to a single-phase transmission line
having only two wires, the two groups now being as
follows:—
Group A:—Two waves identical on both lines.
Group B:—Two waves whose sum is zero.
Table 1 shows the proportions of the voltage waves in
each group in terms of m, the ratio of the Group A wave
to the incident wave on the line or lines struck.
Formulae and representative values for the line
impedances, and the resulting values of m, are given in
Table 3 (see Appendix).
Examination of the values of a given in the Appendix
shows that the rate of attenuation of Group A waves is
many times more rapid than that of Group B. Hence to
a first approximation the wave at a point may be written
as the sum of the distorted and attenuated Group A wave
and the unaffected Group B wave. For impacts on one Fig. 7
line of a single-phase system and on one or two lines in a
three-phase system, this results in the preservation of (c) Waves with vertical fronts and exponential tails
part of the original wave-front. Further, owing to the In the same way as above, the total wave at a point x
negative sign of the Group B waves on the untouched on the line or lines struck and carrying a wave of this
lines, the total waves in these lines, which are purely type is obtained from equations (7) and (11) as
induced waves, develop a negative loop preceding the
positive parts of their fronts.
= (1 -m)( 1-53 Erf - 0-53)
(b) Chopped waves
ox + b
From the above considerations and from equation (5),
it is evident that the maximum value of the total wave at
( ax (14)

a point x on the line struck, due to an impact causing a where a is calculated for Group A waves.
•chopped wave at the origin, is given by This wave has a vertical portion to its front equal to
* See Reference (4). (1 — m)E. The maximum value eJE is found by differ-

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 WAVES ON OVERHEAD POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 717

az/b-01 0 25 05 0 75 1 1-25

05

0-4
0 01 02 0-3 04 05 06 07 08 0-9

Fig. 8

0-2-

10 1-2 1-4 1-6

Fig. 9

(a) (h) (c) (d) (e)

'"~\ f^=05 ^=1-5 ^=1-5
b 15
_ ^ _ r o = 0 -605 OT=0-8 . 7/1=0-73

Fig. 10
(a) Maximum at t/b2 = 0-1&; (b) Point of inflexion at t/b' = 0; (c) Maximum at t/b* = 0;
(d) Maxima att/6 a = Oand 0-7, minimum at tjb* = 0-24; (e) Maximum at t/b1 = 0, point of inflexion at t/b* = 0-45.

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 718 GATES: THE ATTENUATION AND DISTORTION OF TRAVELLING

entiating the right-hand side of equation (14) with respect lower of these branches have points d'arrSt where the
to t and equating to zero. This gives corresponding maxima degenerate into points of inflexion.
These are the attenuation curves for voltage waves on
2 single- and three-phase systems, and it will be noted that
•\/TT these are not uniformly spaced as was the case with
ax+fr chopped waves, but the curves for the higher values of m
are crowded more closely together.
i.e.
(d) Waves with finite fronts and estimates of past
1 —m
—l
ax history of waves
ax 15
m It is possible to extend the above analysis to include
the case of waves with finite fronts, but the general
By assigning values to ax/b and t/b2, values of m may be formulae become unwieldy, and to cover all cases a large
calculated. Curves of these results are given in Fig. 8, number of sets of curves would be required. However,
and from these, for selected constant values of m, the as indicated in Section 2(d), waves whose lengths of
values of t/b2 for maximum = tm/b2 are read off; these front do not exceed one-tenth of their tail lengths to half

are plotted against ax/b in Fig. 9 for values of m from value may be treated as vertical-fronted waves for the
0-4 to 1-0. purpose of calculating the attenuation and distortion, so
Figs. 8 and 9 show that for ax/b < 1 there is a maxi- that the results developed in the above Section are
mum which is greater than the vertical part of the front, applicable to waves of this type.
(1 _ rn)E. For ax/b > 1 there is a minimum and a In the same way, it is impracticable to provide general
maximum provided that m is large enough, i.e. after the curves to estimate the past history and future behaviour
initial vertical rise the wave dips and rises again, but if of waves recorded at some point on the line distant from
m is too small there is no maximum and the initial rise is the, point of incidence.
the highest point on the wave. For values of m corre- It is necessary in such cases to treat each instance on
sponding to the lowest points on the curves in Fig. 8 for its own merits, except for strokes to three lines simul-
ax/b > 1, there is a point of inflexion on the wave tail. taneously, when, since the Group B waves are zero, the
For ax/b = 1 and m = 0 • 605, this point of inflexion results obtained for simple systems are applicable.
occurs at t/b2 = 0, and the wave is initially flat-topped. In the case of chopped waves, it is evident from Fig. 2
These types of wave are illustrated in Fig. 10. The that the combination of the distorted and attenuated
curves in Fig. 9 for values of m > 0 • 605 have points Group A waves and the unmodified Group B waves yield
d'arrit corresponding to these points of inflexion. total waves not differing greatly in shape from the
By inserting the values of £m/62 obtained from Fig. 9 in Group A wave, the principal difference being a vertical
equation (14), the corresponding maximum values of &JE drop after the peak. In practice this will merge imper-
are obtained. These are plotted in Fig. 11 for values of ceptibly into the tail of the Group A wave, and the effect
m from 0 • 4 to 1 • 0. For values of m > 0 • 605, the lower will be to produce a wave having a very short length of
portions of these curves have two branches corresponding tail to half maximum value, thus accentuating to a pro-
to the initial peak and the subsequent maximum. The hibitive extent the difficulty and the danger of inaccuracy

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 WAVES ON OVERHEAD POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 719

Table 2
EFFECT OF NON-MAGNETIC EARTH WIRES

Undistorted component
Distorted components
(all lines)
Impact on Three-phase Single-phase

Three-phase Single-phase Lines struck Lines not struck Lines struck Lines not struck

1 line . . (l-g-)m (1 - q)m 1 - (1 - q)m - Ul - (1 + 2q)m\ 1 - (1 - q)m - ( 1 - ( 1 +q)m}

2 lines .. ( 1 - q)m 1-q 1 - (1 - q)m - 2(1 - (1 + \q)m) Q
3 lines .. 1-q

mentioned in Section 2(6). This increase in difficulty
does not arise, however, where the chopped wave occurs
on all lines simultaneously, since the Group B waves are
zero. This case has a distinct probability in practice,
since lightning strokes frequently involve all lines, causing
the line insulators to flash over simultaneously.
(e) Effect of earth wires
When a set of continuously earthed conductors is
mounted parallel to the line wires, the value of Z^ (see
Table 3 in the Appendix) is reduced, and thus m is also
Observed
Group A2 waves is closely similar to that of the Group A1
waves, and no serious error is introduced by neglecting
any difference and treating them as one set of waves.
That is to say, having made due allowance in the calcula-
tion of the values of ZA and m for the presence of the
earth wires, the method given in Sections 3[(a) to (d)] can
be applied immediately.
In the case of the non-magnetic earth wires, it is
necessary to proceed as follows:—
Suppose that the proportion of the Group A waves
which falls into Group A2 is q, then on the conductors
Calculated

3 4 5 2 3 4
Microseconds Microseconds
Fig. 12
reduced. In addition to this, however, the Group A on which the main waves are travelling the component
waves now require subdivision as follows:— waves [see Table 1 in Section 3(a)] and the total distorted
and undistorted components are as shown below:—
Group Aj. Waves travelling between all conductors
in parallel and earth. yGroup Ax: (1 — q)m: distorted.
Group A2. Waves travelling between all conductors Group A: m
in parallel and all earth wires in parallel. \ Group A2: qm
\
The behaviour of the Group Aj waves is identical with Group B: (1 — m)- M — (1 — q)m: undistorted.
that of the Group A waves already considered, but that
of the Group A2 waves depends on the nature of the The net effect of this is to cause the waves on these con-
material used for the earth wires. If this is non-magnetic, ductors to behave as if the line had no earth wires but had
then these waves are only very slowly attenuated and its m value changed to (1 — q)m, i.e. the effective value of
distorted, and they behave exactly like Group B waves. m is reduced. Similar remarks apply to the waves in-
If, however, a magnetic material is used, then, as shown duced in the other conductors, but the modification to the
by the values of a given in Table 3, the behaviour of the effective value of m is different.

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 '720 GATES: THE ATTENUATION AND DISTORTION OF TRAVELLING

The effects of earth wires may be summarized as

follows:
(a) With earth wires of magnetic material, the be-
haviour of the waves is as calculated by the method of
Section 3(a), using appropriate values of ZA a n d wt.
(b) With earth wires of non-magnetic material, the
behaviour of the waves is as in Table 2 in which the
effective value of m is modified by additional terms.*

(f) Comparison with experimental results

43'
Fig. 13
With impacts on all lines, subdivision into distorted
;and undistorted components still exists, and the above
•considerations still apply save that m is now equal t o 1.
The results of the application of the above to single- and
"three-phase transmission lines are given in Table 2.
To check the formulae and curves developed in the
preceding Sections, they have been applied to some
oscillograms taken on representative transmission lines.
In Fig. 12, oscillograms taken by Hawley and Laceyf
are given on the left-hand side. The initial wave had a
1/7-microsecond shape and was injected on one conductor
of a two-circuit, three-phase, 33-kV overhead transmis-
sion line fitted with one earth wire of non-magnetic
material. The line was a Central Electricity Board line
in Somerset, and the configuration of the conductors was
as shown in Fig. 13. Oscillograms of the wave-shape at
• Note that, under certain circumstances, the undistorted component of the
induced waves can vanish, e.g. for impact on one conductor of a three-phase line
this occurs when m = 1/(1 + 2g).
t See Reference (5)

10 15 20 10 15 20
Microseconds Microseconds

14 miles

J Omiles

-20 10 15 20 10 15 20
Microseconds Microseconds
Fig. 14
(a) Wave on 3 lines. (b) Wave on 1 line.

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 WAVES ON OVERHEAD POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 721

three points out on the line were taken at distances as lichungen aus dem Siemens-Konzern, vol. 8, part 3,
indicated in the Figure. Since the earth wire was non- p. 54.
magnetic, Table 2 applies, and an examination of (4) S. BEKKU: " Electric Oscillations in the Three-phase
the oscillograms shows that an approximate value Aerial Line," Journal of the I.E.E. of Japan, 1923,
for (1 — q)m is 0-35. Using this value and taking No. 415, p. 79.
cr = 2 - 3 x l O - 9 (see Table 3), the wave-shapes shown (5) W. G. HAWLEY and H. M. LACEY: " Surge Tests on
on the right of Fig. 12 have been calculated by the a 33-kV Transmission Line," Technical Report
methods of Sections 2(d) and 3(d). The agreement be- (Ref. S/T10) of The British Electrical and Allied
tween the calculated and the experimental results is seen Industries Research Association (published 1937).
to be extremely close. (6) O. BRUNE and J. R. EATON: " Experimental Studies
As a further check, the formulae, etc., have been in the Propagation of Lightning Surges," Trans-
applied to some oscillograms taken by Brune and Eaton.* actions of the American I.E.E., 1931, vol. 50, p. 1132.
These are reproduced on the left-hand side of Fig. 14. f
Of these, the upper set is for a wave travelling on all three APPENDIX
lines, and the lower set is for a wave on one line only. Formulae and representative values for a and m.
No data are given for the characteristics of the line List of symbols and assumed values.
tested, but since there is no residue of the original wave-
front in the oscillograms for waves on three lines, q = 0 (1) Simple systems.
(see Table 2). Also, from the height of the nearly (a) Isolated two-wire. Assumed values.
vertical portion of the wave-front in the oscillogram for a = radius of each wire, in cm = 0 - 5
the one-line wave, it is found that m = 0 • 6 approxi- d = distance between wires, in
mately. The original waves for the two cases can be cm. = 100
approximately described as 72-kV, 0/25-microseconds, p = specific resistance of mate-
and 72-kV, 0/40-microseconds, respectively. Using these rial of wires, in ohms/cm,
initial values and assuming, as in the previous instance, cube = 1 - 7 x-10-6
that a = 2 • 3 X 10~ 9 , the wave-shapes shown on the (b) One wire and earth.
right-hand side of Fig. 14 are obtained and their agree- a = radius of wire, in cm. =0-5
ment with the experimental results is seen to be very h = height of wire above earth,
close. The corresponding induced waves on the un- in cm. = l 000
touched conductors in the case of the wave on one line p = specific resistance of the
have been calculated in order to show the formation of earth, in ohms/cm, cube = 5 000
the negative loop described in Section 3(a): these are (c) Isolated two-wire with one wire of magnetic
shown dotted on the right-hand side of Fig. 14. material.
a — radius of non-magnetic
(4) CONCLUSION wire, in cm. =0-5
Formulae and curves have been developed which per- as= radius of magnetic wire, in
mit the calculation of the behaviour of two of the most cm. =0-3
important types of natural disturbances occurring in d = distance between wires, in
single- and three-phase overhead power transmission cm. = 100
systems, and the close agreement with some experimental p8 = specific resistance of mag-
results is good confirmation of their utility and accuracy. netic wire, in ohms/cm,
. Subject to certain limitations, the methods developed cube = 8-8 x 1 0 - 6
are reversible and make possible the estimation of limit- fj, = permeability of magnetic
ing values for the distance travelled and the original wire == 300*
amplitudes and shapes of wave recorded at points remote (2) Practical systems (without earth wires and completely
from their sources. transposed).
The author wishes to thank the Director of the British (a) Single-phase.
Electrical and Allied Industries Research Association for a = radius of each wire, in cm. = 0 - 5
permission to reproduce the data in Figs. 12 and 13. d = average distance between
wires, in cm. = 100
REFERENCES
(1) J. R. CARSON: " Theory of the Transient Oscillations h = average height of wires
of Electrical Networks and Transmission Lines," above earth, in cm. = 1 000
Transactions of the American I.E.E., 1919, vol. 38, p = specific resistance of mate-
p. 345. rial of wires, in ohms/cm,
(2) J. R. CARSON: " The Guided and Radiated Energy in cube = 1-7 x 1 0 - 6
Wire Transmission," Journal of the American p' = specific resistance of the
I.E.E., 1924, vol. 43, p. 908. earth, in ohms/cm, cube = 5 000
(3) P. JACOTTET : " Influence of Skin Effect on the Wave (b) Three-phase.
Front of Surges," Wissentschaftliche Veroffent- Symbols as above.
* See Reference (6). • The value to be used for /u. is very indefinite. The surge currents may reach
t An error of 2 seems to have occurred in the scaling of the oscillogram shown magnitudes in excess of 20 000 amperes, even after travelling a considerable
dotted. In the original paper, the ordmates given are scaled at twice the values distance along the line, and saturation may occur at the crest of the wave. The
shown. In view of the excellent agreement obtained with all the "remaining value of 300 is taken only as a very rough approximation for the purpose of
oscillograms, the presence of an error seems probable making a reasonable estimate of the attenuation obtained in practice.

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 722 GATES: TRAVELLING WAVES ON OVERHEAD T R A N S M I S S I O N SYSTEMS

Table 3
FORMULAE

m for impact on
Item Wave CT Surge impedance
distribution 6-46 X 10 8 Z (ohms)
One line Two lines Three lines

Vp
I(a) — d 2761og 1 0 - — — —
d
alog10-

Vp 2h
w — 1.1 2 f e 1381og10- — — —
fclog1(f—

V(/^ps)
I(C)* 2761 g
° 'V(«a s )

Group B ; \ d ZB= 1381og l 0 -

wire/wire j
&
II(a) «log10- 1
Group A; "1 4/i 2 zA +zB
2 wires/earth J ^ = 1381og10 —
l0gVp'
* «VM)
Vp d
Group B ; "1 d ZB= 1381og 1 0 -
wire/2 wires/ alogl0- a
Z>A 2ZA
11(6) 1
Vp' ZuA + 2ZB 2ZA + ZB
Group A; "1 8h?
3 wires/earth J ZA=lZSlog10^

Representative values calculated from above assumed data

I(a) — a = 7-32 x 1 0 - u Z = 635 — — —

1(6) — a = 1-27 x lO- 9 Z = 497 — — —

I(c) — a = 2-29 x lO- 9 Z = 665 — — —

Group B; \
a = 7-32 x 1 0 - u ZB = 317
wire/wire J
II(a) 0-68 1 —
Group A; 1
a= 1-86 X lO- 9 ZA = 676
2 wires/earth/

Group B; "I
a= 7-32 x 1 0 - u Zi* = 317
wire/2 wires J
11(6) 0-575 0-844 1
Group A; "1
a = 2-21 x lO- 9 ZA = 855
3 wires/earth/

* The contribution of the line conductor to the value of cr is negligible as compared with that due to the earth or the magnetic wire.

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