Electrostatic Handbook 2003

NATCO
Electrostatic Technology
Dehydration and Desalting
Table of Contents
Introduction......................................................................................................................................1
Description of Processes ..................................................................................................................1

Mechanical Forces for Coalescence and Sedimentation......................................................1
Electrostatic Forces..............................................................................................................2
AC Field Devices.................................................................................................................3
Plate AC Field Devices........................................................................................................5
DC Field Devices.................................................................................................................8
Dual Polarity® Devices........................................................................................................6
Pulsed and Modulated Dual Polarity® Devices ...................................................................8
Dual FrequencyTM Devices ................................................................................................13
Conductivity in Dehydrator and Desalter Design..............................................................13
Composite Electrodes ........................................................................................................14
ElectroDynamic® Desalters ...............................................................................................16
Electromax® Dehydrators..................................................................................................20
Summary of Processes ...................................................................................................................20

AC Configurations .............................................................................................................20
Dual Polarity® (AC/DC) Configurations...........................................................................21
Dual FrequencyTM Configurations.....................................................................................22
ElectroDynamic® Desalter.................................................................................................22
Electromax® Dehydrators..................................................................................................23
Performance Case Studies: Actual Installations ............................................................................24
Operational Parameters..................................................................................................................28
Chemical Treatment...........................................................................................................28
Operating Temperature ......................................................................................................29
Process Flux .......................................................................................................................30
Dilution Water ...................................................................................................................30
Water Recycle....................................................................................................................31
Effluent Water Treatment ..................................................................................................31
Water Solubility in Crude Oil ............................................................................................32
Incompatibilities of Fluids .................................................................................................32
Analytical Methods............................................................................................................32
Power Consumption...........................................................................................................34
Sub-System Specifications ............................................................................................................34

Power Supplies ..................................................................................................................34
Transformers ..........................................................................................................34
Controllers .............................................................................................................34
Insulators............................................................................................................................35
Entrance Bushings .................................................................................................35
Electrode Hangers..................................................................................................36
Electrodes...........................................................................................................................36
Bar Grating or "Grids" ...........................................................................................36
Steel Plates .............................................................................................................37
Composite Plates....................................................................................................37
Liquid Distribution Systems ..............................................................................................37
Inlet Spreaders .......................................................................................................37
Outlet Collectors ....................................................................................................39
Dilution Water Distributors ...................................................................................40
Instrumentation and Safety Systems..................................................................................40
Safety Grounding Floats ........................................................................................40
Low Level Shutdowns ...........................................................................................40
Interface Controls ..................................................................................................40
Solids Removal Systems....................................................................................................40
Mud Wash or Sand Jet Systems.............................................................................41
Interface Sludge Drains .........................................................................................41
Mixing Devices..................................................................................................................42
Mixing Valves........................................................................................................42
Static Mixers ..........................................................................................................43
Electrostatic Mixing...............................................................................................43
Design Aids....................................................................................................................................43
Appendix I: Publications
“How to Design an Efficient Crude Desalting System”

“Dual Polarity Oil Dehydration”
“Field Desalting: A Growing Producer Problem Worldwide”
“Field Desalting of Wet Crude in Kuwait”
“Crude Oil Desalting by Counter-flow Electrostatic Mixing”
“Desalting Heavy Crude Oil by Counter-flow Electrostatic Mixing”
“Reduction of Corrosion through Improvements in Desalting”
“Tandem Mechanisms Facilitate Dehydration of Crude”
“Dual Polarity Desalter Testing”
“Electrostatic Fields: Essential Tools for Desalting”
“Desalting Heavy Crude Oils: The Venezuelan Experience”
“New Tools for Heavy Oil Dehydration”
“Field Trials Scheduled for New Compact Dehydration Technology”
Appendix II: Users Lists
Refinery Desalting Systems

Composite Electrode Systems
Dual Polarity® Retrofit Projects
Electro-Dynamic® Desalting Systems
NATCO Electrostatic Crude Oil Dehydrators
NATCO Field Desalting
NATCO Canada Electrostatic Dehydrators
NATCO HOWMAR TriVolt® Dehydrators and Desalters
NATCO HOWMAR Dehydrators and Desalters
NATCO Electrostatic Dehydrators – Very Heavy Oils
Appendix III: Components
Composite Electrodes
Electrostatic Transformers
Installation Procedure for New or Replacement Entrance Bushings and Bushing Housings
Transformer Oil Specifications
Transformer Oil Filtration Procedure for Operating Units
Electrostatic Dehydrator/Desalter Inspection Punch-List
Products Made for NATCO by ELECTROTECH (Hangers, Entrance Bushings, Tester)
Appendix IV: Sample Dual Polarity® Users Manual
Appendix V: Sample Electro-Dynamic® Desalter Users Manual
Appendix VI: Brochures
Crude Oil Dehydration and Desalting Solutions

Desalting: Field or Refinery
Electro-Dynamic® Desalters: Field or Refinery
Dual Polarity® Electrostatic Treater
TriVolt and TriVoltmax Electrostatic Dehydrators and Desalters
TriGrid and TriGridmax Electrostatic Dehydrators and Desalters
Electromax® Treater
Horizontal Performax® Treater
Horizontal Vertical-Flow Treater
Vertical Emulsion Treater
Direct Current Electrostatic Treaters
Laboratory Services: Dehydration and Desalting
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Dual Polarity® Performance Enhancers
Electro-Dynamic® Desalters
Research and Development
Date of Publication: August 18, 2003 by Kenneth Warren PhD
©NATCO, Houston, Texas 1997, revised March 2000, August 2003
Acknowledgements
Technical progress is made through building upon previous contributions of many others.
Therefore, it becomes almost impossible to truly acknowledge all contributors; however, there are
people whose contribution has been significant and personal that must be mentioned. Of special
note is the man who initially taught me the craft of oil dehydration and desalting, Mr. Floyd
Prestridge. Also in this category, I must acknowledge the counsel of Mr. Don Burris and Mr.
Harry Wallace. Through the years, others have joined in the efforts to advance electrostatic
technology and have made many valuable contributions. These individuals include Mr. Gary
Sams, Mr. Carroll Edwards, and Mr. John Armstrong of our company, and Dr. Philip Bailes and
Professor Manabu Yamaguchi who participated as academic partners. To all of these gentlemen, I
offer my thanks.
NATCO Electrostatics
Dehydration and Desalting
Introduction
Since it’s founding as an oilfield storage tank producer in 1926, NATCO has become a leading
producer of oil processing equipment worldwide with an impressive series of innovations in the
separation and purification of crude oils. Most of its early processes involved the use of heat,
chemicals, mechanical devices, and retention time to achieve separation of oil and water. These
separation devices all depend upon gravity separation of the dispersed phase through Stokes’ Law
sedimentation, and improvement of processing rates depends upon maximizing growth of the
dispersed phase drops. Electrostatic fields were first applied to drop growth in liquids processing in
the early 1900s as an outgrowth of electrostatic precipitator development. The early applications of
electrostatic technology to crude oils were largely limited to the “clean” feedstocks of refineries
which had already been processed to some degree in the oilfields. In the early 1960s this technology
began its transition to oilfield production operations.
NATCO electrostatic processes for dehydration and desalting have been in use since 1961 and cover
a wide range of process variations suitable for dehydration, production desalting, and refinery
desalting. These processes are the result of a long and on-going research and development effort
involving not only NATCO research and engineering teams, but also research institutions and
universities around the world.
Description of Processes
Separation of two-phase liquid mixtures typically depends upon (1) destabilizing the dispersion
(coagulation) and (2) gathering the destabilized drops of the dispersed phase together (flocculation)
and causing them to coalesce into larger drops which then separate from the continuous-phase liquid
by gravity sedimentation.
Mechanical Forces for Coalescence and Sedimentation
In a mechanical dehydrator, coalescence occurs via collisions resulting from Brownian motion of the
drops, and separation occurs via Stokes’ Law sedimentation. Coalescence is enhanced by increased
temperature, chemical treatment, and provision of impingement surfaces in the flow path. Chemical
treatment often serves both to destabilize (coagulate) the drops and to assist in bringing them
together (flocculation). The drop size “cut point” is determined by the balance between viscous drag
and weight.
-1-
f = 6 π µ rv Viscous Drag
Stokes’ Law
Sedimentation Rate
0.22 gr 2 ( ρ 2 − ρ1 )
vs = µ
4
w = π r3 g(ρ2 − ρ1)
3 Weight
Where: f = viscous drag force

µ = viscosity
r = drop radius
v = velocity
w = weight
g = gravitational constant
ρ2 = density of dispersed phase
ρ1 = density of continuous phase
vs = Stokes’ Law sedimentation rate
Electrostatic Forces
If the dispersed liquid is polar or polarizable, electrostatic fields can be used to assist in the
flocculation process (electroflocculation). In the specific case of water or aqueous solutions
dispersed in crude oils, the asymmetric arrangement of charges within the water molecules causes
them to align with the electrostatic field creating dipolar drops. The polarization of the water drops
results in a stretching deformation producing ellipsoidal shapes. Since adjacent ends of two water
drops would be oppositely polarized, an attractive force exists which can result in coalescence if the
drops are very close together. The coalescence process in the presence of electrostatic fields is then
divided with chemicals supplying coagulation and the electrostatic field supplying flocculation.
There are three major electrostatic forces available:
• Dipolar Attraction
• Electrophoresis
• Dielectrophoresis
These forces assume different degrees of importance depending upon the electrostatic field
configuration.
-2-
Definitions of Electrostatic Forces
• Dipolar Attraction: Electrical

force produced by positive
and negative centers on
induced dipoles of water
+ - + - + -
drops.
• Electrophoresis: Electrically
induced movement of polar + - + -
bodies in a uniform field
toward closest electrode.
• Dielectrophoresis:
-
Movement of polar bodies + - +
induced by a divergent
electric field toward
increasing gradient.
A drop in an AC electrostatic field primarily experiences dipolar attraction. Electrophoretic

movement is mostly cancelled by the rapid field reversal. Some dielectrophoretic movement is
possible due to the field asymmetry associated with the electrode geometry. Other coalescing
mechanisms include impingement due to differential velocity and collision with a water film on an
electrode. Although each of these mechanisms may be active to some degree, induced dipolar
attraction remains the “workhorse” of electrostatic dehydration in the AC field.
The illustration below shows induced dipolar attraction. On the left are photomicrographs of water
drops in an electrostatic field and a schematic representation of the charge distribution within the
drops is shown on the right. The attractive forces between the induced dipoles of water drops are
short range in effect and coalescence depends upon other forces to bring the polarized drops
sufficiently close together for dipolar attraction to be effective.
-3-
No Field Applied
Random Charge
Distribution
Water Dipoles
Align with Field
Adjacent Drops
Attracted
The dipolar attractive force between drops of equal size can be expressed as follows:
6K E 2 r 6
F =
d4
Inter-drop Attractive Force in an Electrostatic Field
Where:
F = Force of attraction
K = Dielectric constant
E = Electric field gradient
r = Drop radius
d = Inter-drop distance
Inspection of this equation illuminates both the advantages and weaknesses of an electrostatic field
in flocculation. Note that the dipolar attractive force is highly dependent on drop size (as the sixth
power exponent testifies), with limited benefit in the coalescence of small drops. Also note the rapid
decline in dipolar force with distance.
-4-
Electrophoresis: Small Drop Reverses Direction
Dielectrophoresis: Large Drop Reverses Polarization
- + --
+
+
+
-- ++
-
AC Field Devices
The first applications of electrically induced flocculation utilized alternating current (AC) fields in
the range of 16 to 23 kilovolts (KV). The rapid reversal of polarity in an AC system (every 8.3
milliseconds with 60 hertz power) causes most electrically induced chemical reactions to remain
reversible since the reaction products do not have time to diffuse away from the reaction site. This
eliminates most electrically induced corrosion. However, this rapid reversal of the electrical field
also precludes the production of any significant electrically-induced drop travel. The flocculating
effect of an AC field is primarily dependent upon the mechanism of induced dipolar attraction. In an
AC field, the efficacy of electroflocculation is dependent upon diffusion and fluid flow to bring
dispersed water drops into close proximity. The AC field is most effective in removing large drops
that are close together. Very small drops are not significantly affected by the field. Therefore, the
AC field is most effective on the high water content emulsion at the inlet of a separation vessel and
on the large drops that accumulate at the oil/water interface. An additional benefit of the oscillating
elongation of the drops produced by the AC field is the rupture of any stabilizing films that might
have formed. This effect is of particular advantage in resolving slowly condensing dispersions in the
zone of hindered settling at the oil/water interface.
The rod electrodes used in AC dehydrators and desalters produce an asymmetric field in the zone
close to the electrodes and therefore cause some dielectrophoretic movement of the polarized drops
-5-
although induced dipolar attraction remains the primary means of coalescence.
Electrostatic fields are used primarily as a coalescing mechanism to produce growth of the dispersed
water drops and thereby enhance the rate of separation. It should be noted that they work on
dispersions that are not chemically stabilized, but are not effective on true emulsions. These require
the use of chemicals to counteract the stabilizing forces of the emulsifiers. Electrostatic fields may
be used in both dehydration processes in which the goal is the production of “dry” oil and in
desalting process in which the goal is both to produce “dry” oil and also to lower the salinity of the
oil. Desalters consist of a mixing device (mixing valve, static mixer, etc.) in which fresh water is
used to wash the crude oil and a separation vessel in which an electrostatic field is used to separate
the oil and water.
AC dehydrators and desalters most commonly use an arrangement of charged horizontal bar
gratings or grids for establishing the electric field within the vessel. A two-grid system, known as
“single-hot” AC, uses a lower charged grid and an upper electrically grounded grid with a separation
of six to eight inches (sometimes adjustable) between them. The incoming oil is introduced near the
oil/water interface and flows upward
through the grids to an outlet collector. The
water layer is also grounded through the
shell of the vessel. AC fields are then
established between the water and the
charged grid and between the charged grid
and the grounded grid. Oil flows across
both of these fields as it transits the vessel.
Newer designs, “double-hot” and “triple-
hot” AC systems, use a multiplicity of
charged grids to improve efficiency and
throughput. Also employed is a technique
known as “high velocity” AC for spreading
the incoming emulsion between the
energized electrodes. All of these
variations are aimed at increasing the
retention time of the dispersion within the
most intense zone of the electric field and depend upon diffusion and/or flow patterns to carry
polarized drops within the range of dipolar attractive forces.
Transformers for AC dehydration and desalting are usually built with at least 16KV and 23KV
secondary taps. Single-phase transformers are most commonly used with multiple transformers
wired for load balancing on large installations. In some cases, three phase transformers are
employed with multiple grids wired to accept different phases. In order to protect the transformers
during process upsets, an internal reactor equal to 100% of the transformer reactance is placed in
series with the primary winding. As the load on the transformer increases, the voltage drop across
the reactor (inductor or core air gap design) increases thereby limiting the current to the transformer.
A transformer with 100% reactance can tolerate a short circuit on its secondary output for a
-6-
reasonable period without overheating. An unfortunate side effect of this protection scheme is that
when the process is most in need of power (during process upsets), the reactor prevents the
transformer from delivering it. The diagram below illustrates a modern three-electrode
AC dehydrator/desalter (TriVolt AC Electrostatic Coalescer).
Power Unit 1 Power Unit 2 Power Unit 3

Earth Earth Earth
Phase A Phase B Phase C
Phase B Phase C Phase A
Grid 1 Grid 2 Grid 3
Earth
Power Unit Power Unit
Primary Connections Grid Connections Secondary Connections
Grid 1
Power
Unit 1
Power Power Power STAR
DELTA Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3
Phase A
Power Power
Power Unit 1 Unit 3
Grid 1 Grid 2 Grid 3 Unit 2
Phase B
Grid 3 Grid 2
Phase C Power Unit 2
Earth
TriVolt AC Electrostatic Coalescer
Plate AC Field Devices
Another technique developed by NATCO for

achieving extended retention time in the high-
intensity field involves the use of an electrode
array consisting of vertically hung parallel plates
with alternate plates charged and grounded.
This geometry provides additional benefits in
having the electrostatic field perpendicular to the
fluid flow to reduce electrical retardation of the
settling water drops. This technique has proved
to be useful as the first stage of multistage
systems in which the feed-stream contains high
-7-
levels of dispersed water.
DC Field Devices
It has long been recognized that direct current (DC) fields present some advantages in promoting
coalescence. In a DC field the electrical forces are sustained and unidirectional. Therefore,
polarized drops are able to move along the lines of force of the field, thereby increasing the
probability of encounters with other drops. Electrophoretic movement becomes the major
contributor to coalescence in a DC field. However, if a sustained DC current is produced,
electrolytic corrosion will result. For many years this limited the application of DC fields to
coalescers used in processes treating non-conductive refined oils such as in the Merox Process.
Dual Polarity® Devices
A system was perfected by NATCO in the early 1970s for combining the freedom from galvanic
corrosion of the AC coalescer with the advantages of drop transport of the DC system. The
electrodes in this combination AC/DC system consist of parallel plates connected to oppositely
oriented diodes in such a manner that alternate plates are oppositely charged. Both diodes are
connected to the same end of the transformer secondary winding; therefore, the plates are
charged on alternate half cycles of the AC power supply.
Dual Polarity® Electrostatic Fields
} Bulk Water
Removal
-8-
Since positive and negative plates are not charged by the power supply at the same time, the
potential for sustained DC current is greatly reduced. The other end of the secondary winding is
connected to ground, so that the electric field projected from the electrode array to the vessel is still
AC. Also, the AC field is still available at the oil/water interface to assist in condensation of the
settling dispersion as well as to provide coalescence and settling of the loosely dispersed water
fraction of the incoming crude oil. Because the plates can only charge on alternate half cycles, the
current between them is limited to discharge of capacitively stored energy and is unable to produce
significant electrolysis. These plates are also operating in relatively dry, non-conductive oil since
the bulk dehydration has been accomplished in the AC field below the electrodes. This further limits
DC current dissipation. This system, known as Dual Polarity®, has been widely used for both
dehydration and desalting.
To understand the relative contributions of the various electrical forces, it is helpful to consider an
example:
Process Conditions: Magnitude of Forces:

• 750 micron “cut point” drop • Electrophoretic force = 53 dynes
• 32 kV applied peak voltage • Drag = Weight = 0.01 dynes
• 6” electrode spacing • Dipolar attractive force = 0.004 dynes
• 0.5% BS&W • Dielectrophoretic force = 0.002 dynes
• Low oil conductivity
The example above shows the importance of utilizing electrophoresis in promoting coalescence.
The diagram below illustrates the Dual Polarity® process. The wet oil dispersion is introduced just
above the oil/water interface. The AC field between the electrodes and water layer performs the
bulk dehydration of the oil. The oil carrying the residual water from this process then enters the
electrode zone where it is exposed to the DC field. The DC field supplies translational energy to the
very small residual drops (electrophoresis). These drops approach the nearest plate, become charged,
and are either coalesced with the film on the plate or repelled toward the opposite plate on a collision
course with oppositely charged drops from that plate. Rapid coalescence ensues. This
electrophoretic movement is the major contributor to coalescence in a DC field.
-9-
Dual Polarity® Process
Dual Polarity® desalters use mechanical mixing devices for phase dispersion and contact as do AC
desalters. However, the electric field is established with a horizontal array of vertically hung
parallel plates as described above. This electrical arrangement gives a DC plate-to-plate field and an
AC plate-to-ground field. In this way, the advantages of drop movement and drop charge in a DC
field are combined with the film rupturing capability and corrosion resistance of an AC field.
Transformers for Dual Polarity® dehydrators and desalters are similar to those used for AC desalters
with the addition of an oil-filled secondary junction box which houses the diode packs.
Pulsed and Modulated Dual Polarity® Devices
Since an electrostatic coalescer works by introducing electrical power into a potentially conductive
medium, some means of protecting the power supply is necessary. This is accomplished in
conventional systems by incorporating a reactance in series with the primary winding of the
transformer. As the load increases, the voltage drop across the reactor increases, thus limiting the
output voltage of the transformer. A 100% reactance transformer is therefore capable of sustaining a
full short circuit in its output for a reasonable period of time without damage to itself. While this
arrangement is very effective in protecting the power supply, it has the unfortunate consequences of
being unable to supply power to the process during times of process upset and in reducing the
- 10 -
efficiency of the power supply. The diagram below illustrates both the reactor circuit and its effect
on output voltage.
Conventional Transformer Protection

Reactor in Primary Circuit
Primary
Secondary
Provides Protection Only!
Dual Polarity® dehydrators and desalters may be fitted with a power supply known as a Load
Responsive Controller® (LRC). The LRC® consists of a 35% reactance transformer in combination
with an electronic device that senses the load being drawn and adjusts the power to the transformer
accordingly. The power adjustment is accomplished by silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs) which
switch the power on and off rapidly so that very short bursts of high power are interspersed with
“off” periods. Therefore, the transformer is maintained within its average heat dissipation and power
output ratings. This allows power to be delivered to the process under upset conditions without
compromising the integrity of the power supply.
This controller differs in action from a 100% reactor in that power is reduced on the basis of time
rather than by reduction of maximum voltage. Therefore, pulses of high intensity energy are applied
to the wet oil with duration of the pulses limited by the power output rating of the transformer.
Research has shown that much of the coalescing action of an electric field occurs during the rapid
change of voltage with time (high dV/dt) during an electrical pulse. Therefore, much of the
coalescing ability of the electric field is preserved during this pulsing action. This is shown below.
- 11 -
Time-based Power Cycle
Another way to control power …

Voltag
Crude Oil Conductivity Æ
The LRC® may also be programmed to modulate power to the process. A water-in-oil dispersion in
an electrostatic field will exhibit a mean drop size that is inversely related to the intensity of the field
with higher field gradients producing smaller mean drop sizes. Thus it would seem that use of lower
gradients would be desirable to produce larger, more rapidly settling drops; unfortunately, the lower
gradients are limited in their ability to energize very small drops sufficiently to produce coalescence.
This has always necessitated a compromise in operating voltage between coalescing efficiency and
maximum mean drop size. Modulation of the field can help to eliminate this compromise.
Slow Modulation Voltage Cycle

Voltage
Time
Field Control by Load Responsive Controller (LRC®)
There are three important variables to consider in modulation of the electrostatic field:
- 12 -
• Threshold Voltage Gradient: This is the minimum gradient at which the field induces
coalescence.
• Critical Voltage Gradient: This gradient, defined in terms of interfacial tension, drop
diameter, and dielectric constant, is the maximum field sustainable by a given drop size.
Above this value, the energy imparted to the drop causes it to shatter.
• Modulation Frequency: The frequency of the modulation affects drop transport, drop
relaxation, and drop surface energy. Low frequency modulation can be used to control mean
drop size, while higher frequencies can be used to vary drop surface energy.
Low frequency modulation, <1 Hz, is used to enhance drop growth and increase the tolerance for
conductivity. The critical voltage gradient and threshold voltage gradient define the upper and lower
limits, respectively, of the modulation cycle.
High frequency modulation, in the kilohertz range, has been shown to energize drops at or near their
resonant frequency resulting in drop deformation. Other research has confirmed that the high
surface energy of these deformed drops significantly enhances the coalescence rate.
Dual FrequencyTM Devices
NATCO has developed a power supply capable of delivering both high and low frequencies
simultaneously to the dehydrator or desalter. This power supply uses a three-phase power
connection and a low reactance transformer producing a balanced load and efficient power
utilization. It allows selection of waveform, base frequency, and pulse frequency for optimization of
electrical parameters to the crude oil being processed. The device has shown significant
improvements in performance and capacity in pilot tests of a wide variety of oils and is now moving
to the field test stage. It is expected to be an easy retrofit to existing Dual Polarity® or Electro-
Dynamic® installations since only a change of power supply is required.
Conductivity in Dehydrator and Desalter Design
Electrostatic coalescence is primarily derived from the effects of the electrostatic field (voltage
gradient) rather than the effects of electrical current. Useful effects are therefore mostly due to the
reactive (capacitive and inductive) components of conductivity rather than the resistive component.
Conductivity due to low resistance results in excessive electrical current with the production of heat
instead of coalescence. Resistive conductivity problems in crude oil dehydration can result from
carriage of excess water into the electrode zone, excess polar components in the oil, or solids-
stabilized emulsions that respond poorly to conventional demulsifiers. High conductivity is
conventionally handled by increasing chemical dosage, variation of the operating temperature,
lowering the applied voltage, or providing additional upstream facilities for water and solids
removal. These approaches are limited by the general ineffectiveness of chemicals on polar
components of the oil, excessive viscosity at lower temperatures, and poor coalescence of small
drops at lower applied voltage.
The establishment of the electrostatic field may result in current across reactive components
- 13 -
(capacitance and inductance), resistive heating of high conductivity materials such as rich emulsion
layers, and arcing. The first of these is desirable while the second is not. Arcing falls in between. It
is helpful to subjectively divide arcing into “hard” (high energy) arcs and “soft” (low energy) arcs.
“Hard” arcs occur when the arc extends from an electrode to ground or between differently charged
electrodes. In either case the “hard” arc is detrimental to the process and consumes energy while
producing minimal benefits. “Soft” arcs occur between electrodes and water drops or from drop to
drop and can aid the coalescence process by disrupting the stabilizing films around the drops. Arcing
is a natural part of the electrostatic coalescing process, but it must be controlled to prevent field loss
and hardware damage.
High conductivity must be dealt with both operationally and in the design phase of the dehydrator or
desalter. Operational issues include selection of demulsifier type and dosage, possible use of
wetting agents to assist in transferring the solids to the water phase, temperature, interface control,
and removal of accumulated solids via mud wash (sand jets) and interface sludge drains. Oil
conductivity increases with temperature, often necessitating a compromise between reduction of
viscosity and limitation of oil conductivity. Design options in addition to provision of solids removal
mechanisms include the use of current-limiting composite electrodes and modifications to the
electrostatic field.
Composite electrodes are fiber-epoxy plates with an embedded longitudinal strip of conductive
material. The conductive material distributes the electrical charge along the length of the plate. The
remainder of the plate surface contains a hydrophilic filler material, which results in the adsorption
of a thin layer of water, which then becomes a highly resistive electrode. Electrical current passing
from the electrode plate into the process then must pass through the resistive surface water layer,
which results in a rapid drop in voltage at the point of departure. If the departure point is an arc, the
falling voltage at the root of the arc quenches the arc while only discharging the electrode area in the
vicinity of the arc root. By contrast, an arc in a steel electrode array momentarily discharges the
entire array, and if there are a significant number of arcs, the time of discharge can produce
diminished performance of the coalescer.
A conceptual illustration of composite electrodes is shown below.
- 14 -
+ - + -
Conductive Epoxy Plate

Strip
If electrical current passes from the composite electrode into a conductive fluid, e.g. a zone of high
water content, the voltage of the plate in the vicinity of the conductive fluid will be diminished. The
reduced voltage will cause a similar reduction in current with the result that the electrode becomes
self-regulating. This variation in field strength with conductivity can cause the lower portion of the
plate, which is closest to the water-rich portion of the dehydrator, to be at a lower voltage than the
upper portion, which is in contact with drier oil. A settling water drop will therefore encounter a
declining voltage gradient as it moves downward. Since lower gradients are associated with larger
mean drop sizes, drop growth is enhanced.
Devices that modify the electrostatic field, such as the Load Responsive Controller® previously
discussed, can achieve a similar reduction of arcing. Since arcs are more difficult to initiate than to
sustain, they tend to persist until something reduces the voltage feeding them or interrupts the
conductive structure (such as a chain of drops) upon which they depend. In a modulated field, the
low voltage portion of the cycle can produce quenching of any arcs present while allowing the larger
drops to fall from the field thereby destroying any “daisy chain” arc paths that might have formed.
A photograph of a composite electrode array is shown below. The darkened zones along the plates
are the conductive areas. Electrical contact is made via the support rails through the support straps
to the conductive material. The insulating hangers which normally support the array may be seen
- 15 -
protruding up from the rails, although support in the display assembly is through the steel frame.
Note the fiber epoxy channels at the ends of the plates which are used for maintaining plate spacing.
Electro-Dynamic® Desalters
Conventional desalters use mechanical mixing devices such as mixing valves and static mixers to
shear the dilution (wash) water into the crude oil stream. The mixed stream is then dehydrated in a
high efficiency electrostatic dehydrator. Mixing intensity must be carefully balanced against the
ability of the dehydrator to resolve the resulting dispersion. The physical arrangement closely
approximates a typical mixer/settler system and suffers from the same limitation of maximum
possible contact efficiency of one theoretical stage per physical stage. Therefore if process
requirements call for more efficient contact, it is necessary to provide multiple stages in series.
By manipulating the relation of drop size to field strength, the electric field can be used to both mix
and separate. Drops of dilution water subjected to high field strength can be sheared to uniform
sizes by the combination of translational shear and shattering due to charge density instability, and
then as the field strength is lowered, they coalesce with the entrained brine and settle out. It is worth
noting that most of the contact between the brine and the dilution water occurs as the two are
coalesced together, not in the mixing device which shears them. Therefore, multiple coalescence
- 16 -
events contribute much more to contact efficiency than increasing shear in a mechanical device. By
cycling the field strength, the process can be repeated many times during the retention time of the
drops within the electric field. As a result, the contact efficiency of a multi-stage mixer-settler can
be realized in a single vessel. Since the electrical force is concentrated on the dispersed phase, loss
of energy due to shear of the continuous phase is reduced. Turndown and low dilution water flow
rates are readily accommodated.
Introducing dilution water above the electrodes so that it falls by gravity into the electrostatic field
field leads to an electrostatic mixing systems that operates with countercurrent contact as opposed to
conventional systems which are limited to concurrent contact by the nature of the mixing device.
Countercurrent flow optimizes dilution water use by ensuring contact between the freshest water
the cleanest oil. This ensures maximum effectiveness of the dilution water and results in minimum
dilution water requirements. This flow pattern also has the effect of placing fresh water near the
outlet so that any residual water carry-over will be free of salt.
The Electro-Dynamic® Desalter incorporates the principles of field strength control, electrostatic
mixing, and countercurrent flow. Field strength control can be accomplished in several ways. One
approach is the use of composite electrodes of varying conductivity. High field strength exists
across zones of high electrode conductivity, and reduced field strength is found in the regions of
lower electrode conductivity. Such electrode plates have the advantage of maintaining graduated
field strength under a range of operating conditions. They are also "self limiting" under arcing
conditions. These characteristics are necessary for operation with the high water content in the
electrode zone produced by countercurrent dilution water addition.
Another method of controlling field strength is variation of the transformer output voltage to create
time-based field decay rather than a spatial variation in strength. Since this method is based on time,
it can easily be tailored to the kinetic needs of the process. It also can be used to eliminate excessive
"hold-up" of small drops in the zones of high field intensity, which could lead to excessive arcing if
unchecked. The electrostatic mixing process requires both the composite plate technology and the
modulating controller. Four distinct stages have been identified in the mixing and coalescing
process with unique field strength requirements for optimum performance of each stage. These are
as follows:
- 17 -
Dispersal: A fast ramp-up of
voltage to the mixing voltage
provides rapid reduction of the
large drop population and
coalescence of small drops.
Mixing: Sustained high

intensity field for maximum
drop subdivision and dispersal.
Coalescing: Voltage
ramp-down permits optimum
drop growth. It is in this stage
that most of the contact
between the dilution water and
the entrained brine occurs.
Settling: Sustained low intensity field for drop growth and sedimentation and to control
aqueous phase hold-up between the electrodes. During this interval, the large drops move
downward, resulting in a step-wise sedimentation over several cycles of modulation.
Each of these stages can be adjusted for optimum intensity and duration using the Load Responsive
Controller® (LRC). Often it will be found necessary to institute a small compromise between
dehydration (coalescing and settling) and contact efficiency (dispersal and mixing). The
compromise is small because, in the presence of countercurrent flow, the water carry-over produced
by intense mixing is mostly fresh water; therefore, desalting efficiency is not diminished.
Countercurrent flow is essential for

realization of the full potential to be gained by
multiple stages of mixing and coalescence.
To achieve this benefit it is necessary to
introduce dilution water above the electrodes
in the zone of dry oil. The water must remain
as coarse drops in this area to prevent
carry-over. Uniform distribution is desired,
although the electric field produces some
amount of distribution and will overcome
mild maldistribution. The simplest way of
spreading the dilution water above the
electrodes is through a system of laterals with
orifices sized to produce a small pressure drop
at design flow rates. Because of increased
contact efficiency, less dilution water is usually required in this system. Sometimes other benefits
may accrue in injecting any excess water into the feed stream, e.g., reduced upstream heat exchanger
- 18 -
fouling, satisfaction of solubility requirements of water in oil as the temperature increases, or
crystalline salt removal. This water can be either additional dilution water or recycled desalter
effluent water. Use of recycled water in this manner can reduce dilution water requirements and
minimize waste water production. A mixing device (valve and/or static mixer) is used upstream of
the EDD desalter for mixing either the additional dilution water or recycled water.
The Electro-Dynamic Desalter® is a system consisting of electrostatic mixing, the Load Responsive
Controller®, composite electrodes, and countercurrent flow of the dilution water. Both the
composite electrodes and the LRC® have been applied in oilfield dehydration systems for many
years and have proven to be reliable and effective. Current implementations of EDD systems use the
modulated Dual Polarity® field; however, it is anticipated that future versions may utilize the Dual
Frequency TM field.
Use of the Electro-Dynamic® Desalter should be considered in any of the following circumstances:
1. Space is limited and more than one stage of desalting is required.
2. Outlet salt specifications are very low (less than one pound per thousand barrels of oil, PTB).
3. Dilution water quantity or quality is limited.
4. Minimization of wastewater is required.
- 19 -
Electromax® Dehydrators
The Electromax® Dehydrator utilizes a combination of electrostatic and mechanical coalescing

mechanisms. The electrostatic section is constructed as a Dual Polarity® coalescer with two
major differences: the flow through the electrodes is in a downward direction producing a
downward acceleration on the settling water drops, and the flux is much higher than that
obtained using normal sizing criteria. The liquids then flow horizontally through a Performax®
matrix plate coalescing section that produces rapid coalescence. These dehydrators have found
wide application in Canadian medium heavy oils.
Electromax® Treater
Summary of Processes
AC Configurations
Application: Field and refinery desalting systems, particularly where inlet water
concentration is high and outlet salt requirements are moderate.
- 20 -
Strengths:
• Provides dipolar attraction for coalescence
• Electrode asymmetry produces dielectrophoretic transport
• Disrupts stabilizing films by stretching action
• Tolerates relatively large water concentrations
• Assists in condensation of interface band dispersions
Weaknesses:
• Very limited drop movement
• Short-range attractive forces
• Low charge density on drops results in small attractive forces
• Little influence on small drops
• Electrostatic instability limits use of high strength fields
• Depends upon diffusional movement for coalescence of residual water
Experience: Hundreds of units deployed in oilfield and refinery dehydration/desalting

worldwide.
Improvements: Any of the configurations that result in increased retention in the high
intensity zone of the electrostatic field will result in improved performance. These include
both multiple electrode and plate electrode designs.
Dual Polarity® (AC/DC) Configurations
Application: Refinery and oilfield dehydration/desalting systems requiring dehydration to

low levels.
Strengths:
• Dipolar attractive forces
• High charge density due to charge transfer to drops
• Electrostatic attraction beyond dipolar forces
• Electrophoretic drop transport reduces reliance on diffusional movement
• Remains effective in coalescence of residual water
• Sustains higher flux due to increased coalescence
• Disrupts stabilizing films
• Reverts to AC mode during severe process upsets
Weaknesses:
• Maximum field strength dictated by electrostatic instability limit
• Loses DC component during severe process upsets
• Excessive conductivity (such as high interface or large emulsion band) may
- 21 -
result in DC current flow to the interface.
Experience: Over 2000 in use in refineries and oilfields worldwide in both dehydration and
desalting applications.
Improvements: Can be fitted with composite electrodes for high water tolerance and the Load
Responsive Controller® for difficult or conductive oils. May be operated in Pulsed Dual
Polarity® mode to obtain maximum coalescence with difficult feed-streams and to preserve
effectiveness during process upsets.
Dual FrequencyTM Configurations
Application: Refinery or oilfield dehydration and desalting systems requiring maximum

throughput and maximum dehydration performance.
Strengths:
• Superior coalescence
• Higher throughput
• Better power utilization
• Balanced electrical load
• Three-phase power feed
• Tolerates conductive oils
Weaknesses:
• More expensive controller
• Limited field experience
Experience: The system has successfully completed pilot testing on a variety of oils.
Preparations for field testing of a full-scale dehydrator are on-going.
Electro-Dynamic® Desalter
Application: Refinery or oilfield desalting systems requiring maximum desalting

performance, operations with low quantity or poor quality of dilution water, or offshore
applications with space limitations.
Strengths:
• Dual Polarity® field for superior coalescence
• Composite Electrodes for maximum water tolerance
• Load Responsive Controller® to minimize process upsets
• Electrostatic mixing for multiple contacts
• Multistage contact through countercurrent flow
- 22 -
• Minimum dilution water usage
• High strength electrode array
• Maximum washing of suspended solids by countercurrent dilution water
• Minimum outlet salt
Weaknesses:
• Larger transformer used to supply mixing energy in addition to coalescence
• Transformer input limited to 520 VAC due to limitations of SCRs
• Excessive conductivity can result of loss of mixing intensity
Experience: Approximately thirty of these systems have been sold to date in applications
ranging from refinery desalting to turbine fuel treatment to floating production oil
processing.
Improvements: Entrance bushings for very high voltage, composite material electrode plates
for high temperature applications, and controllers employing the latest in microprocessor
technology have become standard features.
Electromax® Dehydrators
Application: Oilfield crude oil dehydration systems treating heavy or difficult emulsions,
particularly where heat is limited or chemical usage is high.
Strengths:
• Combines the coalescing force of both electrostatic and mechanical processes
• Optional LRC® provides most efficient use of electrostatic field with minimum
upsets
• Dual Polarity® field provides superior coalescence
• Composite Electrodes provide high degree of water tolerance
• Sedimentation in co-current flow minimizes adverse viscosity effects
Weaknesses:
• Insoluble hydrocarbons (waxes, asphaltenes) can necessitate periodic cleaning of
coalescer matrix-plate section
Experience: Over fifty units are now in service in Canada, Ecuador, and Russia on oils
ranging from 12º to 39oAPI. Time-in-service ranges back to 1984.
- 23 -
Performance Case Studies: Actual Installations
Client: Refinery, New Mexico, USA

Desalter Type: Electro-Dynamic®, Single Stage, 8' x 19'
Year Installed: 1991
Throughput: 16,000 to 19,000 BPD
Crude Oil Properties:
Gravity: 43oAPI
Inlet BS&W: 0.32%
Inlet Salt: 17 PTB
Viscosity: 76 cp @ 110oF; 14 cp @ 180oF
Operating Temperature: 220oF
Operating Pressure: 200 psig
Outlet Conditions:
Salt: 0.53 PTB (year-long average; 48% of readings are 0.3 or less)
BS&W: 0.18%
Performance: Averaged data taken for the period of one year after retrofit indicated crude oil rate of
16,000 BOPD, inlet salt of 16.8 PTB, inlet BS&W of 0.32%, outlet salt of 0.53 PTB (48% of the
data points are 0.3 PTB or less), and outlet BS&W of 0.18%. Dilution water is added both in the
counter-flow mode (2%) and upstream of the mixing valve operating at 12 psid.
Notes: This is a retrofit of an AC unit which had averaged 1.40 PTB at an average crude oil rate of
14,161 BPD and treating temperature of 219oF for the year prior to retrofit.
Client: Refinery, The Netherlands

Desalter Type: Dual Polarity®; two trains of two stages each
Year Installed: 1984-1986
Throughput: 540,000 BPD total
Gravity: 32 - 43oAPI
Inlet BS&W: 0.2 - 0.3%
Inlet Salt: 10 - 50 PTB
Viscosity: NA
Operating Temperature: 240 - 280oF
Operating Pressure: NA psig
Outlet Conditions:
Salt: 1 PTB
BS&W: <0.1%
Performance: Salt is reported as usually down to 1 PTB as measured by atomic absorption in the
atmospheric residual. Outlet salt tends to peak during feedstock changes to 3 PTB and then declines
- 24 -
to 0.5 PTB over the course of the run.
Notes: Solids removal >70% reported for Middle East crude oil. Various crude oil blends including
Maya and Arabian Heavy crude oil are processed. This installation uses static mixers downstream
of the mixing valves. Two of the vessels are retrofits and two were new construction. The original
installation of AC desalters produced an output of 3 - 10 PTB prior to conversion to Dual Polarity®.
Client: Refinery, Japan

Desalter Type: Electro-Dynamic®; three vessels
Year Installed: 1993 - 1995
Crude Oil Properties: Chinese Arabian Heavy Arabian
o
Gravity: 25 27 31 API
Inlet BS&W: 0.6 0.3 0.05 %
Inlet Salt: 3 5 1.8 PTB
Viscosity: 55 12 8 cSt @ 50oC
o
Operating Temperature: 275 262 266 F
Operating Pressure: psig
Outlet Conditions:
Salt: 0.9 0.5 0.7 PTB
BS&W 0.3 0.2 0.2 %
Notes: These vessels are operated as second stage desalters following conventional AC units. The
previous AC units were unable to process the Chinese Shouri crude oil satisfactorily due to its high
conductivity and high solids content. Chlorides in the crude tower overheads were reduced from 16
ppm with the two-stage AC system to 5 ppm after retrofit of the second stage to EDD. Two of the
vessels are retrofits and one is new.
Client: Petrochemical Plant, Thailand

Desalter Type: Electro-Dynamic®
Throughput: 27,000 BPD**
Gravity: 37 oAPI
Inlet BS&W: 0.01 -0.04%
Inlet Salt: 2.9 PTB
Viscosity: 0.46 cp @ Operating Temperature
Outlet Conditions:
Salt: 0.22 PTB
BS&W: 0.16%
- 25 -
Notes: Performance data were taken during performance test. Dilution water: 1.6%water injected
ahead of pre-heat train, 2.9% counter-flow, and 0.5% recycle to the mixing valve. Mixing valve
differential pressure = 14 psid. **Vessel designed for expansion to 52,000 BPD.
Client: Field Desalters, Egypt

Desalter Type: Dual Polarity®: two stage with recycle; seven trains
Year Installed: 1976 through 1989
Throughput: > 500,000 BPD total
Gravity: 31 oAPI
Inlet BS&W: 10%
Inlet Salt: 5,000 PTB
Viscosity: NA
Operating Temperature: 165 oF
Outlet Conditions:
Salt: 10 PTB (typical Middle Eastern shipping specification)
BS&W: <0.2%
Notes: These are oilfield desalters. The early trains were installed in the 1960's as double-hot AC
units. The AC trains have all been retrofitted to Dual Polarity® resulting in an 82% increase in
capacity. Some of the first-stage units are configured as NATCO Plate AC.
Client: Field Desalters, Kuwait

Desalter Type: Dual Polarity® (first stage) and Electro-Dynamic® (second stage); six trains
Throughput: 30,000 BPD per train
Gravity: 32oAPI
Inlet BS&W: 3-6%
Inlet Salt: 300-900 PTB
Viscosity: 6 cp at operating temperature
Outlet Conditions: First Stage Second Stage
Salt: 60 PTB 1 PTB
BS&W: 0.1% 0.1%
Notes: These are oilfield desalters. Dilution Water: 1.5% ahead of second stage mixing valve, 1.8%
second stage counter-flow, 3% inter-stage recycle. Mixing valve differential pressure = 10 - 11 psid.
Second stage Electro-Dynamic® units were specified based on poor quality of available dilution
- 26 -
water.
Client: Field Desalters, Saudi Arabia

Desalter Type: Double-Hot AC and Dual Polarity®; 31 trains
Year Installed: 1979-1993
Throughput: >8,000,000 BPD total
Gravity: 27-40oAPI
Inlet BS&W: 5-30%
Inlet Salt: 5,000 to 30,000 PTB
Viscosity: NA
Operating Temperature: 90-200oF
Outlet Conditions:
Salt: <10 PTB
BS&W: <0.2%
Notes: These oilfield desalters are configured in two- and three-stage trains with recycle water.
Client: Refinery, Ecuador

Desalter Type: Dual Polarity®
Throughput: 10,000 BPD
Gravity: 31 oAPI
Inlet BS&W: 0.5%
Inlet Salt: 60 PTB
Viscosity: 3.2 cSt @ 115oC
Operating Temperature: 248 - 300 oF
Outlet Conditions:
Salt: 3 PTB
BS&W: 0.2%
Client: Power Company, Korea

Desalter Type: Electro-Dynamic®, two vessels
- 27 -
Gravity: 34 - 38 oAPI
Inlet BS&W: Varies (BS&W derived from salt water contamination during transit)
Inlet Salt: 2.3 ppm Na+ + K+
Viscosity: NA
Performance: The units were tested and accepted by the client. Specific performance data are not
available.
Notes: These desalters are used to reduce sodium and potassium salts to 0.5 ppm in turbine fuel at
power generation facilities.
Operational Parameters
Chemical Treatment
Resolution of water-in-oil emulsions requires both chemical and physical intervention and may be
considered as a three-step process.
1. Coagulation: The chemical destabilization of the system. Before dispersions can be

coalesced by electrostatic fields, it is necessary to destabilize any true emulsion present.
True emulsions can be defined as drops that would remain suspended indefinitely due to the
effects of chemical surfactants, films of precipitated matter, or collections of suspended
solids at the interfacial surface. Electrostatic forces alone cannot overcome these stabilizing
agents. Chemical treatment with demulsifiers is used to counteract the natural surfactants
present, and wetting agents or other chemicals are sometimes used to carry the suspended
solids into the water layer. The presence of a band of emulsion in centrifuged samples
indicates that further chemical treatment may be needed.
2. Flocculation: The gathering of the destabilized particles into larger units. Although
chemicals can be used to flocculate a system, this is undesirable where recovery of clean oil
is the goal, since chemically flocculated oils tend to be sludges. Electrostatic processes are
usually the method of choice for rapid agglomeration of water drops in oil.
3. Sedimentation: Settling of the flocculated particles resulting in phase separation.
Sedimentation efficiency is controlled by physical design of the dehydrator or desalter vessel
and operating conditions such as control of viscosity with temperature. Design of the fluid
distribution systems and elimination of excessive interface accumulations are critical to
realizing optimum sedimentation rates.
Types of Chemicals: Although demulsifiers are the primary chemicals used in dehydrators and
desalters, wetting agents to aid in separation of solids from the oil, “reverse” emulsion breakers for
separation of oil drops from the water phase, and specialty chemicals such as paraffin inhibitors,
asphaltene solvents, etc. may also be employed.
- 28 -
Selection of Chemicals: It is common practice to screen a variety of demulsifiers for a given
application. The “bottle test”, in which the oil is shaken with a chemical sample and the volumes of
the separated phases are measured, is the most common screening technique. The dehydrated oil
quality is estimated visually by “brightness”. However, since bottle testing relies on the chemical
for both coagulation and flocculation, it is often not representative of performance with an
electrostatic field in which the field is the flocculating agent. An electrostatic test apparatus
produces much more reliable results for chemicals to be used with electrostatic dehydrators. The
following table illustrates the differences obtained with bottle testing and electrostatic testing.
Comparative Results: 19.5ºAPI Brazilian Crude Oil

Chemical Bottle Test Electrostatic Bench Test
Water in Oil BS&W
% by Difference Measured %
A 2.2 2.12
B 4.6 2.01
C 5.3 4.62
D 5.7 1.20
E 6.0 2.35
Best Performance
It should always be remembered that the chemicals and electrostatic fields play mutually supportive
roles.
Operating Temperature
Operating temperature is used as the primary control of viscosity in an oil dehydrator or desalter.
The lower the viscosity, the better the performance as drag on the settling drops is reduced. As a
rule of thumb, the maximum viscosity for effective dehydration is usually assumed to be
approximately 20 centistokes while the maximum viscosity for effective desalting is about 7
centistokes. The temperatures at which these viscosities are obtained are therefore the minimum
operating temperatures for these operations. Lower viscosities are desirable, but care should be
taken that differential density between the phases, which is also a function of temperature, is not
adversely affected. For conductive oils, the increase in conductivity with temperature must also be
considered. Likewise, the increased solubility of water in oil at elevated temperatures must be
factored into performance when absolute dehydration is a factor.
- 29 -
Process Flux
The process flux is the volume of oil per unit of time that passes through a unit area as measured at
the horizontal longitudinal plane through the vessel centerline. Since the settling water drops must
fall through the rising flow of oil, the minimum drop size capable of achieving a net downward
velocity increases as process flux increases. Therefore, to achieve high process flux (minimum
vessel size) it is necessary to coalesce the drops to larger sizes, to reduce the viscosity, and to
maximize differential density in order to produce high sedimentation rates. Mechanical dehydrators,
those that depend upon retention time alone for sedimentation, are often configured for horizontal
flow of the oil, so that the settling water drops do not have to counter the upward velocity of the oil.
This configuration does not work well for electrostatic dehydrators because the required electrical
clearance between the electrodes and the oil/water interface allows bypassing of poorly treated oil.
Flow distribution within the dehydrator vessel has been found to be the flux limiting factor in many
cases. Recent advances in achieving more uniform flow distribution have significantly increased the
available process flux.
Dilution Water
Dilution water of sufficient quantity to satisfy mass balance requirements for diluting the dispersed
brine down to a level such that the salt specification can be met at the residual BS&W of the outlet
oil must be available. The effectiveness of this dilution reaction will be diminished by a factor
known as “mixing efficiency” which incorporates a variety of influences such as mixing intensity
and duration, diffusional transport, inter-drop collision frequency, etc.
Dilution water quality must also be considered and can be a problem due to high pH, the presence
of surfactants, or other conditions that can lead to increased emulsion stability. It is obvious that in
order to remove salt, the dilution water must be sufficiently low in salt content to achieve the
required equilibrium concentration in the residual entrained water. However, not as obvious is the
need for dilution water quality sufficient to avoid contributing to an emulsification process. Streams
containing considerable amounts of coke particles, suspended solids, iron sulfide, or emulsified oil
should not be used. Neither should streams containing traces of surfactant chemicals or excess
caustic soda. Ammonia should be limited to less than 200 ppm to avoid fouling and corrosion in the
crude distillation unit overhead as well as to limit pH excursions. The pH of the water should be
below 9.0 and provision for acid injection for pH control should be made if higher values are
expected. Neutral pH values (pH 7 – 8) are preferred. High pH may enhance the formation of stable
emulsions while pH values under 6.5 may raise corrosion concerns within the desalter vessel,
although low pH is not usually detrimental to the dehydration process. The water should contain
less than 0.02 ppm oxygen, less than 1 ppm fluoride, and should be low in sodium salts, suspended
solids, and hardness.
In refineries, the most common source of dilution water is the sour water stripper. The desalter then
serves to remove phenols from the stripped sour water, and for that reason, it is often desirable to use
the entire stripped sour water stream as dilution water. Dilution water is usually injected into the oil
- 30 -
stream just before the mixing device (mixing valve, static mixer, etc.) but may also be injected
before the pre-heat train or heater, or, in the case of the Electro-Dynamic® Desalter, into the
overhead water distributor. Frequently, a combination of these injection points is used.
Oilfield dilution water is often limited in quantity and quality. It may be taken from a fresh water
source (aquifer, surface water, reverse osmosis system, or municipal supply), a low concentration
brine aquifer, or even seawater in some offshore applications. Of course, use of brine or seawater
will limit the ultimate salt removal obtainable.
Water Recycle
Contact efficiency or collision frequency between drops of dispersed brine and dilution water is
dependent upon the drop populations. Increasing the number of dilution water drops results in more
efficient contact. Since quantities of dilution water available are usually limited, the recycle of
effluent water is often used as a means of increasing drop population. Effluent water from the
desalter is much less saline that the dispersed brine, so it can be used to achieve further dilution.
Recycle may take one of two forms: inter-stage and intra-stage. Inter-stage recycle is commonly
practiced where more than one stage of desalting is required. Fresh dilution water is injected into
the mixing zone of the final stage desalter and effluent water from this stage is used as dilution water
in the first (or prior) stage desalter. Intra-stage recycle is of limited practicality because it requires
mixing of the recycle water and fresh water, thereby lessening the effectiveness of the fresh water.
However, with the Electro-Dynamic® desalter, it is feasible to inject recycle water ahead of the
mixing valve while injecting fresh water into the counter-flow distributors achieving increased drop
population without raising the salinity of the fresh dilution water.
A point of caution with all recycle streams involves the quality of the effluent water. If interface
sludge or mud wash solids are allowed to recycle, they may produce stable emulsions and cause
rapid build-up of the interface sludge layer. If this problem appears likely to occur, the recycle
should be taken after an effluent water-cleaning device, or recycle should be discontinued during
mud wash.
Effluent Water Treatment
The effluent water from a properly operating desalter, exclusive of mud wash cycles, is frequently
less than 250 ppm oil in water. Field dehydrators may carry more oil in their effluent water
depending upon the conditions of the crude oil being treated. Further clarification of the water calls
for additional retention time, customized chemical treatment and/or specialized equipment that are
more economically provided downstream of the desalter vessel. Clarification devices include
skimmers equipped with matrix coalescer plates, granular media coalescers, hydrocyclones, flotation
cells, and solvent extraction techniques.
- 31 -
Water Solubility in Crude Oil
Water exhibits an appreciable solubility in

crude oil at elevated temperatures. As a rule
of thumb, approximately 0.4% water may be
dissolved at temperatures around 300oF. A
desalter or dehydrator can separate only
dispersed water and has no effect on water
that is soluble at operating conditions.
However, when the output is sampled through
a sample cooler and the sample is further
cooled awaiting analysis, a significant
quantity of soluble water may be precipitated.
This precipitated water may be erroneously
assumed to be dispersed water in the effluent
oil.
A more insidious aspect of water solubility occurs in the preheat train ahead of a desalter. As the oil
is heated to operating temperature, water from the dispersed brine is dissolved into the oil phase
while leaving behind precipitated salts. This can result in the fouling of the heat exchangers and
formation of crystalline salt that is very difficult to remove from the oil. Injection of fresh water or
dilution water ahead of the preheat train can help offset these problems.
Incompatibilities of Fluids
Crude oils may contain quantities of semi-soluble organic materials, such as waxes or asphaltenes
that can be precipitated during processing resulting in the production of troublesome sludges or
stabilization of emulsions. Although wax precipitation may be controlled through temperature and
chemicals, asphaltenes are more troublesome. By definition, asphaltenes precipitate in hydrocarbons
of the molecular weight of pentane. Therefore, if light hydrocarbons are blended with asphaltic
crudes or recycled as slop oil into a vessel processing asphaltic crude oil, serious sludge
precipitation may result. Such sludges can result in short-circuiting of the electrodes and severe
deterioration of dehydrator/desalter performance.
Dilution water can also be a source of incompatibility. Of particular concern is the precipitation of
alkaline earth sulfates (calcium, barium, or strontium sulfates) when sulfuric acid is used to adjust
pH of entrained brines rich in these ions, or when high sulfate dilution water (such as seawater) is
used with such brines.
Analytical Methods
Analysis of bulk sediment and water (BS&W) in oil is commonly done by centrifugal techniques
described in ASTM D-96 (field use) or ASTM D-4007 (laboratory use). Alternately, distillation
techniques may be employed as described in ASTM D-95 or ASTM D-4006, but these are more
- 32 -
cumbersome, and will reflect both insoluble and soluble water. For very low levels of water,
particularly soluble water, the Karl Fischer Titration method may be employed.
Several analytical procedures for salt in oil are currently in use depending upon the salt levels to be
measured, the accuracy required, and the equipment available. Laboratory results are usually
obtained by analysis of total chloride ion followed by conversion to equivalent sodium chloride and
reported as pounds of salt per thousand barrels of oil (PTB) or parts per million (ppm). At salt
levels of 2 PTB and below, great care is required in order to achieve meaningful and reproducible
results.
Although several analytical schemes are available for salt analysis, extraction and analysis of soluble
salts has proven to be the most reliable method with the least interference from other constituents.
The procedure involves diluting an oil sample with xylene and extracting the mixture with boiling
deionized water. The extraction funnels are then placed in a water bath at 140º to 160ºF for phase
separation to occur. If necessary, acidification, electrostatic cells, or chloride-free emulsion breaker
may be used to enhance separation. The aqueous layer is removed and filtered if it is still cloudy or
if entrained oil is present. It is then titrated with dilute silver nitrate (0.01N) using chromate
indicator under incandescent lighting. The titration procedure is known as the Mohr Method and is
more fully described in American Petroleum Institute Recommended Practice RP 45. Endpoint
recognition requires a practiced eye when using dilute titrant. Alternately, ion chromatography may
be used for chloride determination if available. This technique is extremely accurate for
determination of small quantities of chloride, but the equipment is more expensive. Care must be
taken to avoid contamination of the sample during handling due to the widespread occurrence of
chloride in nature and the very small quantity being measured.
Another method in common use is the spectrophotometric determination of the metals – sodium,
calcium, and magnesium. These techniques, using atomic absorption or inductively coupled plasma,
are accurate and highly automated. However, they do not distinguish between water-soluble salts
and those that exist primarily in the oil phase such as metal-organic compounds or mineral
precipitates. Therefore, the results obtained with these methods may be poorly related to desalter
performance.
Analysis by conductivity, as described in ASTM D-3230, is a widely used technique for process
monitoring and quality control. It is reliable for salt concentrations above five pounds salt per
thousand barrels of oil (PTB); between two and five PTB, it is suitable if careful calibration is done.
Below 2.0 PTB, other methods should be utilized. At low salt levels, oil conductivity becomes a
function of water content and pH as well as salt content. Since the ions responsible for pH changes
are from 2.6 to 4.6 times as conductive as chloride, minor pH changes far outweigh the effects of
changes in chloride concentration. Other problems such as variation in the composition of the salt
mix in oils also help to preclude the use of this method as a reliable indicator of absolute desalter
performance at low effluent salt contents unless exacting calibration procedures are followed.
- 33 -
Power Consumption
The power expended in electrostatic coalescence may be largely consumed by current flow through
the conductive liquids. This power is mostly converted to resistive heating with little of it actually
used in the coalescence reaction. Transformers are sized according to power flux criteria with
adjustments being made for known characteristics of the oil to be treated and the operating
temperature. However, it should be remembered that dehydrator and desalter transformers are sized
conservatively in order to allow them to operate in the lower 30% of their capacity due to reactive
losses associated with the transformer protection scheme. Therefore, the operating load is roughly
30% of the connected load.
Sub-System Specifications
Power Supplies
Transformers:
Transformers used in dehydrator and desalter power supplies must be capable of sustaining a
short-circuited output for a reasonable period of time without damage or overheating. This
protection is normally derived by including a reactor of a size equal to the reactance of the
transformer winding in series with the primary winding of the transformer. The reactance
may be either a separate inductor coil or may be incorporated into the design of the
transformer core. As the primary current increases, the voltage drop across the reactor
increases, thereby limiting the voltage to the primary winding of the transformer. Therefore,
failures in the vessel electrical components or process upsets causing high conductivity will
not result in damage to the transformer when sustained for a reasonable period of time.
Transformers in this service also experience high mechanical stresses due to rapidly
fluctuating loads and must be constructed with cores and windings that are mechanically
solid and highly resistant to vibration. See Appendix III for additional details.
Controllers:
A weakness of electrostatic coalescers has been the means of protecting the electrical system
in the event of excessive power requirements during short term upsets. Unfortunately, the
reactor-based protection scheme described above has the effect of reducing power input to
the vessel at precisely the time it is most needed – during process upsets. To counteract this
situation, an electronic controller capable of sensing the load demand and modifying the
power input to the transformer was developed. This Load Responsive Controller® differs in
action from the reactor in that power is reduced on the basis of time rather than by uniformly
diminished output. Short bursts of high intensity energy are applied to the process with
duration of the pulses limited to maintain an average power output within the rating of the
transformer. This action continues to provide coalescing energy even during times of
process upset.
- 34 -
The Load Responsive Controller® also assists in the compromise that must be drawn
between field strength required for adequate translation of small drops and field strength
sufficient to produce subdivision of large drops. As drop size increases and the surface-to-
bulk ratio decreases, surface tension is no longer able to maintain rigidity of the drop, and
viscous drag on the moving drop causes deformation. As velocity or drop size increases, this
deformation, in concert with electrically induced perturbations, becomes sufficient to cause
the drop to shatter. At any given field strength there is a range of stable drop sizes limited at
the lower end by the ability of the field to transport the drop and at the upper end by drop
size that can be transported without shattering. An ideal arrangement would be a field with a
high intensity zone for coalescence of very small drops followed by gradually decreasing
field strength for shifting the equilibrium drop size range to large values. In order to
accomplish this, the LRC® may be programmed to vary the transformer output voltage to
create time-based field decay. In addition to providing optimum field strength for
coalescence of a wide range of drop sizes, the LRC® can also be used to provide high
intensity fields suitable for both mixing (in the case of Electro-Dynamic® desalters) and
dehydration.
The Load Responsive Controller® has evolved from its original monolithic configuration to
a distributed form with the electronic switching mechanism, SCR firing circuit, and interface
circuit contained within the transformer housing. The interface provides the signals to the
firing circuit and handles lost communication events. It communicates with a controller via a
4-20 ma signal circuit. The controller can be located in a control room, motor control center,
or locally. It supplies the set points and waveform information to the interface and also
monitors operation. The controller is able to communicate with a computer via an RS 232
interface that enables the operator to change set points and waveforms and to monitor
operation. The LRC® software installed on the computer maintains a database of authorized
operators, set points for various feed-stocks, and an inventory of power supplies to which it
is connected.
The Dual Frequency LRCTM is an advanced power supply combining voltage, waveform, and
frequency controls with a specially designed transformer. This power supply is capable of
allowing selection of waveform, maximum and minimum voltages, and two frequencies
simultaneously for the dehydrator or desalter. It uses a three-phase input and a low reactance
transformer for load balance and efficient power utilization.
Insulators
Entrance Bushings:
Entrance bushings are the insulated pressure sealing devices used to conduct high voltage
into the dehydrator/desalter vessel. NATCO currently offers two styles of entrance
bushings: the EBD-1500 (or its variant, the EBD-1500S) and the SBA-2500. The EBD-1500
is a 1.5 inch diameter bushing used in electrostatic dehydrators and desalters operating at up
- 35 -
to 23 KV secondary voltages. It is constructed of a polyimide core for strength and
temperature resistance and covered by a sleeve of Teflon®. The sleeve is used because of
Teflon®’s superior resistance to fouling by foreign substances such as suspended solids or
precipitated organic materials. If such materials collect on the surface of the insulator, a
resistive electrical path will be formed that will conduct a small current and produce
localized heating. This heating can result in the formation of a carbonized track along the
insulator surface that will ultimately lead to failure of the insulator. The SBA-2500 is a
two-inch diameter entrance bushing used with pulsed transformers and those operating at
secondary voltages in excess of 23 KV. It is of all fluorocarbon construction. Details of
construction and installation of entrance bushings are given in Appendix III.
Electrode Hangers:
Electrode hangers are insulating devices that mechanically support the electrostatically
charged elements inside the desalter vessel. NATCO has three types of insulating hangers in
general use. These are described as follows:
(A) Standard Hanger: This design uses a one-inch diameter Teflon® rod with threaded end-
caps attached to swivels and J-hooks or threaded studs. It is widely used in oilfield
dehydrators and desalters operating at temperatures less than 250oF. Allowable loading is
adjusted based on temperature. Cast virgin Teflon® is strongly recommended for this
service. If extruded rod is used, great care must be taken to insure that “poker chip”
discontinuities in density do not occur in the rod.
(B) High Temperature Hanger: For applications up to 300oF, a hanger made of two inch
diameter cast virgin Teflon® rod is used. The end-caps for these hangers are pinned sleeves.
(C) High Strength Hanger: A high strength hanger consisting of a fiberglass core with a
Teflon® insulating sleeve is used for high mechanical stress applications such as are
encountered in floating production systems or systems which require the use of a minimum
number of hangers. These hangers are also tolerant of high temperatures. Details are shown
in Appendix III.
Electrodes
The electrodes are the devices that provide direct contact between the electrical system and the
process fluids. Often these are referred to as grids due to the nature of the electrodes originally used
in AC dehydrators and desalters. Several types of electrodes are now in general use.
Bar Grating or AC Grids
Electrodes made of rectangular arrays of perpendicular steel rods or small diameter pipes
were the original AC grids of electrostatic dehydrators and are still in widespread use in AC
field devices. Generally, several of these are hung in vertically separated horizontal planes
above the longitudinal centerline of the vessel in order to provide increased liquid retention
time in the most intense electrostatic field. The spacing between electrodes may be
adjustable. These electrodes have the advantage of being inexpensive to construct and easy
- 36 -
to carry into the vessel through a manway. A disadvantage lies in the necessity of providing
openings of sufficient electrical clearance through each grid for the supports for the
underlying grids. These openings can result in a portion of the process flow bypassing the
intense area of the electrostatic field.
Steel Plates
Arrays of vertically hung, parallel plates with a plate-to-plate spacing of approximately six
inches and a plate height of six to ten inches may be used in a Plate AC type electrostatic
vessel to achieve high retention time in the intense zone of the electrostatic field. Similar
plates are also used to provide the combination AC/DC field of the Dual Polarity® process.
Composite Plates
Electrostatic coalescence generally proceeds through a mechanism of drop polarization,

alignment of the polarized drops, and “chaining” of these drops along the lines of force of
the electrostatic field. These conductive chains lead to frequent electrical discharges or
arcing between the electrodes. The arcs are a normal part of the process, and because they
are submerged in oil, they do not produce any damage. However, an arc momentarily
discharges a steel electrode array, and if the arcs occur with sufficient frequency (as in a wet
emulsion), the electrodes may be discharged for a sufficient duration for slippage of process
fluids without adequate exposure to the field. Composite plate electrodes may be used to
increase the water tolerance of the system under such conditions. These electrodes consist of
plates of composite (fiber reinforced epoxy) construction with carbon embedded in the
central portion of the plate to impart conductivity along the length of the plate. The
remainder of the plate contains filler materials that lead to the adsorption of a layer of water
on the plate surface. This adsorbed water layer then becomes the conductive medium along
the height of the plate. Since such an adsorbed layer is quite resistive, any arcing that occurs
is quickly quenched due to the voltage drop at the arc root. As a result, only the area in the
immediate vicinity of the arc is discharged and slippage is eliminated. Composite plates are
normally spaced on 5 to 6 inch centers and are approximately 16 inches high. They are
optionally used on Dual Polarity® processes for increased water tolerance and in all Electro-
Dynamic® Desalters.
Liquid Distribution Systems
Inlet Spreaders:
NATCO has used an inverted trough or open-bottom box spreader with distributor holes in
the upper part of the trough for many years. Flow into the trough depresses the oil/water
interface inside the trough to provide a static head for creating uniform flow distribution.
Changes in flow are reflected in changes in static head allowing for uniform distribution over
a wide range of flow rates. This spreader is designed for equal flow out of the orifices as
follows:
- 37 -
Q = AC 2gh( D1 - D 2 )
Where:
A = Area of diffuser holes in ft2 h = Head in ft
Q = Flow in ft3/sec D1 = Density of water
C = Orifice factor (0.6 - 0.7) D2 = Density of oil
g = 32.2 ft/sec2
The box-type spreader has the advantage of being self-regulating to flow changes and in
allowing rapid separation of free water and solids before the fluids pass through the orifices.
In some instances, e.g. floating production systems, a header-lateral arrangement with
perforated pipe laterals is used for the inlet distributor. Similar orifice calculations are used
to assure distribution of flow. In both the pipe and open-bottom box spreaders, calculations
are done to assure uniform flow from the orifices taking into account velocity head within
the distributor.
Box-Type Spreader with Open Bottom
∆h {
Oil
Water
∆h controls distribution.
Recently, computerized fluid dynamics (CFD) studies have been undertaken on the
- 38 -
hydraulics within dehydrator vessels. Previous assumptions were that uniform flow from the
distribution orifices would produce uniform bulk distribution within the vessel. However,
the CFD studies proved this to be inaccurate and showed large recirculation zones with both
pipe and open-bottom box distributors. As a result of these studies, a new spreader, HiFloTM,
has been designed. It consists of a perforated pipe with a partial annular deflector.
HiFloTM Spreader
In both the computer models and dye-tracer studies, this spreader has been shown to have
superior distribution characteristics with fewer recirculation zones. Also, any recirculation
zones that exist are confined to the wall area where the downward motion is next to the
vessel shell. This helps to minimize any bypassing the might occur between the electrodes
and the vessel shell. This distributor is particularly advantageous in installations involving
high process flux or light oils.
Outlet Collectors:
A treated oil collector in the upper part of the vessel is also necessary. This collector is
either a perforated pipe or a channel with perforations. The NATCO collector is designed as
follows:
- 39 -
Q = 19.65Cn d 2 h
where d = hole diameter in inches, n = number of holes, and other variables are as above.
CFD studies on collectors have found them to be far less sensitive to design than the inlet
distributors, but have proved full length collectors to be necessary.
Dilution Water Distributors
Electro-Dynamic® Desalters incorporate a header/lateral spreader system for injecting

dilution water above the electrodes. These distributor pipes are drilled with orifices sized to
provide a 2 psi differential pressure across the orifices at a dilution water flow equal to 3%
of the oil flow. The electrostatic field provides some distribution of the counter-flowing
dilution water and the spacing of the orifices is adjusted to assure uniform distribution.
Instrumentation and Safety Systems
Safety Grounding Floats:
The Safety Grounding Floats are floats mechanically linked to grounding switches located
inside the electrostatic treating vessel. These devices ground the electrical systems inside the
vessel upon loss of liquid level. They insure that no electrically energized components are
exposed to the gas phase and that the electrodes are not energized accidentally during
personnel entry into the vessel. (See Appendix III)
Low Level Shutdowns:
Shutdown switches may be provided to shut off transformer power in the event of liquid
level loss or to shut down the process in the event of high or low interface level. These may
be either located in external cages or inserted into the vessel.
Interface Controls:
Several types of interface controls are available including weighted floats, capacitance
probes, conductivity probes, and radio frequency or “rf” probes. Selection of the proper
control for an application depends upon crude oil characteristics, compatibility with central
control systems, and operator preference. Many installations now use the “rf” probes. These
can be used for interface control, high- and low-level interface alarms, bottom sediment
detection, and upstream anticipation of feed-stream changes.
Solids Removal Systems
Since dehydrator and desalter vessels are designed to promote sedimentation, any suspended
solids in the feed-stream will also tend to settle out of the liquid stream. If the solids are
- 40 -
water-wetted and heavy they will tend to settle through the interface and collect on the
bottom of the vessel. In an oilfield situation, these solids often consist primarily of fine sand
while in a refinery the solids are usually fine silts. Corrosion products, bacterial debris, or
scale minerals may be present in both. If the solids are oil-wetted or intermediate density
between the oil and water they tend to collect in a layer at the oil/water interface as a sludge
layer, usually accompanied by poorly resolved emulsions and possibly by precipitated
hydrocarbons such as asphaltenes. In either case, it will eventually be necessary to remove
the solids from the vessel to prevent process upsets.
Mud Wash or Sand Jet Systems:
Mud wash or sand jet systems are used to remove sediments from the bottom of the vessel.
They consist of a means of fluidizing the sediments by high velocity jets of water and a
means of removing the fluidized material from the vessel through collectors that are
connected to discharge valves. Satisfactory performance of mud wash systems dictates that
they must be operated before the sediment layer “bridges over” the collector openings. For
that reason, it is strongly recommended that mud wash systems be operated either manually
on a regular, preset schedule or automatically under timer control.
Mud Wash (Sand Jet) System
Interface Sludge Drains:
Interface sludge drains consist of collectors situated at the oil/water interface connected to
discharge valves. Interface sludge tends to collect irregularly and many times reaches an
equilibrium depth that does not seriously impair operation. Therefore, the requirement for
draining interface sludge is best determined from a regular monitoring of the interface depth
and condition by means of samples taken from the trycocks. A continuously increasing
interface layer or a layer containing a high concentration of suspended solids is indication for
- 41 -
draining. Draining must be done very slowly under careful monitoring to avoid drawing
excess oil or water into the collectors. For this reason, it is best done manually. Properly
used, interface sludge drains can result in reduction of the load on the downstream water
treatment facilities by redirecting the high oil- and solid-content material into a slop oil
system where it can be batch treated with heat and chemicals more effectively.
Interface Sludge Drain
Mixing Devices
An important facet of desalting is achieving contact between the entrained water in the crude oil and
the dilution water used to wash the oil.
Mixing Valves
Typically, the dilution water is added to the oil upstream of a valve. The water is injected
into the oil flow line through a distributor. The differential pressure across the valve is then
used to shear the water drops and mix the two phases. Typical differential pressures are
usually in the 5 to 15 psid range. Although mixing valves are generally satisfactory, they do
have some disadvantages. Mixing efficiency is generally low at extremes of phase ratio, so
the use of small quantities of dilution water (less than 2%) may not be feasible; likewise,
turndown in flow rate will require adjustment of the valve to maintain contact efficiency.
More serious disadvantages include the requisite compromise between mixing efficiency and
excessive emulsification and the waste of energy expended on shear of the continuous phase.
Because very small drops act as rigid spheres following flow streamlines, it is unlikely that
they will ever achieve sufficient energy to participate in mechanically induced collisions;
therefore, their contribution to the salt content of a crude oil represents a fraction
unreachable by means of mixing valves.
- 42 -
Static Mixers
Mixing efficiency can be improved by adding static mixer elements downstream of the
mixing valve to achieve a more homogeneous blend of brine drops and dilution water drops.
Static mixers consist of a series of short helical baffles mounted in a pipe with adjacent
baffles having reverse twists. These devices continually blend the stream at relatively low
shear. Since increasing mixing efficiency by increasing shear rate can result in
emulsification problems, the use of low shear devices for blending the stream can be an
asset, particularly with difficult crude oils. At best, a mixing valve/desalter combination can
function as a single stage mixer-settler.
Electrostatic Mixing
As has been previously discussed, the electrostatic field can also used as a mixing device if it
is programmed to exceed the critical voltage gradient during a portion of the treating cycle.
It is this technique which is used to achieve mixing under counter-flow conditions in the
Electro-Dynamic® Desalter.
Design Aids
NATCO uses several methods for arriving at the design of dehydrators and desalters. Several key
factors required for design are the viscosity of the crude oil and its variation with temperature; the
density of the oil; the water and suspended solids content; salinity of the water and the stability of its
dispersion; the potential for precipitation of waxes, asphaltenes, or other solids; and available
operating parameters such as temperature, pressure, etc. Some of these are usually available from
field or laboratory work on the crude oil during reservoir evaluation or parallel development in the
field. Other parameters can be estimated, if necessary, from property correlations. Much better
information can be developed through laboratory electrostatic treating tests. NATCO offers both
static and dynamic electrostatic tests that can be used to determine electrostatic treatability, optimum
treating temperature, maximum process flux, dilution water requirements, and screening of candidate
treating chemicals. This testing service is described more fully in the Research & Development
brochure in Appendix VI.
Design sizing is done using proprietary computer programs developed by NATCO. NATCO also
maintains a database of crude oils that have been tested in the laboratory, in field tests, and actual
installations. This database covers oils from around the world and provides a means of estimating
unknown properties in many cases.
Once the design data are determined, several proprietary computer programs are used for
determining dilution water needs and injection points, oil properties at operating conditions, and
sedimentation rates for the coalesced water. These data are then combined to achieve overall
process and equipment design.
An Adobe Acrobat form that can be filled out with the necessary process information for
- 43 -
developing a dehydrator/desalter inquiry is included with this CD ROM. (Click here.)
- 44 -
Appendix I
Publications
“How to Design an Efficient Crude Desalting System”
“Dual Polarity Oil Dehydration”
“Field Desalting: A Growing Producer Problem Worldwide”
“Field Desalting of Wet Crude in Kuwait”
“Crude Oil Desalting by Counter-flow Electrostatic Mixing”
“Desalting Heavy Crude Oil by Counter-flow Electrostatic Mixing”
“Reduction of Corrosion through Improvements in Desalting”
“Tandem Mechanisms Facilitate Dehydration of Crude”
“Dual Polarity Desalter Testing”
“Electrostatic Fields: Essential Tools for Desalting”
“Desalting Heavy Crude Oils: The Venezuelan Experience”
“New Tools for Heavy Oil Dehydration”
“Field Trials Scheduled for New Compact Dehydration Technology”
- 45 -
Desalting Heavy Crude Oils – The Venezuelan Experience
Kenneth W. Warren and John Armstrong
NATCO Group, Inc.
2950 N. Loop West #700
Houston, TX 77092
© NATCO Group December 2001
Presented at Spring 2002 Annual Meeting, AIChE, Desalting Symposium
New Orleans, LA
Abstract:
Dehydration of heavy crude oils presents unique challenges due to high viscosity, the
presence of suspended solids and semi-soluble components, and the limited differential
density for driving the sedimentation-based separation. Desalting these oils adds the
complexities of mixing requirements that can produce stable dispersions and the use of
fresh wash water that greatly reduces the available differential density.
Venezuelan producers have recently begun exploitation of the very heavy crude oils of
the Orinoco Tar Belt. This paper examines experiences in dehydration and desalting of
these oils at four different sites incorporating sixteen units. Lessons learned regarding
overall process requirements, suitable controls, desalter/dehydrator configurations, and
operating conditions are discussed.
Introduction:
Although exploitation of heavy oil deposits has been carried out for many years, the
methods of production and processing of these crude oils generally limited their
commercial development to shallow deposits in areas geologically favorable to thermally
enhanced production methods. One of the largest deposits of heavy oil in the world lies
in a belt north of the Orinoco River in Venezuela. (Figure 1) Estimates of original oil-in-
place are in the range of 1.2 trillion barrels; however, only in recent years have methods
been developed to render production of these deposits practical.
The oil of the Orinoco Belt is extremely heavy with API gravities ranging from 4 to 9ºAPI,
with a range of 7 to 9ºAPI in the zones presently being commercialized. Viscosities of
the dead oil range from 20,000 to 100,000 cSt at ambient conditions. It is interesting to
note that 10,000 cSt was once proposed as the dividing line between heavy oil and tar.
Four projects are in various stages of development at present with others in conceptual
development. All of them involve production and dilution of the heavy oil to a blend of
approximately 17ºAPI with some treatment (dehydration/desalting) at the field level
followed by pipeline transportation to the Jose Petrochemical Complex. Each project
- 46 -
entails individual up-grading facilities at the Jose Complex, where the blends are
desalted and further dehydrated prior to the up-grading process.
Present Production:
A variety of processing schemes have been chosen for the current projects. Field
facilities and the up-graders were handled as separate projects, often with different
consultants, resulting in the selection of differing processing schemes in the upstream
and downstream sides of the same project.
Company “A” chose to use two trains of two-stage desalting at the field facility with
further desalting at the up-grader. The dehydrator/desalters are Dual Polarity
combination AC/DC electrostatic units. The desalters operate at 250 to 290ºF with
heating by shell-and-tube heat exchangers upstream and firetubes in the desalters. De-
gassing is accomplished in a three-phase separator operating at 90ºF and 2 psi. Design
capacity is 158,000 BOPD. The up-grader associated with this project is not yet in
operation.
Company “B” chose to use four parallel single-stage dehydrators at the field facility with
desalting in four parallel single-stage desalters at the up-grader. All of the dehydrators
and desalters are Dual Polarity combination AC/DC electrostatic units operating at
290ºF. Heating is by plate-and-frame heat exchangers. De-gassing is accomplished in
the field installation through a two-phase separator operating at 140ºF and 150 psi.
Design capacity is 170,000 BOPD. Both facilities are currently operating.
Company “C” chose to use four parallel single-stage dehydrators at the field facility with
desalting at the up-grader. The dehydrators are of Trivolt deep-field AC design
operating at 284ºF. Heating is by a direct-fired heater. De-gassing is accomplished by
a two-phase separator operating at 284ºF and 61 psi. Although not intended for
desalting, there is provision for water injection prior to the dehydrators. Design capacity
is 286,000 BOPD. The up-grader associated with this project is not yet in operation.
Challenges Associated with Desalting Heavy Oils:
Viscosity – In order to achieve practical sedimentation rates, it is necessary to reduce

the crude oil viscosity by operating at an elevated temperature. This in turn results in
several adverse factors.
Solubility of Water in the Crude Oil – Water exhibits solubility in crude oil that increases
with temperature. (Figure 2) As a rule-of-thumb, this solubility approaches 0.4% by
volume at 150ºC. In a desalting process, the water that dissolves in the oil carries no
salt with it; however, the loss of water from highly saline drops may result in the
precipitation of crystalline salt. The surface of the salt crystals acts as any other
interface and tends to collect insoluble or semi-soluble contaminants, which in turn
make the crystal difficult to contact with the wash water. Injection of a portion of the
- 47 -
wash water prior to heating can help alleviate this problem.
A more difficult issue involves attainment of water-in-oil specifications. Process

samples are collected through coolers that lower the temperature to prevent loss of
volatile liquids. The cooling precipitates some of the soluble water, thereby increasing
the reported water content of the oil. Since the desalter can only separate water that
exists as a separate phase, this precipitated water represents an untreatable
component under conditions existing within the process vessel. The interpretation of
true separate phase water content under process conditions is further complicated by
incomplete equilibrium in both the dissolution process and the precipitation reaction.
Stress on the Electrical Insulators – Desalters utilize insulators for support and electrical
isolation of the electrodes and as glands for conducting the electrical power into the
vessels. Fluorocarbons such as Teflon® are the materials of choice for these insulators
since they possess desirable mechanical and electrical properties and are resistant to
fouling. However, fluorocarbons loose mechanical strength at elevated temperatures
and tend to distort resulting in compromise of the sealing surfaces. The thermo-
mechanical limitations of the insulators become the limiting conditions for operating
temperature in a desalter. (Figure 3)
Oil Conductivity – Crude oil becomes more conductive with increased temperature.
This conductivity increases the electrical power requirements necessitating larger power
supplies and also limits the sustainable magnitude of the electrostatic field. (Figure 4)
Limited Differential Density – Separation within the desalter vessel is a Stokes’ Law
based gravity separation of phases. As can be seen from inspection of Stokes’
equation, the rate of separation is dependent upon the drop size of the dispersed
phase, the differential density of the phases, and the viscosity of the continuous phase.
1.78 x10−6 (∆ρow )d 2

v=
µo
where
v = Downward velocity of the water droplet relative to the oil, ft/sec,
d = Diameter of the water droplet, µm,
∆ρ ow = Differential density between the oil and water, and
µ o = Dynamic viscosity of the oil, cp.
In field dehydration operations, the saline produced water is more readily settled than
the fresh water encountered in desalting. Since heavy oils are close to the density of
water, the driving force for separation is small. At elevated temperatures, this
differential becomes even smaller. (Figure 5)
Slow Disengagement of Associated Gas – The movement of gas bubbles through these
- 48 -
oils is impeded by the inherently high liquid viscosity and by the film strength at the gas-
liquid interface. The presence of gas within the electrostatic coalescing zone retards
the sedimentation process and seriously degrades performance. Conventional
degassing techniques relying upon retention time are inadequate for assuring gas-free
oil within the coalescer for these heavy crude oils.
Effects of Solid Contaminants – In addition to formation solids (sand and silt) and
corrosion products, heavy oils often contain substantial quantities of semi-solid
petroleum fractions that accumulate in desalter vessels. These solids-based sediments
are found both in the bottom of vessels and in the water/oil interface zone where they
contribute to stabilized or slowly resolving emulsion layers. Such layers constitute a
“hindered settling region” in which sedimentation of water drops is adversely affected by
the presence of other suspended phase materials. This interface sludge layer may exist
in a steady-state equilibrium, in which case it may be considered part of normal
operation. However, if it continues to increase in depth, steps must be taken to either
resolve it or remove it from the desalter vessel. Removal is accomplished by interface
sludge drains or by agitating the water layer sufficiently to mix the interface sludge into
the water layer and remove it during mud washing.
Sediments in the bottom of the vessel can become so deep that they interfere with flow
distribution within the vessel. These sediments can be removed through a mud-wash or
sand-jetting system.
Chemical Treatment – Chemical treatment of heavy oil systems usually requires a

demulsifier to destabilize the incoming emulsion. Because natural emulsifiers are often
present in large quantities, the dosage of chemical required for these systems may be
much larger than needed for lighter crude oils. Suspended solids and semi-soluble
hydrocarbon fractions are less amenable to chemical treatment and may render the
chemical program marginally effective. Often, wetting agents prove useful for
separating the suspended solids from the oil and forcing them into the water layer.
Process Control – Although there are many aspects to desalter process control – mixing
efficiency, separation efficiency, etc. – one of the more difficult items to control in heavy
oil installations is interface level control. The combination of small differences in density
between the water and oil and the presence of interface sludge renders most
displacement-type controls unsuitable. Successful interface control under these
circumstances depends upon the ability of the level probe to sense water content of a
diffuse interface layer.
Operating Results:
The table below summarizes operating results from the previously mentioned
companies as of this writing. Since these, like most heavy oil operations, experience
variations in performance due to feedstock variations, position in maintenance cycles,
- 49 -
and other influences, these results may or may not be indicative of long-term averages,
but are offered as a performance “snapshot” valid at the time the data were taken.
Company “A” “B” “C”

Diluted Bitumen 158,000 170,000 286,000
Design Flow BPD
Upstream Operations
Inlet BS&W % 2.5 1.2 2.8
Outlet BS&W % 0.5 0.5 - 0.7 0.6
Inlet Salt PTB 194 Not Measured Not Measured
Outlet Salt PTB 6–8 Not Measured Not Measured
Operating Temperature 250/270 290 248
ºF
Actual Flux BPD/ft2 103 94 60
Downstream Operations
Inlet BS&W % Not Operational 0.8 + 8.0 Not Operational
Outlet BS&W % Not Operational 0.7 Not Operational
Inlet Salt PTB Not Operational 25 Not Operational
Outlet Salt PTB Not Operational 2 Not Operational
Operating Temperature Not Operational 290 Not Operational
ºF
Flux BPD/ft2 Not Operational 64 Not Operational
Conclusions – Application of Experience:
The experience gained from these units in the dehydration and desalting of diluted
bitumen yields several guidelines for similar applications.
• Viscosity is critical. The limiting sedimentation rate, and thus the size of the
desalter vessel, is dependent upon viscosity. Temperature is the primary control
for viscosity, and for heavy oils high temperatures, usually limited by the
temperature tolerance of the insulators, are necessary. For diluted bitumen,
diluent type and quantity also affect viscosity, but these factors are not primarily
selected by viscosity concerns.
• Differential density is minimal. This is another factor in sedimentation rate and is
controlled by type and quantity of diluent. Here a compromise between desalter
size and diluent recycle cost must be reached. Temperature also has an effect
on differential density, but this is secondary to its contribution to viscosity control.
• Water solubility is substantial. The solubilization of water does not affect
desalting performance unless it results in the formation of insoluble salts, but its
precipitation upon cooling may affect the apparent dehydration efficiency of the
- 50 -
system. True dehydration performance can only be evaluated by measuring total
water content and subtracting the soluble component at operating conditions.
However, because of incomplete approach to equilibrium, the exact quantity of
soluble water is difficult to predict.
• Methods of performance measurement must be considered. Specifications for
desalting systems normally state the allowable quantities of salt and water (or
BS&W) in the treated oil. Occasionally, percentage removal is specified;
however, it is much easier to achieve 99% salt removal when the inlet contains
500 PTB (pounds of salt per thousand barrels of oil) than when it contains 10
PTB. It is preferable to specify the allowable quantity of contaminants in the
treated oil. Water content may be determined by ASTM D-95 (distillation), ASTM
D-96 (field centrifugation), or ASTM D-4007 (laboratory centrifugation) depending
upon the facilities available. The results of any of these tests should be
interpreted in light of the potential contribution for untreatable soluble water. Salt
may be determined by several methods also. For the salt quantities normally
targeted for heavy oils, the conductivity method, ASTM D-3230, is satisfactory.
For lower salt concentrations (1PTB or less), it is necessary to utilize a method
using hot water extraction followed by salt determination of the extract, by
titration or other methods.
• Solids must be controlled. Control involves both separation of the solids from the
oil and prevention of their accumulation in the desalter vessel. Separation from
the oil is accomplished by the use of chemical agents to render the solids
hydrophilic and thus allow the wash water to carry them into the water layer.
Alternatively, organic solids may be dispersed into the oil by chemical treatment.
Solids that separate from the oil may end up on the bottom of the vessel or in
the interface layer. Removal of bottom sediments requires the use of a mud-
wash system consisting of water jets and drains. Interface sludge may be
removed by sludge drains placed in the interface zone or by vigorous mud
washing which stirs the interface sludge into the water layer. Sludge drains have
the advantage of producing an lower volume of effluent which may then be
treated by batch methods instead of contaminating the entire effluent water
stream with refractory sludge. Operation of the mud-wash system should be
done on a regularly scheduled basis as opposed to the interface sludge drains
that are operated on an as-required basis.
• Interface control is difficult. By definition, heavy oils have small density
differentials with water, and by nature, they tend to produce diffuse interface
layers with very gradual density gradients. These factors render conventional
interface controls – displacers, weighted floats, etc. – unsuitable. Various
conductance probes and capacitance probes have been utilized in these heavy
oils, but it appears that the greatest degree of success has been with radio-
frequency capacitance probes. Although these are considerably more expensive
than conventional controls, their greater reliability makes them cost-effective in
this service.
- 51 -
• Chemical treatment is necessary, but may be marginal. An ideal chemical
treatment would produce a quickly separating dispersion with little or no interface
layer. In heavy oils, this ideal is far from reality. An operator hopes to achieve a
steady-state interface layer that can be maintained over an extended period of
operation without excessive compromise of the electrostatic field. Perhaps it is
fair to say that “adequate” chemical performance is the somewhat elusive goal. It
is important that the chemical be well mixed with the oil and given adequate
retention time in the oil before entering the desalter. Remember that the
chemical, normally oil-soluble, must be given the time to diffuse through the oil to
the drop surfaces and react with the natural emulsifiers there. The thick interface
films present in heavy oils can make this a slow reaction.
• Mixing efficiency vs. dehydration requires a compromise. While this
compromise is always present in desalting systems, nowhere is it more critical
than in heavy oils. Increasing mixing valve differential pressure can quickly
render the water-in-oil dispersion so fine that resolution within the desalter vessel
is impossible. The large quantities of natural emulsifiers and suspended solids
normally present in heavy oils greatly exacerbate this tendency toward stabilized
dispersions.
Desalting of heavy oils is always a challenging operation. The difficulties presented

require detailed consideration on the part of desalter designers and constant attention
from plant operators. Heavy oil desalting processes are never “set it and forget it”
operations. However, when approached with an understanding of the problems
involved and vigilance toward operations, it has been demonstrated that these oils can
be successfully treated.
- 52 -
Figure 1: Orinoco Belt Developments
Mesa 30 Blend Naphtha Blend
0.35
0.30
Solubility vol%
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature ºF
Figure 2: Solubility of Water in 17ºAPI Blended Bitumen
- 53 -
550
500
Rated Load (lbs)

450
400
350
300
250
150 200 250 300 350 400
Temperature (ºF)
Figure 3: Design Load Curve for 2” Teflon Hangers
14000
Conductivity pS/m
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
50 70 90 110 130
Temperature ºF
Figure 4: Conductivity of Diluted Bitumen
- 54 -
17ºAPI Oil Water 15ºAPI Oil
1.0
Density
0.9
0.8
0 100 200 300 400
Temperature ºF
Figure 5: Density Variation with Temperature
- 55 -
SPE/Petroleum Society of CIM/CHOA 78944
New Tools for Heavy Oil Dehydration

Kenneth W. Warren, SPE/NATCO Group
Copyright 2002, SPE ITOHOS/ICHWT conference.
This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE International Thermal Operations
and Heavy Oil Symposium and International Horizontal Well Technology Conference held
in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, 4–7 November 2002.
This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE ITOHOS/ICHWT Program Committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s).
Contents of the paper, as presented, have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers, the Petroleum Society of CIM/CHOA and are subject to correction by the
author(s). The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, the Petroleum Society of CIM/CHOA, its officers, or members.
Papers presented at SPE ITOHOS/ICHWT meetings are subject to publication review by Editorial Committees of the Society of Petroleum Engineers. Electronic reproduction,
distribution, or storage of any part of this paper for commercial purposes without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in
print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper
was presented. Write Librarian, SPE, P.O. Box 833836, Richardson, TX 75083-3836, U.S.A., fax 01-972-952-9435.
Abstract
Heavy oils are becoming increasingly attractive from the standpoint of availability of reserves
and economic status as “opportunity” feedstocks. However, they also bring some complex
dehydration problems including high levels of suspended solids, conductive organic species, and
varying amounts of semi-soluble and precipitated organic materials. Meeting these challenges
requires new techniques in both the areas of chemical treatment and dehydrator design. This paper
focuses upon improvements in hardware design.
Introduction
Dehydration of crude oils has historically depended upon the use of heat to control viscosity,
chemicals to destabilize natural emulsifying agents, and retention time under quiescent flow
conditions to allow gravity sedimentation to occur. In many cases, electrostatic fields have been
employed to provide the extra coalescing force needed to grow the water drops to a size large
enough to allow sedimentation in economically sized vessels. Sedimentation rate is predicted from
Stokes’ Law (Eqn 1):
1.78 x10−6 (∆ρow )d 2

v= ………………... (Eqn. 1)
µo
where
v = downward velocity of the water droplet relative to the oil, ft/sec,
d = diameter of the water droplet, µm,
∆ρ ow = differential density between the oil and water, g/cm3, and
µ o = dynamic viscosity of the oil, cp.
- 56 -
Heavy crude oils place severe strains upon conventional dehydration practices. Although crude
oils occur in a continuum of densities, for practical purposes oils below 20ºAPI may be considered
as heavy oils. (1) The native viscosities of these oils are high, and very high operating temperatures
are required to reach a suitable viscosity range for rapid sedimentation of the water drops. In some
cases, desireable operating temperatures are at the upper extreme of the useful range for the
fluorocarbon insulators commonly employed in these devices. High operating temperatures may also
severely reduce the differential density between the oil and water that is necessary as a driving force
for sedimentation.
Chemical treatment of these oils is also problematical. Emulsion stabilizing agents such as salts
of organic acids and semi-soluble organic materials such as asphaltenes are often present in large
concentrations. In addition, the high density and viscosity of these oils tend to increase the
entrainment of suspended solids. These solids may consist of formation fines, corrosion products,
precipitated scale minerals, precipitated organic components, and/or bacterial debris. All of these
materials tend to accumulate at the drop surfaces stabilizing the water dispersions. They also
accumulate at the phase boundary between the oil and water layers where they retard the
sedimentation of water drops and produce a characteristic interface “rag” layer. Chemical treatment
must therefore not only destabilize the naturally occurring emulsifiers, but also aid in separation of
the solids and condensation of the “rag” layer.
New developments in dehydrator design with application to heavy oil dehydration include
electrostatic field control techniques and special electrode systems. These minimize the negative
impact of the increased conductivity and arcing tendencies of heavy oils.
Electrostatic Fields in Oil Dehydration

Electrostatic fields used in dehydration may be unfavorably impacted by the properties of heavy
oils. The same materials that cause problems in chemically treating these oils contribute to electrical
conductivity. As oil conductivity tends to increase with temperature, the requirement for high
operating temperature to control viscosity further exacerbates the situation. (Fig. 1)
100
90
80
Conductivity nS/m
Diluted Bitumen
70
17ºAPI
60
Bohai Bay 17.8ºAPI
50
40
Brazilian 14ºAPI with
30
12% Diluent
20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200
Temperature ºF
Figure 1: Oil Conductivity vs. Temperature
Electrostatic Field Control. Conventional power supplies for electrostatic crude oil treating
incorporate reactance, either in the form of a discrete reactor coil or as reactance built into the
transformer core, as a means of protecting the system from electrical overloads. (Fig. 2) As a
protection mechanism this system works well; however, from a process standpoint, it renders the
power supply ineffective during times of process upset or during periods of high conductivity.
- 57 -
Figure 2: Conventional Power Supply Protection
Electronic controllers can assume some of the essential protection functions while extending the
capability of the power supply under severe process conditions. By rapidly switching the primary
power, the controller introduces de-energized or “off” periods in the power to the transformer. The
controller senses the power drawn by the system and adjusts the length of the “off” periods to
maintain the transformer within its heat dissipation rating. (Fig. 3)
Voltage
Time
Crude Oil Conductivity Æ
Figure 3: Time Based Power Supply Protection
Since the power supply continues to provide pulses of high voltage to the process vessel, coalescing
ability is largely preserved during process upsets. (2)
The controllers are microprocessor based and therefore also provide the means to program
modulation of the electrostatic field. It can be shown that modulated fields can significantly improve
dehydration over that available with conventional fields. Historically, the selection of the optimum
- 58 -
operating voltage for an electrostatic dehydrator necessitated a compromise between flux (the rate at
which oil passes through the electrodes) and the extent of dehydration.
The necessity for voltage compromise can be avoided by using a modulated power supply. The
modulated signal can be described in terms of three parameters:
Threshold Voltage Gradient: The minimum field gradient at which coalescence occurs.
Critical Voltage Gradient: The field gradient at which shattering of the minimum or Stokes’
drop begins.
Frequency: The modulation frequency is the repetition rate of the waveform. This affects drop
transport, drop growth, and drop oscillation.
The amplitude of the modulation must be confined between the minimum set by the threshold
voltage gadient and the maximum set by the critical voltage gradient. (Eqn. 2) (3) These are the
extremes of modulation and may not represent the optimum operating settings.
1
Ec ≤ ε (σ / d ) 2 …………………………. (Eqn. 2)
where
Ec = critical voltage gradient, V/m,
ε = dielectric constant, C2/Nm2,
σ = interfacial tension, kg/s, and
d = Stokes’ droplet diameter, µm.
A correlation exists between the mean drop size of a dispersion of water drops in an electrostatic
field and the electrostatic field gradient. Higher field gradients are associated with smaller mean
drop sizes. This would seem to recommend the use of lower field gradients to maximize drop
growth and maximize flux; however, the lower field gradients have insufficient energy to coalesce
the smaller drops due to their large drag-to-bulk ratio and more rigid shape. (Fig. 4)
Figure 4: Conceptual Drop Size Variation with Voltage
- 59 -
A relatively slow (less than one hertz) voltage modulation of the proper waveform allows the
mean drop size of the dispersion to be shifted in the direction of larger drops, which then settle out
of the field faster. (Fig. 5)
Figure 5: Slow Voltage Modulation Waveform
Voltage modulation of an intermediate frequency (less than fifty hertz) produces additional
benefits to the coalescence process in terms of induced drop oscillation. It has been shown that
drops subjected to a modulation frequency close to the resonant frequency of the drop exhibit a
range of surface distortions. (4) At higher frequencies (above 500 hertz) these distortions result in an
energized drop/continuous-phase interface that disrupts stabilizing films and increases the surface
free energy of the drops. High surface free energy results in increased drop-to-drop interaction,
which enhances the rate of coalescence. (5)(Fig. 6)
Arc Suppression. A side effect of electrostatic coalescing processes is “daisy chain” arcing that
proceeds along chains of water droplets between electrodes or between electrodes and ground. A
limited amount of this arcing, along partial chains, is normal and possibly beneficial, but when it
becomes excessive, as in the case of conductive heavy oils, it can compromise the electrostatic field
and impair coalescence.
100
80
Coalescence (%)
60
40
1000 Volts
20 3000 Volts
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Frequency (Hertz)
Figure 6: Effect of Frequency on Coalescence (from Ref. 5)
- 60 -
Arcing in a metallic electrode array momentarily discharges the array, and excessive arcing
results in electrode discharges for significant portions of the operating time. During such periods of
discharge, oil may pass through the electrodes without being adequately dehydrated. Specially
designed composite plate electrodes may be used to alleviate this problem.
Composite electrodes are constructed of a fiberglass material with a conductive strip embedded.
(Fig. 7) The high voltage electrical connection is made to the conductive material, which distributes
the charge longitudinally along the electrode. A very thin layer of water is adsorbed on the plate due
to polar materials in the resin. This water layer then becomes the electrode, albeit a very resistive
one.
+ - + -
Conductive Epoxy
Strip
Figure 7: Construction of Composite Electrodes
Arcing will still occur with composite electrodes, but now the current must pass through the
resistive water layer to the root of the arc, along the arc path, and through the water layer on the
opposite electrode. This high resistance results in a rapid voltage drop at the arc root, which in turn
quenches the arc. Only the electrode areas in the immediate vicinity of the roots of the arc are
discharged, thereby eliminating the bypassing seen with metal electrodes.
The voltage at any point on a composite electrode (and therefore the field gradient between
adjacent electrodes) is determined by the electrical current passing through that point. As the rising
oil stream with its entrained residual water enters the electrode zone, the electrodes in the entry zone
draw more current and their voltage decreases. As dehydration progresses, the conductivity of the
oil decreases and the voltage of the electrodes increases. This produces a variable field gradient that
“self-adjusts” to the oil conductivity. A water drop settling downward in the electrode zone will thus
see a decreasing field gradient, which results in a shift toward a larger equilibrium drop size, thereby
complementing the effect of modulated voltage.
Test Circumstances
Evaluations involved tests performed on field installations and in a laboratory pilot unit. The
electrostatic dehydrator in the pilot unit is a vertical column with one set of electrodes, which can be
changed to various electrode types. (Fig. 8) The electrode spacing, electrode size, and electrode-to-
- 61 -
interface distance are the same as would be found in an eight-foot diameter horizontal dehydrator.
Therefore, all critical dimensions are full-scale. The power supply is capable of supplying AC,
AC/DC, various modes of modulation, and voltages up to fifty kilovolts.
Figure 8: The Hydrocarbon Test Unit
The feed train consists of a pressurized tank that is stirred and heated, a preheat train, chemical
injectors, and a gas equilibration vessel. (Fig. 9) Cumulative sedimentation vs. time determinations
are used to determine the amount of agitation required for reconstituting the dispersion to field
conditions.
Figure 9: Hydrocarbon Test Unit Simplified Flow Diagram
Over 400 pilot studies have been performed using this system including some of the initial studies
on dehydration and desalting of diluted Orinoco bitumen. Correlation of flux, optimum temperature,
optimum voltage, and chemical performance between this unit and field installations has been very
good. Only chemical dosage fails to correlate well due to the short retention time in the feed train
and the vagaries of treating aged samples.
Comparative field data are of necessity more limited since it is not feasible to vary operating
conditions widely in a production environment. For this reason and to better establish trends, data
ranges have been extended to include both heavy and near-heavy crude oils.
- 62 -
Hardware
The performance enhancing devices discussed herein include the electronic voltage controller and
the composite electrode array. Both of these have evolved from laboratory prototypes through
several commercial models to arrive at their present forms.
The voltage controller provides the protection required for operating in a conductive process
environment, the flexibility needed for varying feedstocks, and the reliability demanded by
production operations. Its basic functions are the sensing of process load, switching the primary
power, and management of protection of the power supply while avoiding reactance losses. It also
manages arc suppression, lost communication protection, and databases of users, feedstocks, and
dehydrator vessels. In modulating service, it controls waveform shape, amplitude, and frequency.
The controller has evolved from an original monolithic design to its present modular form (Fig.
10) with modules being distributed between the local power supply and a remote environment such
as a control room or motor control center.
The local modules include the power switching circuit (silicon controlled rectifiers), the firing
circuit for the SCRs, and an interface board which modulates a single power supply, handles arc
quenching, and assumes the power supply protection function in the event of lost communication.
The remote module may be connected to a computer for programming or monitoring purposes. It
communicates with the interface boards and the computer, generates the desired waveforms, and
stores the set-points for up to three power supplies. Software installed on the computer provides
monitoring functions for voltage, current, and arcs, generates the set-point data, recommends
optimum operating voltages, stores the databases, and captures any fault messages.
Figure 10: Modular Voltage Controller
The composite electrode array consists of vertically hung, parallel plates extending across the
transverse axis of the dehydrator. (Fig. 11) The plates are sixteen inches in height, and their width is
determined by the vessel diameter and the required electrical clearance. The electrode array has
- 63 -
evolved through various shapes and materials of construction as greater chemical and temperature
resistance were combined with greater mechanical rigidity and ease of installation.
Figure 11: Example Composite Electrode Array in Lab
Data and Results

Data have been obtained from various combinations of electrostatic field control and composite
electrode installations both in laboratory and field situations. In some cases, data from lighter oils
have been included to better establish trends.
Results of Electrostatic Field Control. Although the electrostatic voltage controller was
originally developed as a power supply protection device for avoiding reactance losses, its utility as
a voltage modulator was quickly realized. Most commercial installations have been in counter-flow
desalters, but it has also proven valuable as an aid in coalescing difficult oils. Comparative results
between using an AC/DC fixed field and a modulated AC/DC field are shown in Table 1.
%BS&W,
%BS&W,
Crude, Source ºAPI Modulated
AC/DC
AC/DC
Brail, Brazil 14.3 1.50 0.85
Maureen, North Sea 16.4 0.63 0.48
Bozhong, China 17.8 0.55 0.45
Milne Point, Alaska 19.4 0.42 0.35
Table 1: Effect of Field Modulation
From the above data, it can be seen that adding modulated electrostatic fields in the treatment of
these heavy oils resulted in an average improvement in dehydration performance of 26%. While the
magnitude of improvement may vary with oil characteristics, it is apparent that positive results may
be expected.
It was pointed out earlier that a combination of modulation frequencies might provide additional
enhancement of the coalescing power of the electrostatic field. Multiple modes of modulation can
produce not only the mean drop size shift seen in the previous data, but also an increase in the
surface free energy of the drops which can in turn make drops in close proximity more easily
coalesced. The data presented in Table 2 illustrates the effect of bimodal modulation of the field.
- 64 -
%BS&W,
%BS&W,
Crude, Source ºAPI Bimodal
AC/DC
AC/DC
Captain, North Sea 20.8 0.90 0.55
Pauls Valley,
23 0.45 0.42
Oklahoma
Oklahoma 30 0.70 0.22
Oklahoma 34 1.20 0.80
Oklahoma 40 0.10 Trace
Table 2: Effect of Bimodal Field Modulation
The data above demonstrate an average improvement in dehydration of 49%. While the chemical
treatment and operating conditions may not have been optimized, they are identical between pairs of
readings. Further studies are planned to extend the data range to heavier crude oils.
Conductivity Tolerant Designs. The design of electrostatic dehydrators to accommodate oils of

high conductivity involves both adjustment of the electrostatic field as described above and the
suppression of excessive arcing. Electrodes fabricated of fiber-epoxy material with the inclusion of
conductive materials have demonstrated great effectiveness at arc suppression and enhancement of
coalescence. Comparative dehydration results using steel and composite electrodes are shown in
Table 3.
The average improvement in dehydration as the result of changing the electrode type was 56%.
Improvement expressed as increased capacity can best be demonstrated from a Venezuelan
installation where five identical dehydrators are installed in parallel and operating under the same
conditions.
%BS&W %BS&W
%BS&W
Crude ºAPI Out: Out:
In
Steel Composite
Orinoco
Diluted 17 5 0.65 0.43
Bitumen
Captain 20 15 1.20 0.60
Maya 23 15 1.2 –1.5 0.72- 0.92
Arabian
27 31 NA* 0.29
Heavy
* Unable to process due to current limit of power supply.
Table 3: Steel vs. Composite Electrodes
- 65 -
Three of the dehydrators are equipped with steel electrodes and two with composite electrodes. The
feedstream is a 27ºAPI oil and all are producing <1% BS&W out. The three dehydrators with the
steel electrodes are processing 43,000 barrels per day each while the two with composite electrodes
are processing 60,000 barrels per day each.
Conclusions
Heavy oils present the process engineer with the dual challenges of high native conductivity
combined with high viscosities that contribute to poorly resolving dispersions. Successful
dehydration of these oils dictates that all possible coalescence mechanisms, including electrostatic
coalescence where practical, should be applied. The use of arc-limiting composite electrodes
combined with tailoring of the electrostatic field for the oil to be processed provides important new
tools for extending the applicability of the electrostatic process and enabling more efficient
dehydration of heavy oils.
Nomenclature
BS&W: Basic Sediment and Water – A common measure of dehydration efficiency. Usually
obtained via ASTM D-96 or D-97 tests.
ºAPI: A measure of oil specific gravity defined by the American Petroleum Institute. ºAPI =
(141.5/γ) − 131.5
γ = specific gravity of oil
v = settling velocity of the water droplet relative to the oil, ft/sec
d = diameter of the water droplet, µm
∆ρ ow = differential density between the oil and water, g/cm3
µ o = dynamic viscosity of the oil, cp
Ec = critical voltage gradient, V/m
ε = dielectric constant, C2/Nm2
σ = interfacial tension, kg/s
nS/m = nanoSiemens/meter
References
1. Khayan, M.: “Classification and Definitions of Heavy Crude Oils and Tar Oil,” paper
presented at Second International Conference on Heavy Crude and Tar Sands, Caracas, Feb.
7 – 17, 1982.
2. Bailes, P. J. and Larkai, S. K. L.: “An Experimental Investigation into the Use of High
Voltage D.C. Fields for Liquid Phase Separation,” Trans IchemE, Vol. 59, (1981) 229.
3. Chawla, M. L.,: “Field Desalting of Wet Crude in Kuwait,” paper SPE 15711 presented at
the Fifth SPE Middle East Oil Show, Manama, Bahrain, March 7 – 10, 1987.
4. Scott, T. C.; Basaran, O. A.; Byers, C. H.: “Characteristics of Electric-Field-Induced
Oscillations of Translating Liquid Droplets,” I&EC Res. 29, 901-9 (1990).
- 66 -
5. Draxler, J. and Marr, R.: “Design Criteria for Electrostatic Demulsifiers,” Intl Chem Eng,
33, No. 1, January 1993.
- 67 -
OTC 15353
Field Trials Scheduled for New Compact Dehydration Technology

Gary W. Sams and Harry G. Wallace, NATCO Group Inc.
Copyright 2003, Offshore Technology Conference
This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2003 Offshore Technology Conference held in Houston, Texas, U.S.A., 5–8 May 2003.
This paper was selected for presentation by an OTC Program Committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper, as
presented, have not been reviewed by the Offshore Technology Conference and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect
any position of the Offshore Technology Conference or its officers. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper for commercial purposes without the written
consent of the Offshore Technology Conference is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied.
The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper was presented.
Abstract
Significant improvements in the capacity and performance of existing oil dehydrators and desalters
are expected from an improved, patent pending, transformer and controller system. This
electrostatic system is now ready for a field trial in South America. Production at the selected
facility is currently at 45,000 bopd per unit on a medium gravity crude oil. This oil is currently
being processed by five 10-ft. diameter x 45 ft. long electrostatic dehydrators using combined
AC/DC electrostatic technology. Pilot studies utilizing the improved transformer / controller have
demonstrated capacity improvements exceeding 30% above existing technology or outlet BS&W
reductions between 10 to 30%.
To confirm these results and define the limits of this new technology, a series of scheduled
field trials has been planned. In addition, several other vessel modifications will include upgrading
the inlet spreader design, and installing new high voltage electrodes.
Once these improvements are made and the new compact electrostatic technology is
implemented, it is estimated the vessel capacity will increase significantly, while maintaining the
required oil specification. If successful, this electrostatic transformer and controller may provide
producers and refiners with a new technology to process highly conductive, viscous oils.
Testing Objective
Utilizing a South American oil facility, a new electrostatic dehydration technology is scheduled to
be field tested. The objective of these tests is to quantify improvements to the oil dehydration
process, demonstrate the robustness of the equipment and establish confirmation of the laboratory
test results.
Facility
The production facility shown in Figure 1 has five oil dehydration vessels operating in parallel. Each
horizontal dehydrator is 10 ft OD x 45 feet long x 125 psig with Dual Polarity® electrostatic
technology, open bottom spreaders, either steel or composite high voltage electrodes and pipe
collectors. The Dual Polarity transformers are 480 volt, single phase rated for 150 kVA. Following
an upgrade of three vessels to improve performance, a fourth vessel is scheduled to be retrofitted
- 68 -
with a new electrostatic transformer including step/start switchgear and PC-based process controller.
The facility has the capability to increase the oil flow to the test vessel so the limits of the
technology can be investigated.
Figure 1 – Field Site
Application
The facility is currently processing a 27.1 API oil at flow rates varying between 45,000 bopd to
60,000 bopd per vessel. The operating temperature is maintained at 140 F and the operating
pressure is 80 psig. At operating temperature the dry oil viscosity is 8.9 cp. The inlet water cut
typically ranges between 20 to 30%. The outlet specification is less than 1% BS&W and is routinely
met by the dehydration process.
These vessels use Dual Polarity electrostatic technology, as shown in Figure 2, to treat the
Dual Polarity inlet oil/water mixture.1 Design features
Transformer
Oil Outlet Flow include inlet spreaders to distribute the
incoming fluid evenly along the length and
across the width of the vessel. The spreaders
Collector
Electrodes are open-bottom box-type, which permits
Spreader Interface Level
bulk separation of free water and solids.
Water
Oil/water interface is established just below
the spreader holes so the inlet fluids are
Inlet Flow Water Outlet Flow
distributed into the oil phase. Approximately
24 inches above the interface is an array of
Figure 2 – Dual Polarity Vessel Configuration electrodes. These steel electrodes are
arranged in parallel at a spacing of 6 inches.
The steel electrodes are 6 inches high and at their ends approach within 6 inches of the vessel wall.
Alternating electrodes are energized with a positive voltage and adjacent electrodes are energized
with a negative voltage. The positive and negative voltages are supplied from a 100% reactance, 23
kV (rms) transformer.
A single collector is located at the top of the vessel containing a series of holes located on
opposite sides. The collector is optimized to ensure uniform collection along the length of the vessel.
- 69 -
A single outlet nozzle is located near the center of the vessel.
Following installation of the new electrostatic transformer, it is expected the oil flow can be
significantly increased by as much as 30% without an increase in the effluent BS&W levels.
Alternatively, the new technology is expected to lower the effluent BS&W 10 to 30%.
Technology
The electrostatic technology to be applied utilizes a proprietary process controller and transformer
package to produce an electrostatic field that can easily be optimized for any crude oil. This
technology has been in development for over 4 years and has demonstrated remarkable performance
improvements in pilot facilities.
The transformer consists of three primary components that are packaged in a single oil-filled
enclosure. Designed to operate on three phase, 480 volts (50 / 60 Hz) the technology overcomes the
load balance problem normally encountered with single phase electrostatic processes. First, the 480
volts is conditioned using IGBT technology (isolated gate bipolar transistors) to produce a variable
amplitude and variable frequency voltage supply for the primary of the transformer. Second, the
medium frequency transformer steps up the input voltage to a secondary voltage level necessary to
promote effective coalescence. Third, the secondary voltage is rectified into positive and negative
half-wave outputs. These polarized, half-wave voltages are then applied to the electrodes in a Dual
Polarity dehydrator.
A PC-based process controller defines the voltage control environment to match the specific
needs of the production. For example, where highly conductive crude oils are processed (> 80
nS/m), the frequency can be increased to maximize the energy delivered to the oil dehydration
process. Utilizing a medium frequency transformer overcomes the voltage decay associated with
conventional 50/60 Hz transformers. In wet crude oils the effective impedance may be very low,
resulting in a rapid, voltage decay from the process electrodes. This decay reduces the effectiveness
of the dehydration process by pulling the voltage below the threshold level required for effective
dehydration. Operating with an increased frequency reduces this voltage decay and effectively
sustains the applied voltage above the required threshold.
Also, where the interfacial tension between the oil and water is low (< 10 dynes/cm) the
waveform can be reduced to minimize destruction of the water droplets normally caused by the
application of 50/60 Hz power. Chemicals, temperature, salts and applied voltages combine to
reduce the interfacial tension between the dispersed water droplets and the crude oil. This low
interfacial tension reduces the natural frequency of the entrained water droplets. Reducing the
frequency of the waveform can prevent the destruction of the large water droplet required for
effective dehydration.
Furthermore, the shape of the voltage
waveform can be selected to achieve the best
30000
dehydration results. Finally, the minimum
Secondary Voltage, Volts
25000
and maximum voltage levels can be set to
20000
increase the percentage of the entrained water
15000 that is swept by the electrostatic voltage.
10000 Maximum voltages reach the smallest water
5000 droplets with sufficient energy to develop a
0 surface charge and promote coalescence.2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Elapsed Time, ms - 70 -
Figure 3 – Typical Exponential Voltage Waveform
Reducing the voltage to a minimum level will maximize the droplet growth to promote a rapid
sedimentation rate.
The PC-based controller developed to control the output of the variable voltage / frequency
transformer is capable of producing a nearly infinite variety of waveform configurations. Selectable
variables include the frequency of the voltage, the maximum and minimum voltages applied to the
transformer and the cyclic pattern and rate used to drive the transformer. Figure 3 depicts a typical
envelope of the primary voltage using an exponential waveform. The waveform is skewed slightly
to ramp up to the maximum voltage slightly faster than it ramps down to the minimum voltage.
Sweeping the applied voltage across the threshold voltage optimizes the coalescence and separation
of water from the incoming oil/water mixture.
Figure 4 schematically shows the component arrangement for the PC-based controller, the power
electronics, the medium frequency transformer, the rectifiers (diodes) and the process vessel. The
power electronics, transformer and rectifiers have been packaged in an oil-filled container to
overcome distance problems between the electronics and the transformer, to provide cooling by the
recirculation of dielectric oil and to make the retrofitting of existing AC/DC transformers more
convenient.
Unlike conventional 100% reactance

Secondary
electrostatic transformer designs that
3 Phase,
480 volt
High Voltage
Supply
Diode
Voltage (-)
Power
Electronics
Transformer
Secondary
develop a significant drop in output
Voltage (+) voltage as the load increases, this new
transformer is capable of maintaining
maximum output voltage, even at the
Display maximum rated current. To provide
sufficient voltage to sustain the
dehydration process under a wide range
Controller
of process conditions, conventional
transformers cannot be operated beyond
Figure 4 – Electrostatic Transformer / Controller Schematic
40% of their rated current.
Preliminary Results
Extensive lab tests have provided ample evidence the variable voltage / frequency technology can be
optimized to permit excellent oil dehydration at significantly higher oil flow rates in a given vessel
size. To date pilot tests using this technology have achieved results similar to those shown in Figure
5 on a 24.85 API crude oil.
1.5
1.4
These tests have demonstrated the strong
1.3 Conventional dependence that voltage, frequency, and
waveform have on efficient oil
Residual BS&W, % Vol
Technology
1.2
1.1 dehydration. Additionally, the

1 development program has produced a
0.9
Variable Voltage /
Frequency voltage controller capable of producing a
0.8
nearly infinite number of waveform
0.7 Water Cut - 10 - 12.8%
- 71 -
Process Temperature - 130 - 140 F
0.6 Demulsifier - 100 ppm
0.5
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Oil Flux, BOPD/SF
Figure 5 – Preliminary Pilot Results

configurations.
Test Program
The testing will involve documentation of the current operating conditions, voltage configuration,
chemical utilization and effluent BS&W. Data will be gathered periodically over a 21-28 day period
to establish a strong baseline. While the variable voltage / frequency technology is capable of
producing dry oil with low BS&W levels, the testing program will attempt to establish the most
aggressive flow rate that achieve a 1% BS&W specification. After the baseline data has been
collected, the new variable voltage / frequency transformer will be retrofitted to the process vessel.
After installation the power supply parameters will be optimized using the effluent BS&W as the
dependent variable. Once optimized, a second series of testing will be conducted to document the
effluent BS&W at the same maximum process flow rate. If the outlet BS&W declines, then the
production rate through the vessel will be increased again to determine the most aggressive flow rate
that will achieve 1% BS&W. If possible, additional tests may be conducted to determine the
minimum chemical dosage.
Expectations
Installation of the variable voltage / frequency power supply will achieve the following results
immediately:
Balanced electrical load – The new electrostatic power supply is designed to operate on a 480
volt three phase circuit. It immediately converts this AC voltage to a 750 volt DC bus. Therefore,
regardless of the energy required by the dehydration or desalting process the load on each branch of
the input power will remain balanced at all operating conditions.
Increased power available during process upsets – Conventional transformers are designed
with 100% reactance. When process upsets occur that require more energy, these transformers can
fail to maintain sufficient voltage to sustain coalescence. The variable voltage / frequency power
supply is designed with a low reactance permitting the maximum available current to be delivered to
the process without a reduction in secondary voltage.
Ability to select waveform for optimum performance – Operating the IGBT modulator at a
high switching frequency permits the modulation waveform to be easily customized. Matching the
waveform to the electrostatic needs of the process it is possible to promote maximum droplet
coalescence.3 Four variables can be used to define the shape of the waveform.
Minimum Voltage – used to maximize the water droplet diameter.
Maximum Voltage – used to energize the smallest water droplets.
Frequency – prevents the voltage applied to the positive and negative electrodes from decaying, thus
maximizing the electrostatic energy applied to the dispersed water and controls the droplet growth
and maximizes the water droplet population.
Waveform – may be any conceivable cyclic wave that can be represented mathematically. The
- 72 -
controller has been configured with the following waveforms: logarithmic, exponential, sinusoidal,
square, sawtooth, trapezoidal, circular and inverse circular. The exponential waveform is
represented in Figure 2. Additionally, the controller permits these waveforms to be skewed to alter
the ratio for ramp up and ramp down times.
Results have been obtained in laboratory tests using a range of crude oils. In some cases, the actual
results were significantly better than those expected in the field trials. Based on laboratory data, the
process performance after installation of the variable voltage / frequency power supply is expected
to achieve the following results:
Process up to 30% more oil – Once the waveform has been optimized the performance of the
process is expected to improve by at least 30% in oil capacity processed through the vessel. In many
lab tests, the results have been superior to 30%. In the field vessels that maximum oil flow may be
limited by the outlet nozzle diameter and not the electrostatic capacity of the vessel.
Achieve up to 30% reduction in the effluent BS&W – Alternatively, if the oil flow is held
constant, the outlet BS&W is expected decrease by as much as 30%. In some pilot tests the effluent
BS&W has been successfully reduced to trace levels.
Improve effectiveness of demulsifying chemical – Electrostatic processes function on the

water droplet surface the same as the demulsifying chemicals. While actual chemical reductions
may not be realized, it is likely the effectiveness of the demulsifying chemicals will be improved.
Maintain performance at a reduced temperature – The variable voltage / frequency power

supply produces a significant increase in the water droplet diameter, these enlarged droplets will
settle rapidly at the operating temperature. With these enlarged droplet diameters the oil viscosity
may be permitted to increase by reducing the oil temperature.
Conclusions
This patent pending, variable voltage / frequency power supply has been developed during the past 4
years by NATCO. With the ability to fashion a waveform that is optimized for any crude oil, this
technology will expand the utility of electrostatic dehydration into opportunity crudes including
SAGD production in Canada, diluted bitumen in South America, as well as high TAN crudes.
The functionality of the transformer permits an electrostatic field to be optimized for oil
viscosity, flowrate, oil conductivity, interfacial tension, water droplet population and distribution.
This technology will permit a significant reduction in size from conventional electrostatic
vessels. It can also be easily retrofitted for debottlenecking existing Dual Polarity treaters without
vessel entry. This patent pending technology, trademarked as Dual Frequency TM, will extend the
application of electrostatic dehydration to more difficult oils.
References
1. Burris, D.: “ Dual Polarity Oil Dehydration,” Petroleum Engineer, Critical Mass Systems,
Grapevine, Texas, August 1977.
- 73 -
2. Aske, N., Kallevik, H. and Sjoblom, J.: “Water-in-crude oil emulsion stability studied by Critical
Electric Field Measurements. Correlation to Physico-Chemical Parameters and Near-Infrared
Spectroscopy,” Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, Trondheim, Norway, April
2002.
3. Draxler, J. and Marr, R.: “Design Criteria for Electrostatic Deemulsifiers,” Chemie-Ingenieur-
Technik, Germany, 1990, Vol. 62, No. 7, Page 525.
- 74 -
Appendix II
Users Lists
Refinery Desalting Systems
Composite Electrode Systems
Dual Polarity® Retrofit Projects
Electro-Dynamic® Desalting Systems
NATCO HOWMAR TriVolt® Dehydrators and Desalters
NATCO HOWMAR Dehydrators and Desalters
- 75 -
Partial User List
REFINERY DESALTING SYSTEM

Crude oil entering the refinery contains various contaminants. An effective desalting system removes the majority of these contaminants,
principally water, water soluble salts and a large percentage of the suspended mineral matter contained in the feedstock prior to distillation
and further processing.
The desalter is designed to remove contaminants through stages of fresh water injection, mixing and dehydration.
NATCO combines its more than half of a century of crude oil dehydration . . . and over 30 years of field and refinery desalting experience
to supply the industry with the most energy and chemically efficient desalting processes available today.
CUSTOMER LOCATION
MARATHON OIL1 ILLINOIS

PHILLIPS PETROLEUM3 ALABAMA
VAL VERDE1 NIGERIA
YPF3 ARGENTINA
IPAC3 KHARG ISLAND
TIPPERARY REFINERY1 TEXAS
CALCASIEU REFINERY1 LOUISIANA
CONOCO3 MONTANA
VAL VERDE1 TEXAS
DAPSA1 ARGENTINA
KELLOGG/ADNOC1 ABU DHABI
BP1 UK (WALES)
SHELL1 (2 TRAINS) NETHERLANDS
PHILLIPS PETROLEUM1 ALABAMA
CAIRO OIL1 EGYPT
PETRO PERU1 PERU
UNION OIL1 NETHERLANDS
VAL VERDE1 RUSSIA
TPI2 THAILAND
TOHOKU REFINERY2 JAPAN
JAPAN ENERGY2 (3 TRAINS) JAPAN
PETROECUADOR1 AMAZONAS REFINERY (2 TRAINS) ECUADOR
NIPPON OIL1 JAPAN
KYGNUS REFINERY2 JAPAN
ANCAP LA REJA REFINERY1 URUGUAY
CORPOVEN SAN ROQUE REFINERY1 VENEZUELA
CALTEX JET MEROX PLANT1 SOUTH AFRICA
KASHIMA REFINERY2 JAPAN
NANSEI REFINERY2 JAPAN
1
DUAL POLARITY UNITS
2
ELECTRO-DYNAMIC ® UNITS
3
AC UNITS
Note: Does not include NATCO Howmar installations. See separate list for these.
- 76 -
Composite Electrode System Users List
Conventional steel electrodes used in electrostatic dehydration and desalting systems suffer performance degradation
when used in conductive environments due to excessive discharge of the electrode array. The non-metallic,
composite electrode array overcomes many of the limitations of steel electrodes by providing intrinsic arc-quenching
capabilities along with self-adjusting field strength gradation. Composite electrodes permit the processing of oils of
high water content and conductivity that were unable to be reliably processed using conventional technology.
NATCO combines its more than half of a century of crude oil dehydration . . . and over 40 years of electrostatic
experience to supply the industry with the most energy and chemically efficient dehydration and desalting processes
available today.
CUSTOMER LOCATION
TPI THAILAND
TOHOKU JAPAN
JAPAN ENERGY (3 TRAINS) JAPAN
KYGNUS JAPAN
KASHIMA JAPAN
NANSEI JAPAN
AMOCO LIUHUA (2 TRAINS) FPSO CHINA
KOC (8 TRAINS) KUWAIT
KEPCO (2 TRAINS) KOREA
NODCO QATAR
TEMA GHANA
BLOOMFIELD NEW MEXICO
EXXONMOBIL KIZOMBA “A” (2 TRAINS) FPSO ANGOLA
CHEVRON ALBA UK NORTH SEA
BP HARDING UK NORTH SEA
TEXACO CAPTAIN FPSO UK NORTH SEA
BP CLAIR UK NORTH SEA
OCN (4 VESSELS) VENEZUELA
PDVSA JUSEPIN (2 VESSELS) VENEZUELA
BP HOLSTEIN US GULF OF MEXICO
BP MAD DOG (2 VESSELS) US GULF OF MEXICO
BP THUNDER HORSE US GULF OF MEXICO
BP ATLANTIS US GULF OF MEXICO
DOMINION DEVILS TOWER US GULF OF MEXICO
BP NORTHSTAR NORTH SLOPE
LA TEJA REFINERY URUGUAY
CONOCO CANADA
ENCANA/CITY INVESTING/BDR (2 VESSELS) ECUADOR
REPSOL-YPF (BLOCK 16) ECUADOR
SCEPTRE RESOURCES (4 VESSELS) CANADA
UNION PACIFIC RESOURCES (5 VESSELS) CANADA
RENAISSANCE ENGERGY (15 VESSELS) CANADA
DOME CANADA
AMOCO CANADA PETROLEUM (3 VESSELS) CANADA
CHAUVCO CANADA
MORGAN (4 VESSELS) CANADA
SUGAR CREEK CANADA
FOSSIL OIL CANADA
INVERNESS CANADA
RANCHMAN’S CANADA
PINNACLE (3 VESSELS) CANADA
RENAISSANCE ALLIANCE (5 VESSELS) CANADA
NORCEN ALLIANCE (3 VESSELS) CANADA
PINNACLE RESOURCES/BDR (2 VESSELS) CANADA
RENAISSANCE/BDR CANADA
- 77 -
Dual Polarity Liquid Dehydration Retrofit Project
Partial User List
Enhance the performance of your liquid dehydration equipment with a NATCO Dual Polarity (AC/DC) Retrofit Package. NATCO’s Dual
Polarity Electrostatic liquid dehydration process is the single most effective method of crude oil dehydration and/or desalting available on the
market today.
Since its introduction in the early 1970’s, NATCO’s Dual Polarity dehydration system has out performed mechanical and conventional AC
electrostatic dehydration and/or desalting processes in hundreds of applications.
This patented process provides major benefits to its users, through lower operating temperatures, higher throughput rates, cleaner produced water,
greater dehydration capability and lower chemical requirements.
Principle of Operation: The Dual Polarity process utilizes both AC and DC electric components to provide maximum dehydration performance.
Upon entering the electrostatic coalescing section, the emulsion is first exposed to a low gradient AC field which coalesces the bulk of the larger
water droplets. Emulsion bearing smaller water droplets continues upward into a high gradient DC field.
The DC field acts as a polishing section to coalesce and separate even the smallest water droplets. As the individual drops approach the electrode
plates, they accept the charge of the nearest plate. The droplets are repelled and move toward the other plate. The droplets move back and forth
until oppositely charged droplets collide and coalesce and settle.
The electrostatic field has a potential of several thousand volts. The transformer that supplies the power is designed to protect itself as well as
other components of the system.
The DC field is self-regulating and supplies the maximum voltage for optimum resolution of the emulsion. This self-regulated system provides
increased operational flexibility and economy.
Customer Original
Vessel Manufacturer Size Location Retrofit To Design Rate After Retrofit
2 Trains – Petro Double (4) 12’ OD x 65’ x 137 GUPCO/Amoco Dual 55,000 bopd 100,000
Hot A.D. Desalter Psig Egypt Polarity each train bopd
1 Train – Howe Baker (2) 10’ OD X 36’ x 180 GUPCO/Amoco Dual 30,000 bopd 55,000 bopd
A.C. Design Psig Egypt Polarity
1 NATCO Dual Polarity 10’ OD x 25 x 275 CNG Gulf of Dual Pending ??? Pending ???
Coalescer Mexico Polarity
Electro-
dynamic
1 NATCO Heater Treater 10’ OD x 25 x 50 Marathon – Dual 3,000 bopd 4,250 bopd
C-E to CWW Cody, Wyoming Polarity
Composite
Grids
1 – EGI 8’ x 20’ Sauder to 8 x 20 x 40 Mobil Dual 4,000 bopd 6,500 bopd
D. P. Sundown, Texas Polarity
1 – Petreco Single Hot 6 x 15 x 50 Mobil Dual 1,500 bopd 2,500 bopd
Chemelectric Denver City, Polarity
Texas
1 NATCO/Petreco A/C 1 – 6 x 15 x 50 J. L. Cox Dual 1,200 bopd 2,500 bopd
Treaters Midland, Texas Polarity
2 – 10 x 30 Texas 2 – 10’ x 30’ Shell Dual 4,500 bopd 12,000 bopd
Tanque/Sauder Denver City, Polarity
Texas
15 - NATCO A/C 2 - 20 x 25 Shell Dual 2,400 to 5,000 2 x Original
Electrostatics 4 – 10 x 30 Denver City, Polarity bopd each
4 – 10 x 35 Texas
3 – 10 x 40
2 – 10 x 45
2 – Texas Tanque/Sauder 2 – 10 x 30 Shell North Dual 5,000 bopd 8,000 bopd
Hobbs Unit Polarity
- 78 -
Electro-Dynamic® Desalting System
Partial User List
Crude oil contains various contaminants. An effective desalting system removes the majority of these contaminants,
principally water, water soluble salts and a large percentage of the suspended mineral matter contained in the
feedstock prior to further processing.
The desalter is designed to remove contaminants through stages of fresh water injection, mixing and dehydration.
NATCO combines its more than half of a century of crude oil dehydration . . . and over 40 years of desalting
experience to supply the industry with the most energy and chemically efficient desalting processes available today.
CUSTOMER LOCATION
TPI THAILAND
TOHOKU JAPAN
JAPAN ENERGY (3 TRAINS) JAPAN
KYGNUS JAPAN
KASHIMA JAPAN
NANSEI JAPAN
AMOCO LIUHUA (2 TRAINS) (FPSO) CHINA
KOC (8 TRAINS) KUWAIT
KEPCO (2 TRAINS) KOREA
NODCO QATAR
TEMA GHANA
BLOOMFIELD NEW MEXICO
EXXONMOBIL KIZOMBA “A” (2 TRAINS) (FPSO) ANGOLA
DOMINION (SPAR) GULF OF MEXICO
- 79 -
Partial Users List
Crude oil dehydration using a high-voltage electrical field for final coalescing is an extremely efficient
process. The principles used in the design of electrical dehydrator/coalescers are proven technology and
have been used commercially for decades.
NATCO’s patented Dual Polarity (AC/DC) Electrostatic dehydrator is the single most effective method of
crude oil dehydration. Introduced in 1970, it has out performed mechanical as well as conventional
electrostatic dehydrators in hundreds of applications.
NATCO’s Dual Polarity Electrostatic Dehydrator consists of a pressure vessel with an optional heating/
degassing section with metered orifice distributors. Using the same, dependable AC power supply as a
conventional electrostatic dehydrator, the Dual Polarity Dehydrator supplies a rectified DC signal to pairs
of electrode plates charging them in opposition. Water droplets entering the field are elongated and
attracted to one or the other plates, providing the droplets with directional coalescent energy. (Combined
listing of Conventional AC and Dual Polarity Equipment).
Tesoro - Cutbank
CALIFORNIA - 10° - 26° API Crudes Texaco - Roundup
*Exxon - Wilmington
Shell - Mt. Poso NORTH DAKOTA - 28° - 35° API
Mobil - Belridge Amerada - Tioga
*Texaco - San Ardo Shell - Williston
*Superior Torrance
Conoco - Santa Maria-Ventura KANSAS - 25° - 35° API
McCulloch - Fellows Exxon Liberal
*Sun - Hillhouse Amoco - Great Bend
Mobil - San Ardo Gulf - Great Bend
*ARCO - Ellwood-Santa Barbara Lewis Eng. - Great Bend
Mobil - Ventura Champlain - Great Bend
*Texaco - Signal Hill Sun - Great Bend
Belridge - Belridge Mobil - Liberal
Anadarko - Liberal
ALASKA - 22° - 35° API Cities Service - Liberal
Marathon - Trading Bay Ladd Petro. - Liberal
Amoco - West Forlands
Union - Trading Bay OKLAHOMA - 18° - 38° API
Texaco - East Forlands Exxon - Oklahoma City
Mobil - East Forlands Exxon - Enid
Shell - West Forlands Gulf - Oklahoma City
Conoco - Oklahoma City
WYOMING - 13° - 28° API Cameron - Oklahoma City
Marathon Byron *Amoco - Oklahoma City
*NCRA - Gillette Gulf - Seminole
Tenneco - Gillette Union Texas - Oklahoma City
Mobil - Gillette Samedan - Ardmore
*Ashland - Hamilton Dome Lonestar - Oklahoma City
Shell - Pheasant Mobil - Oklahoma City
Inexco - Gillette Phillips - Ardmore
Continental - Gebo ARCO - Ardmore
Union Texas - Gillette ARCO - Oklahoma City
Pasco - Sinclair Tenneco - Pawhuska
*Marathon - Garland Sun - Seminole
Union Oil - Casper Sohio - Oklahoma City
Anson - Oklahoma City
MONTANA - 18° - 25° API Sun - Oklahoma City
Phillips - Cutbank ARCO - Pawhuska
Shell - Glendive Skelly - Ardmore
- 80 -
Apco - Oklahoma City Gen. Crude - Snyder
Getty - Oklahoma City Chevron - Snyder
Coastal States - Oklahoma City Phillips - Odessa
Union of Calif. - Enid Lewis Oper. - Snyder
Skelly - Oklahoma City Dunnigan - Abilene
*Sun - Davis Crown Central - Snyder
Coastal States - Hobbs
*Union of TX - Hobbs
MICHIGAN, ILLINOIS, INDIANA, EAST TEXAS - 18° - 40° API

OHIO, KENTUCKY- 18° - 40° API Exxon - Longview
Exxon - Kentucky Exxon - Houston
Gulf - Illinois Exxon (PL) - Houston
Gulf - Indiana Exxon - Shreveport, LA
Gulf - Ohio Exxon - Corpus
Ashland - Ohio Std. Of Texas - Houston
Sun - Illinois Amoco - Longview
Kingwood - Kentucky Conoco - Weber Falls
Union of Calif. - Illinois Tenneco - Corpus
Duncan - Kentucky Gulf - Shreveport, LA
Superior - Michigan Shell - Houston
Sinclair - Illinois Placid - Shreveport, LA
Getty - Kentucky Tenneco - Longview
*Marathon - Illinois Mobil - Weber Falls
Exxon - Illinois Skelly - Longview
H&J Orig. - Corpus
NEW MEXICO WEST TEXAS Std of TX - Weber Falls
20° - 40° API Shell - Weber Falls
Exxon - Odessa *Amoco - Houston
Texaco - Hobbs Robbins Petro. - Longview
Conoco - Odessa South. Miner. - Corpus
Sinclair - Odesa ARCO - Houston
Sinclair - Snyder Quintana - Corpus
Conoco - Hobbs Champlain - Houston
Tenneco - Farmington Texaco - Weber Falls
Mobil - Snyder Amerada - Longview
Shell - Hobbs Gulf - Houston
ARCO - Odessa Greenwich Oil - Longview
Cities Service - Hobbs Cities Service - Houston
Shell - Odessa Marathon - Houston
Ambassador - Hobbs
Mobil - Odessa LOUISIANA - 20° - 40° SPI
ARCO - Hobbs Exxon - Pelican Island
D. Faskin - Hobbs Exxon - New Iberia
Mobil - Hobbs Exxon - Brookhaven, MS
Amoco - Farmington Exxon Pipeln - Harvey
Texas Pacific - Hobbs Exxon - Farriday
Vaughn Petro. - Snyder Gulf - Harvey
Skelly - Farmington Shell - Harvey
Getty - Odessa Amoco - Lake Charles
Jack Hammon - Odessa Shell - New Iberia
Sun - Snyder Conoco - Harvey
ARCO - Hobbs Chevron - New Iberia
Gulf - Odessa Citronell - Brookhaven, MS
*Amerada - Hobbs Hunt - Harvey
D. Faskin - Odessa ARCO - New Iberia
Union of Calif. - Hobbs Amoco - Ferriday
Kerr-McGee - Farmington Lyons Petro. - New Iberia
Amoco - Pampa Cameron - Ferriday
Marathon - Iraan Mobil - New Iberia
Texas Pacific - Hobbs Union of Calif. - Harvey
Std. Of Texas - Snyder Quintana - New Iberia
Am. Petrofina - Snyder Getty - Harvey
Reserve O&G - Hobbs Signal - Harvey
Oil Dev. Of TX - Hobbs Placid - Harvey
Union of CA - Pampa Tenneco - Harvey
Anadarko - Abilene Forrest - New Iberia
- 81 -
Cage - New Iberia VENEZUELA - 16° - API
So. Nat. Gas - Harvey 1996
Texaco - New Iberia (4) Petrozuata San Diego – 120 KBPD
Phillips - Brookhaven, MS 1997
Sun - Harvey (4) Operadora Cerro Negro (Exxon-Mobil-PDVSA – 150
KBPD°
VENEZUELA - 27° - API 45 KBPD, delivery March 1996
1994 VENEZUELA -16° - API
(3) Lagoven Jusepin – 45KBPD 1999
1996 (4) SINCOR Project (PDVSA, TOTAL, STATOIL) – 150
(5) Corpoven Musipan and Muri KBPD
- 45 KBPD, delivery March 1996 BRAZIL 19-21° - API
1998 1980
(2) PDVSA Jusepin – 67 KBPD (2) Petrobras – Garoupa Platform –16,000 m3/day each
with Composite Electrodes ECUADOR – 14.5° API
1995
VENEZUELA - 22° - API (2) Repsol-YPF – Block 16
1996 25 KBPD each.
(1) Perez Compac La Leona –20KBPD
- 82 -
Partial Users List
NATCO’s Field Desalter is designed to efficiently remove crude oil impurities, principally water, soluble salts
suspended solids which may or may not be associated with the produced water.
During field processing, salt levels must be reduced to meet pipeline, sea transport or refinery feedstock standards,
typically 5 to 20 pounds of salt per thousand barrels (ptb) of crude oil.
The conventional field desalting process consists of required stages of dilution water injection, mixing and
dehydration to meet these process specifications.
NATCO’s Desalting technologies utilize a proper balance between dilution water, mixing energy (pressure drop),
mechanical coalescence and separation time. Enhanced by the application of heat, chemicals and electrostatic
treatment, the system provides maximum performance and process efficiencies.
The Electro-Dynamic™ Desalter ("EDD")
NATCO's premier desalting system, combining Dual Polarity (both AC and DC fields) with two other important
NATCO innovations, electrostatic mixing and countercurrent flow. These unique features then make it possible to
carry out Multi-Stage desalting within a single unit for unsurpassed desalting efficiency.
One of our dehydration and desalting systems, the Electro Dynamic™ Desalter, can be used in oil refineries, where
stringent desalting requirements have grown increasingly important. These requirements have increased as crude
quality has declined and catalysts have become more sensitive and sophisticated, requiring lower levels of
contaminants. The reduced number of vessels employed by our system is particularly important in refinery
applications where space is at a premium.
NATCO’s Dual Polarity Electrostatic Desalters
(Over 400 Units in Operations Worldwide)

Customer NORMAL FLOW (BOPD) LOCATION
LAPCO 250,000 Iran
IPAC 190,000 Iran
GUPCO 625,000 Egypt
Oasis 120,000 Libya
IAPCO 150,000 Indonesia
Gulf (Chevron) 650,000* Nigeria
Gulf (Chevron) 250,000* Cabinda
Amoco 35,000 Trinidad
SNPA 75,000 Tunisia
Huffington 50,000 Southeast Asia
IOL 150,000* Canada
Amoco 15,000 Venezuela
Mobil 12,000 Venezuela
Occidental 10,000 Peru
KOC (phase2) 350,000* Kuwait (D.P)
KOC (phase 3) 250,000* Kuwait (D.P. and E.D.D.)
ARAMCO 6,600,000* Saudi Arabia
ADMA 675,000* Abu Dhabi (Das Island) (D.P.)
OSCO 990,000* Iran
KALA 100,000* Iran
GULFAKS (BP) 180,000* Norway NS
SUCO 100,000* Zeit Bay, Egypt
AGIP/Petrobel 180,000* Abu Rudeis
SUCO 100,000* Ras Budran
ONGC 150,000* Upan, India
- 83 -
Customer NORMAL FLOW (BOPD) LOCATION
ARAMCO 2,800,000* Safania
Amoco 55,000 Gabon
Khalda Petro 40,000 Egypt
Pecten Cameroon 12,000 Cameroon
Amoco Lihua 70,000 S. China Sea (E.D.D.)
Aramco 1,300,000 Zuluf Onshore (D.P.)
KOC 160,000 GC-25 Kuwait (D.P. &
E.D.D.)
Saudi Arabian Texaco 60,000 Kuwait N. Zone (D.P.)
Qarum Petroleum 42,000 (2 trains) Egypt
Mobil Cerro Negro 91,000 Venezuela
Phillips Mahogany GOM
- 84 -
Partial Users List
Oil Flow BS&W

Customer Water API Vessel Size Location
M3/day Out %
Crestar Energy 400 70 13.5 8x35 0.3 Jenner P Pool
Crestar Energy 400 70 13.5 8x35 0.3 Jenner P Pool - Second Unit
Renaissance Energy 970 70 12 12x80 0.3 Jenner (11-21-20-8 W4M)
Crestar Energy 500 50 15 10x35 0.3 Jenner O Pool
Norcen Energy 300 60 17 8x35 0.5 Ret Low
Gulf Canada Resources 350 300 14 10x40 0.3 Surmont
Black Rock Resources 350 300 14 10x40 0.3 Cold Lake
Contour Energy 300 100 15 8x30 0.3 Jenner
Wascana Energy 700 400 14 10x70 0.3 West Buffle Coulee
Canadian Natural Resources 508 600 11 10x70 0.3 Primrose
Wascana Energy 1600 499 16 12x80 0.3 Mantorio
Sceptre Resources 600 800 17 8x25 0.5 Battrum
Sceptre Resources 1572 314 17 8x25 0.5 Battrum
Renaissance Energy 2830 2830 17 10x40 0.5 Amisk
Amoco Canada 2516 1570 17 10x40 0.5 Jenner
Amoco Canada 2516 1570 17 10x40 0.5 Jenner
BP Exploration 9981 3535 16 10x60 0.5 Wolf Lake
Chauvco 2075 2075 15 8x40 0.5 Marsden-West (Sask)
BP Exploration 25 25 15 8x25 0.5 Sibbald North Battery
Renaissance Energy 2200 800 14 10x40 0.5 Hayter South
Amoco Canada 4200 390 12 12x50 0.5 Lindbergh
Morgan Hydrocarbons 3768 1132 12 10x50 0.5 Senlac
Morgan Hydrocarbons 3768 1132 12 10x50 0.5 Senlac
Petro-Canada 1226 1200 12 10x50 0.5 Salt Lake
Renaissance Energy 2500 500 13 10x40 0.5 Jenner
Amoco Canada 3354 11 10x70 0.5 Lindbergh
Amoco Canada (Dome) 3200 600 11 10x70 0.5 Primrose
Amoco Canada 4560 456 11 12x80 0.5 Lindbergh
Amoco Canada (Dome) 3354 11 10x70 0.5 Lindbergh
Amoco Canada (Dome) 3354 11 10x70 0.5 Lindbergh
BP Exploration 10 8x30 0.5 Wolf Lake
Renaissance Energy 190 81 16 8x35 0.45 East Cantuar
Renaissance Energy 140 210 14 8x30 0.3 Etzikum
Renaissance Energy 293 97 18 10x50 0.02 Warner
Renaissance Energy 190 257 13.6 12x85 0.2-0.4 Jenner
Renaissance Energy 400 80 17 10x40 0.3 Amisk
Renaissance Energy 630 10.9 16-18 10x60 0.3 Webb
Renaissance Energy 625 47 15 10x40 0.2 Green Glades
- 85 -
Renaissance Energy 640 160 16-18 10x60 0.7 Crowsnest
Renaissance Energy 600 400 17 10x40 0.3 Shorncliffe
Crestar Energy 500 50 16 10x50 0.3 Czar
Renaissance Energy 140 19 14 8x30 0.3 Border
Renaissance Energy 216 14 15 10x40 0.1 Hayter South
Renaissance Energy 250 3.8 15.4 8x35 0.4 Red Deer River
- 86 -
NATCO Howmar TriVolt Dehydrator and Desalter Users List
LOCATION NO. CAPACITY (BPD)
COUNTRY
Al Khafji Joint Operations Hout 2 stage 60,000
Al Khafji Joint Operations Khafji 4 trains, 2 stage 440,000
API Falconara Refinery, Italy 1 60,000
ARCO Cherry Point, Washington 1 140,000
BP Kinneil, Scotland 4 528,000
BP Grangemouth, Scotland 2 120,000
BPCL Bombay, India 1 165,500
BRC Antwerp, Belgium 1 90,600
Ceska Rafinerska Kralupy, Czech Republic 1 70,000
Chevron ascagoula, Mississippi 2 stage 155,000
ESSAR Oil Co. Gujarat, India 2 stage 229,000
Esso Fawley Refinery, England 3 185,000
Esso Fawley Refinery, England 1 60,000
Hellenic Aspropyrgos Athens, Greece 1 85,000
IBP Numaligarh, India 1 70,000
IOCL Gujarat, India. (UA-1) 2 stage 70,000
Kala Naft Tabriz, Iran 2 -
Karachaganak Petroleum Operating Co. Karachaganak, Kazakhstan 3 trains, 2 stage 64,500 each
Kuwait Oil Co.Phase IV G.C’s 1, 3, 6, 8 & 12 Kuwait 10 trains,2 stage 250,000
Madras Refinery Ltd. Madras, India 1 104,000
Mediterranea Milazzo Refinery, Sicily 2 75,000
MRPL Madras, India 2 stage 110,000
NATREF South Africa 2 stage 86,000
Neste Oy Porvoo, Finland 2 stage 71,000
NRL Karachi, Pakistan 1 50,000
ONGC Uran, India 3 105,000
Pertamina Indonesia 2 stage 125,000
Raffineria Di Roma Rome, Italy 1 92,000
Saudi Arabian Oil Company Haradah GOSP-1 2 stage 330,000
Saudi Arabian Oil Company Haradah GOSP-2 2 stage 330,000
Saudi Arabian Oil Company Uthmaniyah GOSP-13 2 stage 330,000
Saudi Arabian Texaco Co. Wafra, Kuwait 2 stage 80,000
Shell Malaysia 1 127,000
Shell Malaysia 1 45,400
Sincor Venezuela 4 77,665
Singapore Refining Company Singapore 1 90,000
Sinopec China 1 74,400
Sohio North Slope, Alaska 1 100,700
State Company for Oil Projects West Qurna, Iraq 6 200,000
State Oil Marketing Organisation for South Rumaila “D” & “E” 5 x 2 stage 140,000 each
South Oil Company Janubia “C”,
Iraq
State Oil Marketing Organisation for Qurainat “B” 3 x 2 stage 80,000 each
South Oil Company Shamiya “B”,
Iraq
State Oil Marketing Organisation for West Qurna DG-8, Iraq 2x2 50,000 each
South Oil Company stage
State Oil Marketing Organisation for Zubair Mishrif 4 x 2 stage 40,000 each
South Oil Company Hammar Mishrif,
Iraq
- 87 -
LOCATION NO. CAPACITY (BPD)
COUNTRY
Sunkyong/TOR Ghana 1 45,000
TRCN/Rayong Thailand 1 148,000
- 88 -
NATCO Howmar Dehydrator and Desalter Users List
COMPANY, LOCATION CAPACITY (BPD)
COUNTRY
Australia Mobil, Adelaide 24,600
Australia SIPM/SRAP 120,000
CIS Ludan, Astrakan 70,250
Egypt Alexander Refining Co. 40,000
Egypt Alexander Refining Co. 43,300
Egypt ZAFCO 25,000
England BNOC, Nigg Bay 100,000
Finland Neste Oy 4,100
Germany Shell, Hamburg 45,000
Greece NAPC, Prinos Refinery, Athens 27,000
India HPCL Refinery, Bombay 60,000
India Madras Refineries Ltd. 66,000
Iran Kala Naft 60,000
Iraq INOC, Basrah 2 units - 80,000 each
Iraq SCOP, Sfaya Field 25,000
Iraq SCOP, West Qurna Field 6 units - 52,000 each
Kuwait KOC, GC’s 2, 4, 5 12 units - 25,000 each
Kuwait KOC, GC 23 4 units - 30,000 each
North Sea, Holland AMOCO, P-15 Platform 25,000
North Sea, Norway Statoil/Aker/RJSL 75,000
Veslefrikk Field
North Sea, UK Amerada Hess Ivanhoe / Rob Roy 63,400
Fields
North Sea, UK Bluewater / Talisman Energy 40,000
Ross Field
North Sea, UK Phillips, Maureen 80,000
North Sea, UK Shell, Curlew 45,000
North Sea, UK Shell, Fulmar 37,500
Philippines Shell -
Russia Machinoimport 12 units - 60,000 each
Russia MAG/Salawat IV 98,300
Russia Tenguiz Field 12 units - 58,000 each
(Trains 1, 2 & 3)
Russia Western Siberia Oilfields 12 units - 90,000 each
Saudi Arabia Aramco, Well Heads 20,000
Singapore Singapore Petroleum Co. 70,000
Sweden Nynas Petroleum Co., Nynashamn 25,000
Sweden Shell, Koppartrans 28,600
Vietnam White Tiger Oilfield 2 units - 30,000 each
- 89 -
Partial Users List
Oil Fow Vessel %BS&W

Customer ºAPI Country
BPD Size Out
Crestar Energy 2520 13.5 8’ x 35’ 0.3 Canada
Crestar Energy 2520 13.5 8’ x 35’ 0.3 Canada
Renaissance Energy 6111 12 12’ x 80’ 0.3 Canada
Crestar Energy 3150 15 10’ x 35’ 0.3 Canada
Norcen Energy 1890 17 8’ x 35’ 0.5 Canada
Gulf Canada Resources 2205 14 10’ x 40’ 0.3 Canada
Black Rock Resources 2205 14 10’ x 40’ 0.3 Canada
Contour Energy 1890 15 8’ x 30’ 0.3 Canada
Wascana Energy 4410 14 10’ x 70’ 0.3 Canada
Canadian Natural Resources 3200 11 10’ x 70’ 0.3 Canada
Wascana Energy 10080 16 12’ x 80’ 0.3 Canada
Sceptre Resources 3780 17 8’ x 25’ 0.5 Canada
Sceptre Resources 9904 17 8’ x 25’ 0.5 Canada
Amoco Canada 15851 17 10’ x 40’ 0.5 Canada
BP Exploration 62880 16 10’ x 60’ 0.5 Canada
Chauvco 13073 15 8’ x 40’ 0.5 Canada
BP Exploration 15 8’ x 25’ 0.5 Canada
Morgan Hydrocarbons 23738 12 10’ x 50’ 0.5 Canada
Morgan Hydrocarbons 23738 12 10’ x 50’ 0.5 Canada
Petro-Canada 7724 12 10’ x 50’ 0.5 Canada
Canada Amoco Canada 21130 11 10’ x 70’ 0.5 Canada
Amoco Canada (Dome) 20160 11 10’ x 70’ 0.5 Canada
BP Exploration 10 8’ x 30’ 0.5 Canada
Renaissance Energy 1197 13.6 12’ x 85’ 0.2-0.4 Canada
Renaissance Energy 3969 16-18 10’ x 60’ 0.3 Canada
Renaissance Energy 4032 16-18 10’ x 60’ 0.7 Canada
Crestar Energy 3150 16 10’ x 50’ 0.3 Canada
- 90 -
Renaissance Energy 1575 15.4 8’ x 35’ 0.4 Canada
Petrozuata (Upstream) 160000 17 10’ x 60’ 0.7 Venezuela
Petrozuata Jose 160000 17 12’ x 60’ 0.7 Venezuela
Operadora Cerro Negro 150000 15.2 14’ x 100’ 0.5-0.6 Venezuela
Sincor (Upstream) 175000 17 12’ x 90’ 0.5 Venezuela
Perez Companc 10000 19 10’ x 45’ 0.5 Venezuela
NOTE: Please note that many of these applications are at low flux to obtain the very low BS&Ws required for heavy
oil in cold climates.
- 91 -
Appendix III
Components
Electrostatic Transformers
Installation Procedure for New or Replacement Entrance Bushings and Bushing Housings
Transformer Oil Specifications & Material Safety Data Sheet
Transformer Oil Filtration Procedure for Operating Units
Electrostatic Dehydrator/Desalter Inspection Punch-List
Products Made for NATCO by ELECTROTECH (Hangers, Entrance Bushings, Tester)
- 92 -
Electrostatic coalescence generally proceeds through a mechanism of drop polarization,
alignment of the polarized drops, and “chaining” of these drops along the lines of force of the
electrostatic field. These conductive chains lead to frequent electrical discharges or arcing
between the electrodes. The arcs are a normal part of the process, and because they are
submerged in oil, they do not produce any damage. However, a steel electrode array is
momentarily discharged by an arc, and if the arcs occur with sufficient frequency (as in a
wet emulsion), the electrodes may be discharged for a sufficient duration for slippage of
process fluids without adequate exposure to the field. Composite plate electrodes may be
used to increase the water tolerance of the system under such conditions. These electrodes
consist of plates of composite (fiber reinforced plastic) construction with graphite or carbon
embedded in the central portion of the plate to impart conductivity along the length of the
plate. The remainder of the plate contains filler materials that lead to the adsorption of a
layer of water on the plate surface. This adsorbed water layer then becomes the conductive
medium along the height of the plate. Since such an adsorbed layer is quite resistive, any
arcing that occurs is quickly quenched. As a result, only the area in the immediate vicinity of
the arc is discharged and slippage is almost eliminated. Composite plates are normally
spaced on 5 to 6 inch centers and are approximately 15 inches high. They are used on Dual
Polarity® processes for increased water tolerance and in all ElectroDynamic® Desalters.
Advantages of Composite Plates

• Tolerant of high water content dispersions
• More effective treatment of conductive liquids
• Produce a graduated field for better drop growth
• Less slippage or by-passing of untreated process liquids due to arcs
• Provide greater retention time in the electrode zone
• Resistant to vessel motion due to mechanically stable array
Installations
Please see the users list. The earliest of these dates back to 1978.
- 93 -
COMPOSITE ELECTRODES
INNOVATIVE IMPROVEMENT IN ELECTROSTATIC DEHYDRATION TECHNOLOGY
For 35 years NATCO has supplied electrostatic dehydration technology and equipment to the
oil producing and refining industries. NATCO's commitment to aggressive research has
steered the industry's processing expectations, with breakthroughs such as the Dual Polarity
and the Electro-Dynamic processes.
Electrostatic dehydration is accomplished in pressurized vessels into which an electrode

system has been suspended from insulators. The produced crude oil, containing water and
mineral contaminants, is treated by passing it through the charged electrodes at low velocity.
The high voltage field induces coalescence of tiny dispersed water droplets. Droplet growth
forces sedimentation to the underlying oil/water interface, and the accumulated water is
discharged as a separate phase.
In conventional systems the electrodes are a series of lightweight rods or plates designed to
distribute the voltage field across the vessel, yet leave the space unobstructed to the through-
flow of oil. They have traditionally been fabricated from carbon steel or stainless steel. Such
highly conductive materials easily distribute the electrical charge, but suffer from a potentially
crippling limitation. If for any reason a short circuit is developed between the electrodes and
the water interface an electrical discharge will instantly bleed all electrical charge from the
entire electrode. If the short-circuit persists, the electrodes will remain de-energized and the
dehydration process will not be performed. Such short circuits are not uncommon, and may
be temporary or longer lasting.
To help overcome this problem NATCO has developed the industry's first non-metallic
electrode system. The "composite electrode" utilizes a series of plates charged with a Dual
Polarity field configuration. The plates are made of a non-conductive high temperature plastic.
Special surface properties allow a surface charge to be distributed from a central conductive
strip. The strip is located on only one side of each plate as shown in Figure 1. This limits the
ability of an electrical arc to form between electrodes. If a short circuit develops from one of
the plates to the water surface, the local surface charge will be quickly dissipated. However
since the conductivity of the plates is very low, no arc will be sustained since energy cannot
feed the discharged area fast enough. During the localized short circuit the electrode remains
fully charged except for that small area being discharged.
Another benefit of the composite electrode is the reduction of the voltage field toward extreme
edges of the plates. The electrical flux is highest near the vertical center of the plates at the
conductive portion. Moving away from the conductive strip the field flux degrades as shown in
Figure 2. This "softens" the electrical stress at the top and bottom edges which is usually high
when metallic electrodes are used. This high stress can result in re-entrainment of separated
- 94 -
water. The result is better dehydration performance with composite electrodes.
Extremely conductive crude oils can cause corrosion to metal electrodes. Composite
electrodes are resistant to such corrosion, and are well suited for severe environments. They
have been tested in the laboratory to 400°F, and have operated in refinery service at 300°F.
These electrodes have been in production service since about 1983. They are now an integral
part of NATCO's proprietary Electrodynamic Desalter, an innovative electrostatic counterflow
process which is redefining performance limits for refinery and field desalters.
IMPROVEMENT IN ELECTROSTATIC CRUDE OIL TREATMENT USING

COMPOSITE ELECTRODES®
The use of a high voltage electrostatic field in crude oil treatment is standard practice in
refineries and in many field dehydration facilities. One such apparatus, Natco’s Dual
Polarity®, uses a matrix of parallel steel plates, one charged positive, the next negative,
and so on. The entire matrix is submerged in the crude oil phase such that the crude flows
between the charged plates. There the electrostatic field causes extensive coalescence of
the dispersed contaminants, which are then able to precipitate out of the oil.
There are often limitations due to conductivity of the crude oil. Some of the contaminants
such as water, mineral salts and undissolved solids increase its conductivity. It may not
readily support the high voltage electric field. With steel, the traditional material of
construction for such electrodes, anytime there occurs an arc from the electrode, through
the oil, to the vessel shell or the oil/water interface the electrode voltage quickly discharges
to zero. Such arcing is frequent in some oils, and the electrostatic voltage field is
momentarily lost for the entire electrode because of this minute current leakage.
To accommodate highly conductive process conditions, Natco has developed the

Composite Plate Electrode. It uses electrode plates constructed of a composite of several
materials engineered to have specific electrical properties very different from steel. The
plates themselves are relatively non-conductive, but have surface properties that promote
the migration of a surface charge. They have a charged conductive strip imbedded under
one face. The high voltage charge spreads over the whole surface of a plate from the
conductive strip, but slowly because of the low conductivity. With Composite Electrodes,
when an arc occurs it causes voltage discharge only in the immediate locality of the arc.
The electrode, being itself a poor conductor, cannot feed the arc enough current to sustain
it, and it is quenched. The remainder of the electrode is unaffected by this local
perturbation. Furthermore, in conductive oils, the more remote edges of the electrode will
exhibit a lower voltage than those portions adjacent the conductive strip due to bleed-off of
charge from the electrode surface. This produces a “tapered” electrical charge with lower
voltages at its edges where electrical stress is concentrated, and arcing is typically most
prevalent.
There are several benefits to using the Composite Electrode system. Because of its
resistance to arcing, it allows a dehydrator or desalter to function in oils that are much more
- 95 -
conductive than a steel electrode would allow. This includes higher water-cut feedstocks.
It is more tolerant of interface rag build-up, that is the accumulation of stable and highly
conductive emulsions on the interface that can build upward into the electrostatic field.
Finally Composite Electrodes produce a more constant, sustained electric field, less
disturbed by localized voltage discharges. As a result of these qualities a more efficient
coalescence occurs. This allows the dehydrator or desalter to achieve lower BS&W in the
discharged oil, and higher throughput capacity. These benefits are observed in easy-to-
treat oils as well as in highly conductive oils.
To demonstrate the performance improvement Composite Electrodes will produce, we offer

several cases based on laboratory testing. Testing was conducted in Natco’s Research
and Development Laboratory in Tulsa, Oklahoma, using imported crude oils from around
the world.
Case 1 – North Sea FPSO Dehydrator for Heavy Crude

The following tests were run to simulate an existing dehydrator with steel electrodes, to
determine the feasibility of converting to Composite Electrodes. These tests were all
conducted on 20 API crude samples with 15% water cut, at 200F using the same
demulsifier chemical and dosage, with a 23 kv electric field.
Grid Load Outlet BS&W (%) Outlet BS&W (%)

(bpd/sq.ft.) Using Using Composite
Steel Electrodes
Electrodes
33 1.2 0.4
53 1.3 0.75
76 1.2 0.6
107 1.2 0.6
The performance was quite insensitive to grid load in the range tested. As a result of these
tests, the dehydrator was modified to use Composite Electrodes. Field results were similar
to test results except that actual BS&W values (for both steel electrodes and Composite
Electrodes) were a little lower than those achieved in the laboratory on aged crude
samples.
Case 2 –Dehydration of Mayan Crude, Mexico

These tests were conducted to determine the best treatment method and other design
parameters for a prospective new dehydrator. A large number of tests were performed on
this 20 API crude oil sample, not shown here. Near the end of testing, conditions were
initiated that created a severe interface rag build-up. The following tests were selected to
show the relative response of Composite Electrodes to the rag. The two tests shown were
conducted with 15% water cut at 220F and at a grid load of 60 bpd/sq.ft. using an identical
type and dosage of demulsifier.
- 96 -
Grid Load Outlet BS&W (%) Outlet BS&W (%)
(bpd/sq.ft.) Using Using Composite
Steel Electrodes
Electrodes
60 1.2 - 1.5 0.72 - 0.92
Case 3 – Arabian Heavy Crude Field Desalters

Extensive testing was conducted to help determine feasibility of upgrading existing
desalters. The test oil was a series of 28 API single-well samples, not representative of the
actual desalter feed, but much more stable due to surfactant contamination. The tests
shown are for an AC process using both steel electrodes and Composite Electrodes.
Operating temperature was 150F.
Water Wash Water Mix Valve Grid Load Electrode Outlet BS&W (%)
Content of Addition (% of Pressure (bpd/sq.ft.) Type
Feed Stream Crude Flow) Drop (psi)
(%)
3 3 6 64 Steel Could not establish voltage
due to high current - Process
Failure!
31 none 0 60 Composite 0.29
The feed conditions are not identical, but the differences would not have caused process
failure in the low BS&W stream. The Composite Electrodes were able to establish a
voltage field even in the higher water cut feed, while the steel electrodes were incapacitated
by high current and the corresponding loss of voltage.
A major university conducted independent tests on Composite Electrodes. Because the

tests were underwritten by an oil-producing company, the results were not made available
to Natco. However, we were told ‘off-the-record’ that Composite Electrodes showed a
distinct advantage over metallic electrodes.
- 97 -
Electrotech, Inc.
SAPULPA, OK
Electrotech, Inc.
11549 S. 49th W. Ave.
Sapulpa, Oklahoma 74066
(918) 224-5869
CATALOG OF PRODUCTS
PROVIDED FOR
NATCO GROUP
- 98 -
Et E lectr otech, I nc.
I
ENTRANCE BUSHINGS
4.2"
7.25" 10.5"
11.7"
15.25"
EBD-1500
(NATCO part no. 48126009)
The EBD-1500 Entrance bushing is a 1½” NPT bushing designed to
deliver up to 23,000 volts into crude oil electrostatic dehydrator and
desalter process vessels. This bushing has undergone continuous
improvements in design and materials to optimize its electrical and
mechanical performance. EBD-1500S
When installing an entrance bushing, a specified length of high
voltage cable and Teflon tubing will be required. Therefore, when The EBD-1500S Entrance Bushing includes a 1” NPT x 1½” NPT x
ordering an entrance bushing, the length of high voltage cable and 10½” long swage. The “S” version of the EBD-1500 is primarily
Teflon tubing must be specified. These items will be listed separately employed to allow the use of new style bushings with older style
and priced by the foot x the length. The High Voltage Cable is a process vessels having 1” NPT entrance bushing connections. The
special corona resistant Teflon insulated conductor specifically swage is used to extend the entrance bushing into the liquid phase of
manufactured for NATCO (NATCO part no. 48126050). The tubing the process. Corona present in the gas phase of electrostatic
is ¾”od x ½”id PTFE Teflon available in lengths to 6 feet (NATCO coalescers will attack Teflon and other materials used in the
part no. 11650075). The tubing is needed to center the high voltage construction of entrance bushings.
cable in the conduit. Centering is important to reduce electrical
stress on the high voltage cable.
- 99 -
I
SBA-2500 ENTRANCE BUSHING
The SBA-2500 is a 2” NPT entrance bushing designed for 60 kV to be used
on NATCO Electrodynamic Desalters. The Electrodynamic Desalter
utilizes electrostatic mixing of the dilution water which requires high
voltage modulation on the electrodes. This high voltage modulation
generates extra electrical stress on the entrance bushing. The SBA-2500
was tested at the University of Tulsa high voltage lab to 200 kV without 4.75"
failure. The electrical conduit between the SBA-2500 and the transformer
is usually a 6” boot filled with transformer oil. A typical installation is
shown below.
Relief valves
Boot
r elief valve
TI- 60FT
Isolat ion Bushing
TI- 60
Isolat ion
Bushing Sight glass
3.875"
Oil
level Oil
To high level
voltage winding
High 22.18"
volt age
cable
DC
Diode
pack
AC
Teflon 1.25"OD x 1"ID
cent er ing Teflon t ubing
Diode compartment r ings
Transformer/ 6"schedule
reactor tank 40 boot
Teflon
6 in. vessel cent er ing r ing
connect ion
Bleed r ing
Gr ound
wir e
Bleed valve
13.555"
Cr ude
oil level
SBA- 2500
ent r ance 4"boot
bushing ext ension
Gr ounding
float
Cont act r od
St ainless
Pr ocess st eel cable
vessel shell
1.250"
TYPICAL SBA- 2500 INSTALLATION

SBA-2500
- 100 -
I
TRANSFORMER ISOLATION BUSHINGS

These bushings are installed in the wall of the diode
compartment of NWL transformers. They are suitable for
submergence in transformer oil to temperatures of 160 F.
TI-23
(NWL part no. H15022)
The TI-23 high voltage bushing (photo 1on the right) isolates the
diode compartment from the transformer compartment on NWL
23kV transformers. The TI-23 bushing as pictured contains a 3/8”-
24 threaded connection on the left side of the bushing and a 5/16”-
18 stud on the right side of the bushing. The TI-23 is easily
installed through a 1.625” hole.
TI-23FT
The TI-23FT high voltage feed through bushing (photo 2 on the

right) isolates the diode compartment of NWL 23kV transformers
from the entrance bushing boot on NATCO electrostatic coalescers.
The compression fitting as pictured on the right side of the feed-
through permits the high voltage cable or conductor rod assembly
to pass through the bushing into the diode compartment. The TI-
23FT is also installed through a 1.625” hole.
TI-60
The TI-60 high voltage bushing (photo 1 on the right) isolates the
diode compartment from the high voltage transformer compartment
on NWL 60 kV transformers. The stainless steel fitting as pictured
on the right of the TI-60 bushing has an internal 5/16”-24
connection that will accept a banana plug. A ¼” diameter hole in
the stainless steel fitting permits the high voltage wiring to be
secured with the ¼”-20 bolt. The TI-60 bushing is installed through
a 2.125” hole.
TI-60FT
The TI-60FT high voltage feed through bushing (photo 2 on the

right) isolates the diode compartment of NWL 60kV transformers
from the entrance bushing boot on NATCO Electrodynamic
Desalters. The compression fitting as pictured on the right side of
the feed-through permits a high voltage cable or conductor rod
assembly to pass through the bushing into the diode compartment.
The TI-60FT is also installed through a 2.125” hole.
- 101 -
I
Relief valve
3" flange
Oil level
Teflon
centering
ring
Oil level
TI-23FT
feed through
Nylon
bushing compression TI-23 bushings
AC connections
fitting 5/16"-18 NC
threads
Diode pack 3/8"-24 bolt
To transformer
Two #324 high voltage winding
conductive o-rings
DC connection
THE HIGH VOLTAGE CABLE TO THE

Diode THIS NUT IS PRE TORQUED BY THE MANUFACTURER TO
PROVIDE THE PROPER COMPRESSION ON THE SMALL
ENTRANCE BUSHING CAN BE PASSED compartment O-RING AT THE OPPOSITE END OF THE CONDUCTOR
AND IS LOCKED IN PLACE WITH LOCTITE. DO NOT
DIRECTLY THROUGH THE TI-23FT AS
TORQUE ACROSS THE CONDUCTOR FROM
SHOWN HERE OR A CONDUCTOR ROD END TO END.
ASSEMBLY SIMILAR TO THAT USED WITH
TI-60FT BUSHINGS BELOW CAN BE USED.
Transformer / reactor tank
TYPICAL TI-23 INSTALLATION
Relief valves
Boot
relief valve TI-60FT feed
through Bushing
Conductor rod
assembly
TI-60
Isolation
Sight glass Bushing
Oil
level
Oil
level
To high voltage
winding
High
voltage
cable
1/4"-20 bolt
Diode
pack DC
1.25"OD x 1"ID
Teflon tubing internal thread 5/16"-24 will
accept a 1/4" banana plug
AC or a conductor rod
Teflon
centering
6"schedule
rings Diode compartment Transformer / reactor tank
40 boot
TYPICAL TI-60 INSTALLATION

- 102 -
I
ELECTRODE HANGERS
The electrode hangers are used to provide electrical insulation between the
high voltage electrodes and the vessel shell. They must also provide
mechanical support for the weight of the electrodes and any additional fluid
forces that might be present.
HSA-15
HIGH STRENGTH ELECTRODE HANGER
The HSA-15 is a high strength electrode hanger typically used on Floating

Production Storage Off-Loading (FPSO) facilities. This hanger has been
designed to handle the fluid forces produced in electrostatic coalescers
designed for FPSO applications. Typically, the HSA-15 uses universal joints to
connect the hanger directly between the electrode support rails and the vessel
support brackets. The HSA-15 hanger will support heavy loads and has been
tested to 20,000 lbs. without failure. In FPSO service, it is rated for 1,000 lbs
of continuous load to temperatures of 300 deg. F.
The HSA-15U (photo 3 at the right) has universal joints directly connected to
both ends of the hanger (NATCO part no. 48012235). The universal joints are
tapped to accept ½”-13 NC bolts. Photo 2 shows the same unit with an
extension of 1” NPT pipe and a ½”-13 NC stud to provide some length
adjustment. The pipe and ½” stud length must be specified separately when
ordering. Photo 1 shows the HSA-15S with swivels and ½”-13 x 6” studs on
both ends (NATCO part no. 48012234). The HSA-15S is designed for
applications other than FPSO facilities.
HTA-2000
HIGH TEMPERATURE ELECTRODE HANGER
The HTA-2000 electrode hanger is a 2” solid Teflon hanger. It has been

mechanically tested at the NATCO R&D lab and is rated for 350lbs
continuous load at temperatures up to 250 deg. F. It is available in two
configurations, the HTA-2000S (photo 1 on the right) with swivel connections
(NATCO part no. 48012230) and the HTA-2000T (photo 2 at the right) with
rigid connections (NATCO part no. 48012232). The HTA-2000S is used on
process applications other than FPSO facilities when the process temperature
exceeds 200 deg. F.
- 103 -
I
HSA-15 High Strength Hanger
The HSA-15 Electrode Hanger is a 1-1/2 in. High Strength
Hanger. It has been pull-tested to 20,000 lbs. without failure.
and is rated for 1000 lbs. continuous use @ 300 deg. F.
HSA-15U with universal joints

and rigid pipe extensions
Length to be specified by NATCO
HSA-15U with universal

joints both ends
HSA-15 Hanger is
standard with
1/2"-13 high
strength steel studs
3.75"
15.00"
16.50"
15.00"
15.00"
22.50"
3.75"
3.75"
- 104 -
I
The drawing on the right gives the dimensions of the standard
HTA-2000S hanger. The swivels, unless otherwise specified, are
fitted with ½”-13 NC B-7 steel studs six inches long. If different
material or stud lengths are required it must be specified when
ordering.
6"x 1/2"-13 NC
The drawing below gives the dimensions for the HTA-2000T with STEEL STUD
a ¾”-10 NC steel studs. It is available with other lengths of ½”-13
NC or ¾”-10 steel studs. When ordering HTA-2000T the size and
length must be specified.
SPHERICAL WASHER
1/2"-13 NC STEEL NUT
0.500 STEEL PIN
3"x 3/4"-10 NC
STEEL STUD
3/4"-10 NC STEEL
LOCK NUT
14.00"
16.25"
2" SOLID BILLET

0.500" STEEL PIN
16.25"
SOLID BILLET
0.500 STEEL PIN
HTA-2000T 1/2"-13 NC STEEL NUT

(NATCO part no. 48012232) SPHERICAL WASHER
6"x 1/2"-13 NC
STEEL STUD
HTA-2000S
- 105 -
I
EST-100 EMULSION STABILITY TESTER
ELECTROSTATIC
FIELD # 1
ELECTROSTATIC
TEMPERATURE FIELD # 2
CONTROL
BACK LIGHTS FOR
HEATERS ELECTROSTATIC FIELD #1
HIGH-VOLTAGE
TEFLON SHIELD BOTH ELECTROSTATIC
FIELDS SIMULTANEOUSLY
BACK LIGHTS FOR

ELECTROSTATIC FIELD #2
HEATER
BLOCK
RECORDER
100%
CONNECTIONS
75%
100%
50%
25%
75%
50%
25% POWER INPUT

CONNECTION
VARIABLE TRANSFORMER
INPUT CONNECTION
The Emulsion Stability Tester (EST-100) is a portable device designed to determine and compare
the treatability of oil field emulsions. It is extremely useful for comparing and evaluating the
effectiveness of various demulsifier chemicals. Equipped with a plotter, it provides a graphic
representation of electrostatic dehydration. In the EST-100, a sample of emulsion is exposed to an
electrostatic field and the energy and time required to coalesce and separate its components are
measured and displayed graphically. The EST-100 has two completely isolated test cells
permitting two samples to be evaluated at the same time. Both the voltage and current of each
electrostatic test cell are available for plotting.
- 106 -
I
By using a two-channel recorder, a single graph can display both of these parameters for one test
cell, or the currents passing through two separate samples may be plotted for a sample-to-sample
comparison. A similar sample-to-sample comparison between two separate samples may be
plotted for voltage. The current plots best represents the energy consumed by the coalescing
process.
TWO PIN RECORDER
The plots below compare the currents for two identical emulsions under similar conditions except
one sample contains a demulsifying chemical and the other does not.
- 107 -
Et
I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
With Chemical
Without Chemical
E lectr otech, I nc.
- 108 -
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Appendix IV
Sample Dual Polarity® Dehydrator Operating Manual
- 109 -
INSTRUCTION MANUAL FOR
INSTALLATION, START-UP, AND OPERATION
OF CRUDE OIL Dehydrator
* * *
“CLIENT”
“CLIENT” Floating Production Facility
* * *
The following is an example of a manual for Dual Polarity Dehydrators. This

manual was prepared for an installation on a SPAR. Only those details identifying
the client have been changed.
NOTE: Values specific to the original job are shown in brackets []. These should be
replaced with current values when this manual is used as a pattern.
- 110 -
I. INTRODUCTION / SCOPE OF SUPPLY
It is imperative that this manual be read completely prior to startup and that a copy be
located at the operating unit at all times.
This order is comprised of one (1) NATCO Crude Oil Degasser / Electrostatic
Coalescer package to be installed on Client’s Floating Production Facility. The
package is designed for the following parameters:
Total Fluid Rate [105,000] bpd (maximum)

Oil Rate [94,500] bpd (maximum)
Oil Gravity [32°] API
Dry Oil Viscosity [10] cp @ [120° F]
[5] cp @ [160° F]
[3] cp @ [200° F]
Water Rate [10,500] bpd (maximum)
Water Sp. Gr. [1.025 @ 60° F]
Gas Rate [14] mmscfd
Inlet Temperature [160° F] minimum for [32°] API
Outlet BS&W [<0.5%]
Oil in Water [1000] ppm (estimated)
Motion Conditions (Operating) Maximum Values
[Only for floating applications] Pitch and Roll
± [10] degrees with [60 to 70] second period
Lateral Acceleration – [0.35] g
Vertical Acceleration – [0.35] g
Wind Velocity – [158] mph
And consisting of:
One (1) NATCO [144” ID x 40’ S/S x 165] psig/FV design pressure, ASME code
constructed and stamped, electrostatic coalescer with [120” ID x 30’ S/S x 165] psig/FV top
mounted ASME Code constructed and stamped, horizontal two-phase degassing vessel.
Internals for both vessels to include the following:
1. Degasser internals (all shipped installed)
a. Provisions for centrifugal inlet device

b. Wave baffles at the liquid / gas interface
c. Vortex breaker on liquid outlet
d. Vane type (316 SS) structured packing (mist eliminator)
2. Electrostatic coalescer internals (all shipped installed except where noted)
a. Inlet downcomer (interconnecting pipe, shipped loose)

b. Wave baffles at the oil and water interface
c. High voltage electrode section with [composite] electrodes
d. Oil collector pipe
e. Vortex breaker on water outlet
- 111 -
f. Shrouded pipe emulsion distributors full length of vessel shell
3. Vessel Externals
a. Saddle supports
b. Lifting lugs
c. Insulation rings
d. Nameplate
e. Ground lugs
4. Vessel Connections:
In accordance with P&ID (section [3.4] of manual) or vessel data sheet
5. Electrical Accessories:
a. Dual Polarity (AC-DC) electrode set to run full length of the vessel, shipped
installed. Electrode plates will be constructed of a fiberglass / graphite
composite material.
b. One set of insulator hangers
c. [Three (3) 50] KVA, single phase, [480V, 60] HZ primary, 100% reactance
transformer with multiple secondary taps up to 23 KV. Transformer is
certified for a Class 1, Group D, Div. 2 hazardous area [and constructed of
316 SS].
d. Two NATCO high voltage entrance bushings with fittings.
e. [Three (3)] Voltmeter, ammeter, and local start/stop station to be mounted
on a rack on the side of the vessel. Customer is to provide circuit protection.
f. Two internal low level float switches.
g. The transformers are 100% reactance type which means that they are self
protected against any damage in case of a short on the high voltage side.
The transformers can operate continuously with the secondary shorted.
The Customer must provide the power supply to the transformer from the motor
control center and furnish the circuit protection at the MCC.
- 112 -
6. Coating
• Internal
• Primer – [Interline 955 12.0-14.0 mils DFT White]
• Intermediate Coat – [Interline 955 Stripe Welds Buff]
• Final Coat – [Interline 955 12.0-14.0 mils DFT Buff]
• Bottom Half of Oil Treater only
• External
• Insulated areas
• Primer – [Intertherm 228 4.0-6.0 mils DFT White]
• Final Coat – [Intertherm 228 4.0-6.0 mils DFT Gray]
• Non-Insulated areas
• Primer – [Interzinc 52 2.5-3.5 mils DFT Manufacturer Standard]
• Intermediate Coat – [Intergard 475HS 6.0-8.0 mils DFT Buff]
• Final Coat – [Interline 629HS 2.0-3.0 mils DFT Pearl Gray]
7. Instrument and Electrical
Power supply and circuit protection are to be provided by end-user. End-user to

supply power cables from the MCC direct to the transformer primary junction box.
8. Utility Consumption:
Electrical
a. For transformer [480V, 60] Hz, single phase power supply
Total
[150] KVA Connected load
[75] KW Maximum load in shorted condition
[30] KW Normal load
Per Transformer
[50] KVA Connected load
[25] KW Maximum load in shorted condition
[10] KW Normal load
- 113 -
b. Chemicals
By others but should include the following:
Demulsifier
Scale Inhibitor
Water Treatment
Corrosion
9. Insulation
By others
NATCO’s Scope of Supply comprises only a part of a complete system. The Customer must
confirm that all components of the system are compatible.
NOTE: It must be noted by the reader that no manual or set of instructions can foresee
all possible situations due to the myriad of combinations of pressure,
temperature, and operating conditions possible in operations. The reader is
therefore, advised that the services of a competent on-site technical consultant
during start-up and operating of this equipment is essential to prudent and safe
operation. This manual is furnished for information purposes only. NATCO
shall not be liable for the use of this manual or any of the information contained
in whole or in part, as that use relates to plant operating efficiently, plant
malfunctions, plant operator interpretation, and particularly accidents or unsafe
conditions which could arise in any operating facility.
The safe operation of any facility remains the responsibility of the Owner or
Lessee of the equipment and those directly involved in the operation of such
facilities.
- 114 -
II. SAFETY
IMPORTANT: Read and understand the entire operating and maintenance manual before
starting to work. Observe and comply with all cautions and warnings given here, in other
sections of the manual, and in vendor literature.
A. Special Notes
1. Make certain that all skids, vessels, and electrical equipment are properly
grounded.
2. Do not enter any vessel until it is vented and checked for dangerous or
explosive gas.
3. Do not work on vessels or equipment while in operation or while under

pressure.
4. Vent all process and instrument gas pressures before working on equipment.
5. Check for explosive gases in the area before performing any work.
6. Do not work on this equipment if any other work in the area could result in
release of explosive vapor.
7. WARNING
After equipment has been in service, do not cut or weld on any process lines or
vessels for any reason. Accumulations of hydrocarbons can result in explosive
conditions.
Any work on the vessels or piping requires special precautions that are not
covered in this manual.
8. WARNING
Keep hands away from mechanical linkages while equipment is in operation.

Operation is automatic and may occur without notice.
9. WARNING
The control panel and control circuits operate on 120 VAC and 24 VDC
electrical power. Use extreme care when servicing. Lethal electrical shock is
possible. Only qualified personnel must service this equipment.
10. WARNING
The high voltage transformer operates on 480 VAC electrical power. Lock
power "off" before servicing. Use extreme care when servicing. Lethal electric
- 115 -
shock is possible. Only qualified personnel must service this equipment.
11. WARNING
Power must be turned off prior to operating the manual “OFFLINE” Tap switch
located on the high voltage transformers.
The Electrostatic Treater high voltage electrodes and electrical system

components operate on 23,000 VAC electrical power. Lock power "off" before
servicing. Lethal electric shock is possible. Only qualified personnel must
service this equipment. Make certain power is locked "off" before entering the
vessel.
12. WARNING
Before initial testing of transformer and electrical system, the vessel must be
vented and carefully checked for any combustible vapor. After the initial
startup, the power must never be applied to the transformer unless the vessel
is filled with liquid. Any spark generated in the presence of combustible vapors
may create a lethal explosion. Only qualified personnel must service this
equipment.
Operate the equipment within the specified design conditions.
13. WARNING
“CONFINED SPACE ENTRY PROCEDURES” must be followed for any entry

into the vessel. Death from asphyxiation is possible.
a. All process and utility connections must be blinded.

b. The vessel must be certified gas free.
c. Personnel must have “CONFINED SPACE ENTRY TRAINING” by an
approved authority.
d. A “hole watch” must be provided.
This is not a complete list of safety precautions. Refer to Vessel Entry on

pages 9 & 10. NATCO can provide “Confined Space Entry Training”.
If there are any questions or concerns about safety issues, please contact
NATCO HSE department at 713.683.9292.
14. CAUTION
Only fill or drain the vessel under calm conditions to avoid damage to the
vessel internals.
B. General Safety
1. Definite safety procedures should be prepared for the employees. Plant
- 116 -
supervision should make certain that employees understand their duties and
responsibilities. Employees should understand that it is their personal
responsibility to report to their immediate supervisor any abnormal
circumstances, such as:
a. Leaks
b. Accumulation of gas or vapor.
c. Defective or damaged equipment.
d. Abnormal conditions such as excessively high or low temperature or
pressure.
e. Infractions of safety regulations.
f. Unauthorized vehicles or personnel in the area.
Operating personnel should be familiar with location of fire protection and first
aid equipment in the area and trained in the use of such equipment.
Employees should know how to report a fire or an emergency and have a clear
understanding of their duties during such emergencies.
2. Normal Operation
a. Procedures for the loading of product should be prepared and should

be followed.
b. Transportation vehicles should not be permitted to operate within plant

area or loading area while area is contaminated with flammable vapors
or while loading of product.
c. Regular inspections of the loading area should be made of items, such

as, grounding of electrical equipment, housekeeping, lines, valves or
cocks for leaks, proper drainage or venting from loading area, and
elimination of nearby open flames during loading operations.
d. Procedures covering the starting up and shutting down of processing

equipment and units should be reviewed and rehearsed thoroughly by
those responsible for operation of the equipment.
3. Emergency Operations
a. General
When flammable liquids or vapors escape from tanks, vessels, or lines,

available means should be used for limiting their spread and preventing
their ignition. The extent of the contaminated area should first be
defined and the area identified by suitable warning signs, and patrolled.
Spills should be cleaned up as soon as possible.
b. Liquid Leaks
If a break or serious leak occurs in a liquid line, the pumps should be
- 117 -
shutdown and any block valves closed.
If the leak involves a tank or any relatively large vessel, portable pumps
may be required to recover the liquid. Trenches, dikes, or diversion
walls should be used either to confine the liquid or divert the flow.
Foam may be applied to cover the spills in order to exclude air, but this
is not normally necessary. Water spray applied at the point of emission
of a leak may aid in the dispersal of vapors and prevent ignition.
In the case of very light leaks which give off quantities of vapor, the
procedures listed for gas leaks should also be followed.
c. Gas Leaks
In the event of a break to a gas or liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) line or

vessel, all fires downwind of the break should be extinguished. Before
operations are resumed, tests should be made at pits, trenches, or
dikes where gas might accumulate. Portable gas indicators for making
such tests will indicate if a flammable gas or vapor is present.
If a break occurs in area where adjoining properly is owned by outside

interests, prompt measures should be taken to notify those concerned
of the potential hazard that exists and to eliminate any sources of
ignition.
The vapors from large LPG leaks may roll along the ground and blanket
large areas under certain weather conditions.
It may be possible at times to disperse flammable mixtures by means of

forced ventilation or large quantities of steam or water fog.
4. Maintenance Procedures
a. General
Fire prevention in connection with maintenance work depends primarily

upon careful planning and removal of flammable liquids, vapors, and
other flammable materials before work starts. In certain instances, it is
not possible to remove all flammable materials; and at such times,
precautions must be taken to prevent ignition sources from contacting
flammable mixtures or to exclude oxygen. A procedure should be set
up for warning personnel and stopping maintenance work in the event
of a release of flammable vapors or liquids in the area where the work
is being done.
b. Work Permit System
A written work permit system should be used whenever any

maintenance or inspection work is contemplated which requires the use
- 118 -
of spark or flame-producing equipment. The permit should be issued
only after tests have indicated that no flammable vapors are present. It
should also be ascertained that no work is being done or contemplated
which might create a hazard during the course of the job. The
authorized persons should sign the permit, indicating that the
equipment to be worked on has been properly prepared for hot work.
Any precautionary requirements or procedures to be observed during
the work should also be outlined on the permit.
c. Inspection
Process units and related equipment should have periodic complete

inspections. The length of time between inspections and the type of
inspections conducted should be based upon the type of equipment
and its condition as determined by previous inspection.
5. Repairs
a. When any equipment is to be repaired, it should be isolated from other

equipment that contains flammables. Connecting piping should be
disconnected or blanked, or both, in accordance with a definite
procedure. Valves should not be relied on for blanking purposes,
blanks of suitable thickness should either be blind flanges or full-face
steel plates inserted between gaskets against line flanges. Definite
responsibility for their installation and removal should be assigned.
When hot work is to be done on equipment that has been gas-freed,
connections to the equipment should be removed.
b. Care should be taken if sludge and scale remain in tanks, vessels, and
piping after flushing and washing operations. Such materials often
contain flammables and may give off vapors that can be ignited during
repairs. Continued ventilation may be necessary.
c. Hot-tapping devices are available for making repairs or additions to

equipment that is either in service or has not been completely cleaned
of flammable. Use of such devices can be very effective, and may at
times be a safer method of doing a job than would gas-freeing. Each
individual instance should be carefully planned to ensure that the
proper device is used and that necessary safe practices are followed.
d. Before hot repair work is started on equipment that has contained or

does still contain flammable liquids or gases, careful plans should be
made as to the manner in which the work will be done. In most cases,
it is desirable to open and completely gas-free equipment before
repairs are made; but there are instances when repairs may proceed
after some inert material such as flue gas or water has displaced the
flammable material.
e. Fire fighting facilities should be readily available when repairs are being
- 119 -
made. Minor fires may be quickly extinguished when facilities are
readily accessible and employees are trained in their quick and
effective use.
6. Good Housekeeping
Good housekeeping is an essential part of maintenance. Containers for scrap

material and refuse should be provided at convenient locations. Scheduled
emptying of such containers should be strictly adhered to. Oil and grease
soaked rags should be placed only in separate metal containers provided for
them.
7. Entries
a. Vessel Entry
Vessel entry refers to any tank, vessel, equipment or other enclosed

place where there is a hazard of: 1) a toxic, corrosive or flammable
substance; 2) insufficient oxygen; 3) severe restrictions that would
hinder escape or rescue. Vessel entry normally requires specific
approval by plant supervision.
Vessel entry should include tank, gauging, sampling and blow down.
All vessels should be assumed unsafe for normal entry until the
following entry procedures have been followed:
1) Disconnect and blank off all lines to the vessel
2) Remove all sources of ignition before removing manway covers
3) Check all liquid traps and internal lines to assure they are free
of hazardous liquid.
4) Clean the vessel as thoroughly as possible by draining, washing

with water, steaming, ventilating or other suitable means. If
steam is used, guard against static electricity by grounding the
steam nozzle. After steaming, allow the vessel to cool slowly.
Sudden cooling with water spray may cause a static electrical
charge.
5) Test the atmosphere for:
(a) Oxygen: Air must contain 20%-21% oxygen and the

vessel should have adequate ventilation, either forced
or natural.
(b) Explosive Mixture: A vessel may not be entered if the

testing instrument indicated an air-vapor mixture that
- 120 -
exceeds 50% of the lower explosive limit.
(c) Toxic Fumes: The presence of any toxic fumes requires

the use of respiratory protective equipment, normally an
air supplied mask with hand blower, or a self-contained
breathing unit; otherwise, additional cleaning or purging
of the vessel is indicated.
6) Safety Harness or Belts - The person using respiratory

equipment when entering the vessel should wear either a safety
harness or belt.
7) Clothing - Personal protective clothing suitable for the job inside

the vessel should be worn.
8) Observer - An observer should be stationed outside the vessel.

His only duty should be watch the person inside the vessel.
When respiratory equipment is required for the person entering
the vessel, the observer should also have suitable respiratory
equipment available.
9) Emergency Equipment - Fire extinguisher and other emergency

equipment should be available as required.
b. Line Entry
1) General
Line entry should include any work required on any line or valve
which contains flammable liquids or vapors, or contents of
which are corrosive, toxic, and/or under pressure.
The following items should be considered in all work involving

line entries:
(a) Know the contents of each line being worked upon.
(b) Know the pressure ratings of the pipes and fittings. Never
install low-pressure connections on high-pressure line.
(c) Never hammer on high pressure lines
(d) Use extreme caution when thawing frozen lines
(e) Never use fire to locate leaks of flammable materials
(f) Be very cautious when attempting to tighten pipe fittings

while pressure is on a line
- 121 -
(g) When opening valves, do so slowly to allow pressure to
equalize before opening the valve fully.
(h) When removing blinds, loosen bolts and allow pressure to

bleed down. Gas sometimes leaks into the space between
the blind and the valve
- 122 -
2. Before breaking lines
(a) Drain the contents into a tank or to the lowest point
(b) Depressure line to a safe designated area
(c) Lock out the pump. All gauges and sight glasses should
be checked for zero readings.
(d) Close and tag the nearest upstream and downstream

valves.
3) When breaking lines
(a) Wear suitable personal protective equipment: full

clothing and sometimes rubber suits should be worn to
guard against chemical splash. Goggles should be
worn to protect the eyes against chemical splash and
flying particles.
(b) The placement of a deflector over the flange joint is

usually desirable for the initial cracking of corrosive or
toxic material lines.
(c) The worker should slowly open the bolts on the far side
so that if there is a spray it will be away from him.
(d) Sections that have been removed should be handled

carefully until they are inspected for trapped material or
residues and flushed if required.
8. Electrical Equipment
Probably everyone recognizes that high voltages can be very dangerous but
some people fail to realize that so-called "low voltage" can be very hazardous
and under certain conditions can produce fatal injuries. Deaths have been
recorded due to contact with circuits of less than 50 volts. Actually, it is not
voltage but amperage that kills. Under certain conditions, as little as 1/10
ampere is sufficient to cause death. The following may be used as a guide
when working with electrical equipment:
- 123 -
a. Electrical Equipment Repairs
When electrical equipment is to be repaired, switches must be opened

and tagged. "Hot circuit” work normally requires the permission of plant
supervision. Refer to detailed plant tag-out procedures before
proceeding.
b. Grounding
1) All electrical equipment is to be grounded
2) If it is ever necessary to move any equipment, the ground

should be replaced before the equipment is used.
c. Conduits, Cables and Wires
1) Electrical conduits should not be used to support other

equipment
2) Electrical cables and conduits should be not buried

underground except in accordance with engineering standards.
3) Exposed ends of electric wires must be taped.
4) Unused and abandoned electric wires must be removed or

disconnected at each end.
d. Fuses
1) Only authorized personnel should replace fuses.
2) Fuse tongs and/or rubber electrical gloves should be used and

disconnect should be opened. Rubber gloves must always be
used for voltages in excess of 150 volts.
3) Never use pennies or tinfoil in lieu of fuses.
4) Never use fuses of greater capacity than are specified by the

equipment manufacturer.
- 124 -
e. Switching
1) When starting electric motors, handle all switches according to

instructions. Make contact so as to prevent arcs. Stand in a
safe position.
2) Never pull a disconnect switch under load except in an

emergency.
3) Always be certain that hands and feet are dry and when
operating switches or plugging in electrical appliances.
4) Keep rubber mats in front of switchboards where possible.
5) Switch panel fronts should be kept closed.
f. Hand Tools and Portable Equipment
1) Extension lights without bulb protectors must not be used. Use

only low voltage lights with isolating transformers in tanks and
similar places.
2) All extension cords should be the grounded type. Before each

period of use, examine extension cords carefully for any failure
of the outer insulation, particularly at terminal points where the
cord enters a plug or a fixture.
3) Lights and tools should not be disconnected from an extension

cord while the other end of the cords is in a socket or
receptacle.
4) The ground cable with which each tool is equipped should be

secured to a suitable ground before the tool is plugged in to a
source of electricity.
g. Miscellaneous
1) Contact with electrical conductors should be avoided whether

they are energized or not.
2) Only authorized personnel should enter fenced substation

areas.
3) Faulty electrical equipment must not be used. Report it

immediately.
4) Before changing broken light bulbs, be certain the current is

turned off.
- 125 -
5) No employee may work within 15'-0" of a high voltage power
line except by special authorization of plant supervision.
9. Fire Control of Liquefied Petroleum Gas
Many fire control demonstrations have been made with LP gas fires under
various conditions. Stressing the point that is continually brought out by fire
controls experts, it is pointed out that LP gas fires should not in the majority of
cases be extinguished, but the fire should be controlled until the gas or liquid
can be shut off at its source. This is extremely important for if a flame is put out
and the LP gas is allowed to escape into the atmosphere, it might again ignite
bringing greater damage in that area than was originally threatened. If the gas
cannot be shut off at the source, it is frequently better to let the fire burn, under
control, until the liquid is gone from the tank or vessel.
Such demonstrations have also shown that LP gas fires can be completely
extinguished by straight steam and water spray if chemical extinguishers are
not available.
Where ignition has occurred, structures or vessels exposed to the flame or

close to it should be protected with water streams using spray if available. It
has been found possible to prevent ignition of combustible vessels and
structures that were actually enveloped by flame by spraying thoroughly and
continuously with water.
An LP gas fire will usually be less widespread than one involving a comparable
stream of gasoline because the LP gas will vaporize and burn all in one place,
while the gasoline stream may flow and spread the fire over a greater area.
Water applied to a gasoline fire may spread it, but an LP gas fire "stays put"
and is not increased in intensity when a water stream is sprayed on it.
10. Fire Control of Natural Gasoline Fires
Foam is an effective extinguishing agent used in flammable liquid protection on

many types of hydrocarbon fires and is a preferred fire fighting method of
gasoline fires. Foam's extinguishing success comes from its buoyancy and
capacity to separate the flammable liquid's surface from the flame-inducing air.
Foam consists of air filled bubbles, interconnected to form an airtight surface. It
is cohesive enough to keep vapors from permeating its blanket -- yet prevent
radiant heat from flames that may be nearby from heating liquid covered by
foam.
Water is used on gasoline fires to keep nearby vessels and equipment cool but
is of very little value in fighting the primary fire at hand. Some combustibles
can be extinguished by cooling for instance, in the case of diesel, if it can be
cooled below 150°F, it can be extinguished with water.
In the case of gasoline, which in open-air produces vapor within the burning
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range of minus 45°F, extinguishment is very difficult; in fact, this cooling cannot
be done by water alone in the field. Fire fighters will also have little or no
success trying to extinguish a gasoline fire with water fog. Water fog can be
made to extinguish a gasoline fire only if the fog is so concentrated as to expel
the air to below 94% of the vapor-air mixture.
11. Fire Protection Equipment
a. General
The responsibility of keeping the fire fighting equipment in first class

condition should be definitely established. Equipment should be tested
periodically in accordance with standard procedures and as dictated by
experience.
It is imperative that all fire protection equipment be stored, inspected

periodically, and maintained for immediate emergency use. Proper
records should be kept for such work. Often it is desirable to number
the equipment serially to assure complete checking on schedule.
Whenever an extinguisher is used, it should be set aside for inspection

and recharging. Some operators seal an extinguisher or cabinet so that
it may be checked more readily. Others will place the equipment in an
expendable plastic bag that serves the same purpose and also keeps
the extinguisher clean and free from exposure to corrosive atmosphere.
Mobile fire fighting equipment such as portable foam equipment, etc., is

now widely used. A periodic study should be made of this equipment to
determine that it is adequate and advantageously located for use
throughout the plant and at adjoining operations.
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b. Extinguishing Equipment
1) Carbon Dioxide Systems
An inert gas, such as carbon dioxide, discharged into a closed room or

into enclosed spaces, may be an effective extinguishing agent. For
example, a carbon dioxide system is one method of extinguishing fires
associated with equipment such as petroleum pump rooms, electrical
installation, and special machinery or apparatus such as used in
laboratories. Care should be taken when extinguishing fire by carbon
dioxide due to the fact that carbon dioxide will not support life.
2) Dry Chemical System
The application of dry chemicals is effective for the control and

extinguishment of fires that may occur during the processing and
handling of flammable liquids, solids and gases. This extinguishing
agent is composed of specially treated sodium bicarbonate in dry
powder form with components for producing free flow and water
repellency. Being nonconductive, it is suitable for fires that involve
energized electrical equipment. The dry chemical may be used
simultaneously with water fog without practical damage to the powder.
The water will not only quench embers and cool hot surfaces but will
also reduce flame size and thereby make the fire easier to extinguish
with the dry chemical.
Portable extinguishers of the hand-operated type which contain 30 lbs

of dry chemical or less are recommend for use as first aid equipment
for small fires. Several hand-operated extinguishers may be used
simultaneously for the extinguishment of larger fires; and reserve, or
secondary protection, may be provided by wheeled of stationary
extinguishers with capacity ranges up to 350 lbs. of dry chemical
discharge.
12. Fire Alarm and Integrated Activities
There are certain functional responsibilities that should be clearly understood

by all parties concerned to be sure that the various phases of the fire fighting
organization would be effective when required. If and when a general fire alarm
is sounded, definite integrated activities should be initiated, such as:
a. An alarm system with annunciation in key location, such as main office,

plant area, and control room, should be installed.
b. An emergency call-out list for key supervisors, local municipal fire

department, ambulance service, doctor, etc. In some instances, an
independent agency is used for handling this emergency call-out.
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III. PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The equipment includes a Dual Polarity (AC-DC) type electrostatic treater preceded by a
separate degassing vessel. The degassing vessel is mounted above the treater and feeds the
treater by gravity. Attached is a typical layout of a degassing separator mounted on top of
treater. The treater is operated liquid packed with the operating pressure above the liquid
bubble point.
The purpose of the electrostatic treater is to provide efficient separation of entrained water
from the crude oil thereby reducing the water content of the outlet oil to an acceptable level
(0.5%). The separation process is possible due to the density difference between the oil and
water. Since the water is heavier than oil, with sufficient retention time, the water will settle to
the bottom of the treater.
The oil/water emulsion enters the treater from the top mounted degasser through a section of
interconnecting pipe. The fluid is then conducted into a distributor located above the bottom of
the vessel. The distributor will be a perforated pipe type designed to give good distribution for
the full cross-sectional area of the vessel. Based on CFD studies, NATCO has designed
special deflectors and diffusers that work in conjunction with the perforated pipes to improve
the distribution by as much as 100%.
After leaving the distributor, the emulsion flows upward through an electric field generated by a
high voltage electrode located just above the vessel centerline. The electric field is to increase
the rate of coalescence for small water droplets found in the oil. As the size of the droplets
increases, the settling rate for the droplets greatly increases. We want to have the highest
possible settling rate for the water droplets because the vessel size, weight and cost will be
much reduced. For offshore applications, TLP or FPSO applications in particular, vessel size
and weight are major considerations since they also impact the support structure size and
cost. As the emulsion passes through the electrostatic field, most of the water settles out to
the bottom of the vessel and is removed via a level control and dump valve. The dehydrated
oil exits from the top of the vessel through a collector pipe. The exiting oil flow is modulated by
a pump system designed to control fluid level in the degasser and other upstream equipment.
NOTE: The Treater Sizing description included in Section A following was required for the
original job. It is suggested that this section NOT be included unless client
questions/specifications require some of this information. It is included here for reference
only.
A. Treater Sizing
Sizing a treater for a specific application requires some basic information or

assumptions:
1. Maximum Design Flowrate
This value should be the maximum flow rate anticipated during any time span
that is 30% of the vessel retention time. If the vessel retention time is one hour,
the design rate should be based on the maximum rate that would be
anticipated within any 20-minute period of time. Slugging flows may mean that
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the vessel would need to be sized larger than for a vessel with a consistent
flow.
2. Oil Density or API Gravity
The rate of separation is directly proportional to the density difference between

the oil and the water. If the oil gravity is not certain when the vessel sizing is
determined, then an educated and usually a conservative guess must be
made. A heavier oil results in a smaller density difference between the oil and
water therefore the separation rate will be slower.
Below is a table showing how the differences in specific gravity change with
respect to oil API gravity assuming a water specific gravity of 1.0:
Oil Specific Gravity Specific Gravity Vessel Sizing

Oil API Gravity @ 160°F Difference Increase to 32 API
24 0.874 0.126 40%
28 0.851 0.149 19%
32 0.823 0.177 NA
3. Water Density
Since the rate of separation is directly proportional to the density or specific

gravity difference between the oil and water, it is very important to know some
information about the expected produced water salinity and specific gravity.
Below is a table showing how the differences in specific gravity change with
respect to oil API gravity assuming a water specific gravity of 1.04:
Oil Specific Gravity Specific Gravity Vessel Sizing

Oil API Gravity @ 160°F Difference Increase to 32 API
24 0.874 0.166 30%
28 0.851 0.189 15%
32 0.823 0.217 NA
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4. Oil Viscosity
The vessel sizing is directly proportional to the oil viscosity. If the oil viscosity is
doubled, the vessel size will be doubled.
Since information on the oil viscosity is not always available when the vessel
sizing is done, NATCO had standard tables for viscosity of typical crude oils
based on our experience. We can use this typical data for sizing, but there can
be very significant variation in oil viscosities even when the API gravity is the
same. Oil viscosities can vary 50 to 100% from our tables.
NATCO based viscosity values on information supplied by client as follows

for 32º API crude:
Temperature Viscosity
(oF) (cP)
100 15
110 12
120 10
140 7
160 5
180 3.8
200 3
Since settling rate is directly proportional to viscosity, the settling rate for the
32º API oil is 6.8 times faster than the 22º API oil and the vessel for the 22º
API oil would be 6.8 times larger.
5. Operating Temperature
A higher operating temperature will reduce the oil viscosity and result in an
increase in the oil / water separation rate. Sometimes when the fluid is
produced at a sufficiently high temperature no additional heat is needed, but
often the inlet temperature to the process is too low for efficient separation to
occur.
Addition of heat to the process is always expensive because of the additional

equipment required and the expense of the fuel that is required. Also there are
always increased safety concerns when fired heaters are used to provide the
extra BTU’s.
Below is a table displaying the typical operating range for different oil API
gravities:
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Typical Operating Viscosity of
Oil API Gravity Temperature Range Oil
22 140 – 160° F 16.4 cP @ 160 °F
28 110 – 130° F 9.0 cP @ 130° F
32 100 – 120 °F 5.8 cP @ 120° F
Note that the viscosity of the 22º API oil is 16 cP at 160° F compared to 32 cP at
130° F, at 160° F, the separation rate would be doubled and the vessel size could be
cut in half.
Each application must be carefully evaluated to determine the optimum operating

temperature based on the overall economics of the facility. For example, if heat is
provided from waste heat recovery and would otherwise be lost, the economics
would justify using the heat to increase the equipment operating temperatures thus
reducing the equipment sizes and weights. In other applications, adding a fired
heating section to a vessel to increase the settling rate will result in a smaller
coalescing section; however, the addition of the heating unit may result in an overall
larger vessel and increase operating expense.
Another item to consider is that a higher operating temperature, demulsifier

chemical costs are generally lower and there may be a reduced tendency to collect
sludge at the vessel interfaces.
6. Electrostatic Coalescing System
The efficiency of coalescing very small water drops into larger drops has the
greatest impact on separation rates. The water-settling rate is proportional to the
square of the drop radius. If the radius of the drop is increased from 5 microns to 50
microns then the settling rate will be increased by 100 times.
The ability to cause the water droplets to coalesce is the reason electrostatic fields
are so effective in the crude oil dehydration process. Use of a high voltage
electrostatic field can result in much smaller vessels as compared to vessels
employing retention time only to accomplish the separation.
Refer to the attached literature for more information about NATCO’s Dual Polarity
Electrostatic System.
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7. Outlet BS&W Requirement:
The required outlet BS&W can have a significant impact on the vessel size. To
reach a lower outlet water content we have to be able to separate smaller water
drops. In order to separate the smaller drops, the upward oil velocity is decreased
which results in a larger vessel.
Achieving a 0.25% BS&W outlet will require a vessel that is twice as large as a
vessel designed for 0.5% BS&W outlet.
8. Other Factors and Unknowns:
Treater sizing is not an exact science. There are many factors that can affect the
emulsion stability and vessel size or performance. Some of the complications can
include:
• Very high pressure drops across chokes that can form incredibly tight
emulsions
• Very long flow lines (pumping oil for 30 miles can cause very stable
emulsions)
• Down hole pumps with large number of stages
• Power oil systems
• Fireflood production
• Chemically stabilized tertiary production
• Operating temperature below the paraffin cloud point
• Precipitation of asphaltenes
• Oil wet solids, iron sulphide in particular
• Unusual oil chemistry resulting in ineffective demulsifier chemicals
• Very high GOR with high pressure drops
• Very low water content can make coalescence more difficult due to low
population of water drops
• Selected vessel diameter (vessels less than 12’ O.D. have a de-rated treating
rate. A 8’ x 12.5’ vessel has less retention time than a 10’ x 10’ vessel)
• Chemical injection point(s)
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See PID 1420-20-PI-DG-4412 for correct level control philosophy
- 134 -
B. Operating Variables and Performance Curves
1. Crude Oil Flow Rate:
a. The flow rate may be varied from 20 to 100% of design
b. Performance may deteriorate at oil rates in excess of design.
2. Crude Oil Inlet Temperature
a. Design operating temperatures are specified in the process data

sheets.
b. Normally, operating temperature should be maintained as low as

possible while maintaining stable operation and meeting required
product quality. Lower operating temperature will reduce fuel
consumption.
c. In general, increasing operating temperature will improve process

performance and reduce chemical consumption. Temperature may be
increased periodically as necessary to help eliminate interface sludge
accumulation.
3. Operating Pressure
Operating pressure should always be above the crude oil vapor pressure
(bubble point) throughout the coalescing system.
If the operating pressure of the treater drops below the “Bubble Point”, gas
bubbles can be crude oil formed. Formation of gas inside the treater or carry-
over of gas from the degasser vessel can disrupt the oil/water separation
process and result in high outlet BS&W. Quick opening of any of the control
valves can cause the operating pressure to drop too low.
4. Oil/Water Interface Level
a. The exact interface level setting is determined by adjustment in the field

to obtain optimum performance.
b. Increasing the water level will reduce oil retention time, increase water
retention time, and increase the AC electrostatic field between the
electrodes and oil/water interface.
c. In offshore applications, the interface level should be carried 6” – 12”

below the top of the wave baffles in order to avoid formation of interface
waves that could disrupt the process or damage the vessel internals.
Refer to information on “Initial Set Points.”
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5. Chemical Injection Rate/Type
(Chemical selection is not included in NATCO scope).
a. Demulsifier chemical injection rate or type may be varied to suit

process conditions. Higher chemical rates (when needed) may help
eliminate any interface sludge accumulation.
b. Demulsifier type and dosage must be determined by field-testing to

obtain optimum performance of the system.
6. Chemical Injection Points
a. The chemical injection point(s) that are selected may affect process
performance.
b. Typical demulsifier injection point(s) may be one or more of the

following typical locations:
Down hole in the well

At the wellhead either before or after the choke
At the manifold(s)
On the inlet or outlet of the separator
On the inlet or outlet of the crude oil charge pump
On the inlet or outlet of the heater
c. More difficult emulsions may require chemical injection points to be

moved upstream to give more mixing or reaction time. Extremely
difficult emulsions may require down hole injection to help prevent the
difficult emulsion from forming,
d. Moving the injection point further upstream may also help reduce total
chemical consumption
7. Wave Motion
The Electrostatic Treater has been designed for installation on a SPAR, which is
subject to the effects of wave motion. Movement of the SPAR will result in forces
transmitted to the process equipment that can result in significant movement of the
fluids inside the process vessels, which can have a detrimental effect on process
performance and process control.
The effect on process and control depends on the amount of SPAR movement,
location of the equipment on the SPAR, vessel size, and other considerations.
The Electrostatic Treater includes interface wave baffles to minimize the effects
of wave motion. In order to function properly, the oil/water interface must be
carried out at least 7” below the top of the wave baffles. If the water level gets
too high, the wave baffles will not work, and water can be carried into the
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electrodes or could impact the electrodes resulting in damage to the
equipment.
CAUTION FILLING OR DRAINING THE VESSEL:
The vessel should only be filled or drained only under CALM WEATHER
conditions. On occurrence of a low oil level condition in the vessel, waves at
the oil/gas interface can be severe enough to damage the electrodes.
Vessel movement and wave motion can affect the operation of level controls
resulting in excessive cycling of the valves, and reduced process performance.
Process vessels such as Electrostatic Treaters and Separators should be

located as near the SPAR center of gravity as possible to minimize the effects of
wave motion transferred to the process. Level instruments should be located
as near as practical to the center of the process vessel. Vessel roll and pitch
will have a greater effect on controls located at the side or ends of a vessel.
Instrumentation can also be adjusted to “deaden” the effects, average the
readings, or incorporated with time delays to account for wave motion in the
vessel.
C. Initial Set Points
All instrumentation is provided and installed by others, end-user to confirm set

points.
a. Level Settings (inches above bottom of vessels)
a. Degasser Liquid Level (inches above BOV)
Inches Device
Item Above BOV Number
LAHH 83” LXT-11602
LAH 74” LT-11601
Control Pt. 33” LT-11601
LAL 15” LT-11601
LALL 16” LXT-11602
b. Electrostatic Coalescer Oil/Water in Interface Level
Inches Device
Item Above BOV Number
LAHH 42” LSH-11703
LAH 36” LT-11701
Control Pt. 31” LT-11701
LAL 27” LT-11701
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LALL 21” LSL-11704
2. Pressure
Setting Device
Item (Psig) Number
Blanket Gas 5 PCV-11601
Relief Valve 150 LT-11701
Control Pt. 7 PT-11601
@ 160F
Control Pt. 11 PT-11601
@ 180F
PALL 2 PXT-11603
@ 160F
PALL 5 PXT-11603
@ 180F
PAHH 12 PXT-11603
@ 160F
PAHH 16 PXT-11603
@ 180F
D. Other Control Features
1. Transformer
The transformer is a 100% reactance type which means that it is self protected
against damage in case of a short on the high voltage side. However, the
transformer should not operate continuously with the secondary shorted.
The Customer must provide the power supply to the transformer from the
motor control center and furnish the circuit protection at the MCC.
Power to the transformer must be shut off on:
a. Low Liquid Level in the Vessel
An external low-level switch must be wired to a holding coil on the

contactor in the MCC so that power is automatically shut off on low
level.
b. Short in the Transformer Primary Winding
If a short occurs in the primary winding, the coils will be overheated. A

thermal switch is provided in the transformer and must be wired to the
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holding coil on the contactor in the MCC so that power will automatically
shut off if the transformer overheats.
NATCO has included a local start/stop switch for manually starting or

stopping the transformer. This switch should be connected to the
holding coil on the contactor in the MCC.
A voltmeter and ammeter provide local indication of the status of the

transformer. A visual indication is provided by a light wired to the
transformer tertiary winding, the light will brighten or dim depending on
the performance of the system.
Under normal operating conditions the voltage will be high and the
amperage will be low. The voltmeter will read 70% of full scale or
above. A 50 KVA transformer with 480V primary is rated for up to 104
amps. Under normal conditions the amp-meter will read below 30
amps. The readings on the meters vary depending on the stability of
the incoming oil/water emulsion and how much water is carried into the
H. V. electrode area. The more “wet” the fluid, the more amps will be
drawn and the voltage on the electrodes will be lower. If the ammeter is
reading 30 amps or higher, turn off the power, and try a lower tap
setting on the transformer. If the amp reading is 20 amps or lower, turn
off the power, and try a higher tap setting on the transformer. Chemical
type, amount, and injection point can affect the performance and power
usage.
For a 50 KVA 100% Reactance transformer:
Connected Load 50 KVA

Maximum Power 25 KW
Normal Power 10 KW
2. Internal Low Level Float Switches
Two (2) internal mechanical float devices are installed at the top of the
vessel above the electrodes. There is no external connection. The
floats are designed to ground and remove voltage from the electrodes
on the occurrence of a low level in the vessel.
WARNING: You must shut off power and isolate the transformer
externally prior to vessel entry or performing any maintenance on
the unit. Death by lethal electrical shock or explosion is possible.
The internal mechanical floats do not shut off the power to the
electrodes.
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IV. PRECOMMISSIONING
A. Receipt and Installation of Equipment
1. The package is shipped with as much of the unit assembled as possible.
2. Check the equipment on receipt at site: NOTE – NATCO recommends that a

NATCO service technician be present to assist with the inspection and pre-
commissioning
3. Confirm that all materials received are in agreement with the packing list and
are in good condition.
4. Check for any shipping damage. Immediately document any damage with a
formal report and photographs. Claims for damages should be sent to the
freight company.
5. The equipment should be set as level as possible on the prepared foundation.
6. Open all manways and inspect vessel interior for damage or loose parts. Note
any damage and make a formal report complete with photographs.
7. Remove the shipping supports completely from the vessel. Do not leave any
debris inside the processing unit.
8. Check the low level grounding floats to make sure they travel freely and that
the cross bar on the float arms contact the vertical high voltage contact rods
when the floats are in the down or low fluid level position.
9. Install transformer, panel and other parts in accordance with the NATCO
drawings. Steel mounting lugs are attached to the top of the vessel for
attachment of the transformer.
10. In preparation for entrance bushing installation, drain the insulating oil from the
transformer diode box into a CLEAN, DRY container. The insulating oil should
be drained only to a level where the connection from the transformer diodes to
the high voltage wire can be easily made. The transformer oil should then be
covered or placed in a location away from the working area, as it is imperative
the insulating oil is not exposed to moisture or contamination.
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11. Install the high voltage insulated bushings through the 6” 150# RF connections
provided near the transformer. The high voltage entrance bushings should be
prepared and installed as detailed below. Refer to the appropriate drawing for
illustration of assembly and correct installation of the high voltage lead wires
(Figure 4).
a. Remove entrance bushings from shipping crate, being careful not to

damage the surfaces.
b. Before installing the entrance bushing into the mounting flange,

inspect the threads on both the flange extension and the entrance
bushing, making sure they are clean and NOT DAMAGED. Before
installing the entrance bushings, apply either a non-conductive
thread sealer or Teflon tape.
c. Tighten all threaded connections so they do not leak . Any leak

would contaminate the transformer insulating oil and result in a
premature failure of the entrance bushing or transformer
components.
d. Pass the 1/8” stainless steel cable through the entrance-bushing

nozzle. The lower end of the cable should be connected to the
contact rod on top of the high voltage electrodes. Push the other end
of the cable through the hole located in the end of the entrance
bushing and tighten the bolt until firm. Be sure that excess wire does
not remain free to shift during operation and short out the
transformer, however allow sufficient cable for removal of bushing
from outside of vessel.
e. Mount the flange with the entrance bushing into the vessel. At this
point, install either the flex conduit or entrance bushing housing
(boot) as shown on the transformer hook-up drawing. Insert the 3/4”
OD x 1/2” ID Teflon tubing into the entrance bushing, allowing it to
extend up and out of the entrance-bushing flange. Be sure that it is
seated in the recess in the top of the entrance bushing.
f. The Teflon tubing must pass completely through the conduit to the
diode box.
g. While holding vertically, insert the high voltage cable through the
Teflon tubing. Make sure the banana plug seats firmly into the
entrance-bushing receptacle.
h. Connect the conduit or housing to the diode box on the transformer,

being careful not to damage the Teflon tubing or wire. Trim the
Teflon tubing so it extends inside the diode housing at least 2 inches.
i. Attach the high voltage cable to the appropriate polarity of the diode
pack.
- 141 -
j. Refill the diode box chamber and the entrance-bushing conduit with
the clean transformer oil to the mark shown on the inside of the diode
housing. Replace the cover on the diode box.
12. Connect all field piping for process and utilities. Install temporary strainers
where necessary. Do not apply power to the electrode system until the unit
is ready for commissioning and process fluid is flowing through the vessel.
13. Installation of Entrance Bushing – Internal Considerations (see Fig, 4)

(To ensure that it is oil covered during operation)
When installing an Entrance Bushing it is important to locate it such that

the Teflon component will be completely “oil covered” at operational
levels and anytime before the internal grounding float contacts the
contact rod. To accomplish this, the Teflon must be lower than the
centerline of the grounding float ball (in the DOWN position) and the
holes along the top of the collector pipe (not the weep holes in the outlet
pipe near the inside vessel wall).
The entrance bushing must be lowered to insure complete submergence

of the Teflon (lower than the centerline of the grounding float ball in the
DOWN position).
Option #1 - Standard Flex Hose Connection

Install a 1” NPT pipe nipple at determined length between the 1” collar
and the mounting flange as in Option #1, Figure #4, in conjunction with
the swage connection fitting that is part of the entrance bushing kit.
* NOTE: De-burr and smooth 1” pipe nipple I.D. on both ends, to protect
from tearing the high voltage cable insulation.
Option #2 - Pipe Boot Connection

Pipe boot required and small diameter vessels use a pipe adapter welded
to the mounting flange as shown in Option # 2, Figure #4. The opposite
end has a threaded half collar welded in place to directly mount the
entrance bushing.
All piping components used in the installation of Entrance Bushings and

which will be used to contain insulating oil, must be completely free of
dirt, rust, grease and moisture. This includes nipples, couplings, special
swage.
It is imperative to use Teflon tape to dress threads during

installation.
NOTE: No pipe dope should be used. Under no circumstances should

pipe dope which contains conductive materials be used! This could short
the high voltage entrance bushing lead to ground prematurely.
- 142 -
** NOTE: Keep grounding float assembly and ground wire a minimum of
5” away from the contact rod and aircraft cable, with the float in the UP
position.
*** NOTE: Make aircraft cable long enough to pull entrance bushing out
from top of vessel, without vessel entry.
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Entrance Bushing &
Option #2
Grounding Float Setup Option #1
Vessel 1” Pipe
Ground Nipple *
Ceiling Wire
** 1” Collar
Grounding Float
in 1” x 1 1/2”
DOWN position Swage
Pipe
Adapter
Hose Clamp
Teflon
Cross Bar
Float position
during liquid loss
or maintenance Aircraft
Contact
Cable ***
Rod
Slip-on Entrance Bushing

Weight
U-Bolts Bee-Line Channel
* Note: Deburr and smooth 1” pipe I.D. on both ends.

** Note: Keep grounding float assembly and ground wire a minimum clearance of 5”
away from the contact rod and aircraft cable, with the float in the UP position.
*** Note: Make aircraft cable long enough to pull entrance bushing
out from top of vessel, without vessel entry.
Figure 4
- 144 -
B. Pneumatic Checkout Procedure
1. Turn on instrument air supply to treater and degasser instrumentation.
2. Blow down instrument air header and piping to remove any dirt and scale.
3. Refer to the instrument instruction manuals and follow the detail instructions
for each pneumatic instrument and/or control valve.
4. Adjust the instrument air regulators to set the supply pressure for each
instrument.
5. Check all connections and fittings for leaks by soap bubble test.
6. Stroke the control valves from full open to full close several times to confirm
functional operation. Operate from the PLC or DCS if applicable to verify
valve stroke and related indicators.
C. Electrical Instrumentation Check out Procedure
1. Hook up field wiring to junction boxes.
2. Make continuity checks on all field wiring.
3. Turn on instrument power supply to Electrostatic Treater and Degasser vessels

and functionally check each instrument for correct operation.
D. Testing of insulating (transformer) oil in bushing housings and transformer
Refer to Appendix "A" for the dielectric strength testing procedure. The dielectric
strength of the transformer oil in the main transformer can, H.V. junction box and
bushing housing should not drop below 35 kv.
- 145 -
E. Chemical Testing and Selection
Chemical testing, selection, or supply is beyond NATCO’s scope of supply. This

section is included only for Customer information.
Preliminary selection of demulsifier chemical is a necessary part of the

precommissioning process. Selection of the proper demulsifier is much different than
selection or specification of other commodities that may be used in the operation or
maintenance of equipment.
The selection/specification of a demulsifier is complicated because the chemical is a

blend of two, three, or more base compounds out of a possible selection from
hundreds of compounds. The oil/water solubility of each base compound may be quite
different and two or more solvents may be required in the formulation in order to
maintain a stable solution. A chemist must consider many factors in preparing a
formulation including solubilties, pour points, and volatility.
The selection process begins by requesting several (at least three) reputable chemical
suppliers to send a representative to visit the plant site to become familiar with the
process and equipment and to run preliminary "bottle tests”. Bottle testing on a fresh
representative sample of the production to be treated is a fairly reliable method for
chemical suppliers to screen possible formulations. Bottle tests on aged samples may
be very unreliable and give incorrect results. If the chemical supplier has experience in
the same field and formation with similar production equipment and methods, the bottle
testing may not be required.
Each supplier should be able to propose one or two demulsifier formulations based on
his preliminary work.
The chemist will select the base compounds and make a formulation to fit a specific
application. Each oil field, each formation in the field, each location, and sometimes
each well, will produce an emulsion with characteristics that are different from any
others. The variations in the emulsions are due to the chemical and physical
characteristics of the crude oil and aqueous phase including:
1. Chemical composition (The amount of paraffin, asphaltenes, and natural

surfactants have a great affect on the emulsion.)
2. Amount and type of solids produced.
3. Oil gravity.
4. Water gravity (salt content and composition)
5. Amount of gas.
6. Production temperature/pressure.
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Other factors affecting the emulsion and chemical selection include:
7. Method of production (flowing wells, surface pump, down hole pump, water
flood, chemical flood, steam flood, fire flood, etc.
8. Pressure drops.
9. Length of flow lines.
10. Retention time in vessels or tanks (age of emulsion).
11. Other chemicals (water and corrosion).
12. Type of pumps.
Final demulsifier selection must be based on competitive full-scale plant tests. The
“optimum" demulsifier should allow the process to meet the required product
specifications at the lowest total operating costs. Total operating costs include
chemical, fuel, maintenance and plant upsets. The cheapest chemical may not always
be "optimum" when all factors are considered. Other considerations include condition
of oil and aqueous interfaces, buildup of interface sludge, and availability of qualified
service personnel
F. Electrical System Checkout Procedure
The following procedure is intended to test the electrical installation of all internal
components of an electrostatic treater. To avoid electric shock and possible injury,
the equipment installer should become familiar with this procedure before
performing these electrical checks.
1. Before connecting line power, be sure all cables and wiring are installed and
connected. The power supply should be locked out and tagged out in the off
position.
2. Make sure transformer and vessel are grounded.
3. Enter the dehydrator vessel using approved safety procedures.
4. Make sure electrodes are free hanging, with no loose materials to ground them
to the vessel interior or to each other.
TEST #1
5. With a dry, Teflon tube or wooden block support, lift and block all float
switches so they cannot come in contact with the vertical high voltage
contact rods.
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6. Thoroughly examine the internals of the treating vessel. All electrical
components must be at least 6” from any grounded vessel component.
7. Check the alignment of the electrodes. Electrode plates should be on a

uniform spacing. It should be possible to maintain a tolerance of ±0.5”
between electrodes.
8. Check the position of the cables and weights from the bottom of the
entrance bushings to the tie rods on the electrode supports. The cables
carry the high voltage from the entrance bushings to the electrodes. The
cable and weight must be at least 6” from all grounded vessel surfaces and
at least 10” from the other electrode set.
9. Make sure all Teflon electrode hangers uniformly support the weight of the
electrode plates. Angled hangers (used with floating production systems to
restrain electrode movement) must be in tension.
10. Leaving the float switches blocked up, exit the vessel.
11. Open the diode compartment of the high voltage transformer.
12. Disconnect the positive and negative cable leads from the diode pack.
TEST #2
13. Referring to Figure 2, use a 1000 volt or higher megger, connect one lead of
the megger to the high voltage cable lead and connect the other lead to the
transformer ground connection. (NOTE: Do not make this connection to the
diode pack but only to the high voltage cables going into the vessel.)
14. Follow the procedures for operation of the megger to check the resistance of
the electrode system. The resistance should be near infinity. If the
resistance is low, see Item 16.
TEST #3
15. Switch the megger cable to the other high voltage cable lead and repeat the
megger check. Again, the megger resistance reading should be near
infinity. If the resistance is low, see item 16.
16. A low megger reading during test #1 or test #2 indicates one or more of the
following problems:
a. The high voltage electrodes, cables, weights, or hangers are in

contact with the vessel at some point
b. The shorting float is not properly supported on the Teflon tube or

wooden block
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c. The entrance bushings are internally shorted to the vessel
d. The electrode hangers are shorted (tracked) from the lower high
voltage end to the upper-grounded end
If one of the above problems is evident, the problem should be corrected

and the installation re-checked by repeating the megger readings of test #2
and test #3.
Units installed with composite electrodes should be checked for continuity

as shown in Figure 2. The reading should show low resistance proving
continuity through the mounting hardware of the composite plate.
TEST #4
17. Connect the megger between the two high voltage leads and check the
resistance. The resistance reading should be near infinity.
18. A low megger reading during test #4 indicates a short between the electrode
plates. In a new installation, a short can be created by improperly installing
the electrodes (adjacent electrodes are not connected to alternate support
rails) or the 3/16” aircraft cable has been connected to the same electrode
set (A or B). Re-enter the vessel and check for locations where adjacent
electrodes might be touching each other. Also check to be sure the cables
form the lower end of the high voltage entrance bushings are connected to
alternate electrode groups. Once the problem is corrected, re-check the
installation by repeating the megger readings of test #4.
19. Once tests 2, 3, and 4 have been successfully completed, re-enter the
vessel and release one float switch so that it contacts the vertical high
voltage contact rod by removing the support previously used to block the
float in the up position from the vessel interior. Make sure the float switch is
resting fully on the contact rod and is free to swing upward with fluid rise.
20. Exit the vessel and make certain no one is in or on the unit.
21. Recheck the entrance bushing with the megger to verify the electrical
ground.
22. Refer to Item #19 and remove the block from the other grounding float and
test as in Item #21
23. Close and bolt the vessel access manways.
24. Reconnect the positive and negative cable leads to the diode pack and close
the diode compartment of the high voltage transformer.
25. The unit is now electrically prepared for start-up.
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G. Leak Test
Once all interconnecting piping has been installed, we recommend the unit be hydro-
tested to ensure all connections are leak proof. Test water should be clean, potable,
deoxygenated, with a corrosion inhibitor.
1. The customer must determine the extent of vessels and piping that will be
tested together. All of the components must be rated for the test pressure.
2. Isolate any component that may be damaged by exposure to water or the

designated test pressure. Do not test demulsifier chemical lines with water.
3. Isolate the vessels and piping to be tested by closing appropriate block valves
or by using blinds.
4. Close all vent, drain, purge and sample valves on the piping, vessels, and
instruments.
5. Make sure that all block valves, control valves, and bypass valves in the piping
to be tested are open.
6. Open isolation valves on relief valves, level switches, level transmitter, and
level gauge. Close isolation valves on pressure gauges. Be sure isolation
valves around safety relief valves are locked open.
7. Open high point vent valve(s) as necessary and begin to slowly fill the system
with water.
8. Slowly fill the system until water begins to overflow the vents. Close the vent
valves as each section or vessel is filled.
9. When the system is full and before starting to increase the pressure, check the
system to be sure that pockets of air have been eliminated. Open vent valves
on level switches, level transmitters, and level gauges to vent trapped air.
Open the drain valves under the safety relief valves. Open sample valves on
vessels and piping.
10. The system can now be slowly pressured up to the test pressure. Since the
vessel and piping were hydro-tested for Code compliance at the manufacturing
facility, we recommend that the field test pressure be limited to 10% above the
operating pressure of the vessel. The pressure test should be maintained for
several hours while the system is checked for leaks.
H. Precommissioning Checklist
1. Commissioning team and operators have read and are thoroughly familiar with
the instruction manual and vendor catalog.
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2. Equipment was inspected on receipt and checked against packing lists and all
damage was documented and reported.
3. Equipment is set level.
4. Foundation bolts installed.
5. Internal bolts are tight
6. Shipping supports/packing removed.
7. All pipe spools and accessories are installed in accordance with the P&I and
assembly drawings.
8. The pneumatic hook-up has been checked.
9. Electrical wiring has been checked.
10. Vessels, skid, and instrumentation are properly grounded.
11. All piping and accessories have been checked for tightness.
12. Customer field piping has been connected.
13. Temporary strainers have been installed
14. Control panel operation verified.
15. Transformer and grid system checkout completed.
16. Vendor literature has been reviewed and all instructions for pre-commissioning,
calibration, and adjustment of valves and accessories have been followed.
17. Leak test completed.
18. Transformer oil testing completed.
19. Chemical injection system ready with first fill of chemicals.
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V. START-UP/COMMISSIONING PROCEDURE
This procedure is furnished as a general guideline and is not intended to replace the
services of an experienced start-up Engineer.
A. All support systems should be tested and commissioned before start-up of the
electrostatic treater. Refer to other suppliers' instructions for each system.
1. Instrument Air System and Pneumatic Instruments

2. Main Control Panel and Instrumentation
3. Power supply to the transformer must remain "off" until the Electrostatic Treater
is full of oil.
4. Chemical tanks and chemical injection lines are full.
5. Heaters are operational.
6. Pre-Commissioning procedures completed
B. The Electrostatic Treater vessel should be partially filled with water, up to the interface
level.
C. Open block valves on the oil inlet, oil outlet, safety relief line, and gas outlet. Open
isolation valves on instruments, close all vent and drain valves.
D. The Electrostatic Treater vessel is now ready for the oil production to be started
through the system. Open the inlet oil valve a very small amount to fill treater vessel
and piping. NOTE: Start up oil rate should be at the minimum.
E. Start partial oil flow through the system and set the system backpressure control valve
to maintain the desired system pressure.
F. Start demulsifier chemical injection.
G. Open the valves on effluent water line from the Oil Treater. See PID 1420-20-PI-DG-
4412/4415 (section 3.4 of manual) for operation of the interface level in the Oil Treater.
H. Open the valves on oil outlet line from the Oil Treater. See PID [1420-20-PI-DG-
4412/4415/4417] and Cause and Effect Diagram (section 3.4 and 3.5 of manual) for
operation of the level in the Oil Treater Degasser.
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I. When oil flow is established from the oil discharge line, the transformer circuit breaker
may be turned on. The light located on the transformer will indicate when the voltage
is on under normal treating conditions. Several hours may be required before outlet
specification BS&W is reached.
J. After the plant is commissioned at the reduced rate, it should be carefully monitored
for at least eight hours to ascertain that all systems are functioning correctly.
K. With all aspects of the process working properly, the throughput rate may be
increased to the full production rate. Chemical injection rates must be adjusted
proportionally to the production rate.
L. Adjustments in operating variables can be made to obtain the best performance.

Refer to Test Run Procedure in this manual.
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VI. TEST RUN PROCEDURE
A. After the mechanical operation has been checked, adjustments may be made in
operating variables to obtain the optimum performance.
B. It is extremely important to maintain a consistent normal feed condition for any period
of time during optimization and testing of the plant. The flow rate and composition of
the feed must be constant. Wells should not be switched on and off during any testing
since emulsion characteristics and composition may vary. Variations in feed conditions
may invalidate conclusions drawn from test data. Abnormal conditions such as
production of well completion or work-over fluids must be avoided.
C. Provisions must be made for running BS&W tests. These facilities may be portable or
temporary, but they must be available during system testing.
D. Sending samples to a remote laboratory will delay reporting of results and increase the
length of time needed to optimize the operation.
E. Confirm that levels, temperatures, pressures, rates and other operating variables are at
the recommended initial set points, and record all of the following information:
1. BS&W (check each sample with and without knockout drops).
a. Inlet
b. Outlet
c. Electrostatic Treater interface samples
2. Temperature
a. Inlet
b. Outlet
3. Pressure
Operating pressure
4. Flow rate
a. Oil
b. Gas
c. Water
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5. Levels
a. Treater interface
b. Degasser Liquid Level
6. Transformer
Primary current and voltage
7. Other Data Required:
a. Wells that are in production along with rate, BS&W

b. API gravity of dry crude
c. pH of produced water
d. Oil viscosity - dry (at 3 temperatures)
e. Produced water analysis (each well if significant variations exist)
f. Ambient temperature
g. Date and time of samples
h. Data from other sample points as necessary
F. Maintain stable operating conditions for a minimum of four hours and record all of the
data points.
G. Check all of the data for credibility. For example:
The BS&W out of a unit should not be more than the inlet
H. If the data is consistent for two consecutive sets of samples and the data is credible,
proceed with the plant optimization.
I. Plant Optimization
Only one variable should be changed during a test period. There should be a
minimum of four (4) hours between changes. The selection of a starting point for the
testing will depend on the results of the initial samples and data.
1. Operating Temperature
a. Reduce the operating temperature until the lower limit is determined.
b. Increase the operating temperature if necessary to improve

performance.
2. Oil/Water Interface
Raise and lower the oil/water interface to determine the maximum and
minimum operating points. Water level should never go above the wave
- 155 -
baffles.
J. It is important to understand that any change in the inlet production or operating

variables will result in some variation of equipment performance. The magnitude of
variations in performance will depend on the magnitude or importance of any change in
inlet fluid or operating variable.
K. After operating variables are optimized for a specific inlet production, then various
wells may be switched on and off to determine if production from specific wells
could have any significant effect on plant operation.
L. Sampling and Analysis Procedure:
The method of collecting and handling the samples is extremely important if

accurate and repeatable results are expected.
• Sample lines should be a short and as small a diameter as practical.
• The sample system should be arranged to eliminate as far as possible any trap or
pocket where phase separation may occur.
• Samples should be taken from the center of flowing lines through a stinger.
• Sample lines should be flushed sufficiently to remove any dead fluid or old material
in the lines.
• Open the sample valve and flush the sample line- then reduce the flow rate and
catch the sample while the line is flowing.
• The most repeatable results may be obtained by catching the sample directly into
the clean centrifuge tube, beaker, or flask in which the test is to be run. If this is
not possible, then the samples should be caught in a clean container and
transported immediately. At the lab, the sample container must be shaken
vigorously and samples poured up and tested immediately.
• Be certain to completely flush the sample lines before taking the next sample.
- 156 -
VII. NORMAL OPERATION
A. Routine Work
1. The operation is automatic and the normal routine only involves checking and
recording the following items on a regular (once-per-shift) basis:
a) Interface level
b) Operating temperature/pressure
c) Oil flow rate
d) Primary amps on transformer
e) BS&W
2. The Electrostatic Coalescer is equipped with a “sand jet” and drain system.
This system is used to fluidize and remove solids from the bottom of the vessel.
To be effective, the system must be used on a regular basis. The required
operating frequency depends on the amounts of solids in the inlet production
and is determined by operator experience. If the solids build up too deep and
plug the openings in the “sand” troughs, the system will not work. Two sand jet
systems are installed in the vessel. Each system covers half the length of the
vessel.
Jet and drain only one side of the vessel at one time. Jetting water should be
furnished at a minimum of 50 psig above the vessel operating pressure.
Step 1: Open the isolation valve for the sand jet water and jet one side
for 30 seconds.
Step 2: After 30 seconds and with the jets still running, open the sand
drain valves for 30 seconds. Observe the oil/water interface
level. If it begins to drop excessively, close the drain valves and
cycle them in short cycles.
Step 3: Close the drain valves.
Step 4: If necessary, continue running the jetting water to re-establish

the proper oil/water interface level.
Step 5: Shut off the jet water valve.
Repeat the procedure for the other side of the vessel.
- 157 -
B. Maintenance
NOTE: Read and follow all safety instructions before working on or entering
this equipment.
WARNING: This equipment uses high voltage electricity. Only qualified personnel
must perform maintenance. Failure to follow instructions can result in serious injury or
death. Turn off and lock off electrical power, isolate, and degas the equipment before
performing maintenance.
1. Refer to Vendor’s published catalog information for instructions on valves,

controls and other accessories.
2. The Electrostatic Treater should be shut down and cleaned at the end of the
first six months of operation. Any accumulation of sludge should be removed
from vessel internals.
3. Clean the surface of Teflon hangers and entrance bushings using a cloth and
solvent.
4. Inspect bushings, hangers, and other internals for any damage.
5. Check di-electric strength of transformer oil in bushing housings.
6. After the first cleaning and inspection, a more suitable schedule may be
determined.
7. If any work is performed inside the vessel, bottom drain connections must be
covered to prevent nuts, bolts, or trash from entering and plugging the drains or
fouling the valves.
For more detailed information and expert field service, please contact the
nearest NATCO representative.
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VIII. TROUBLESHOOTING
The Dual Polarity Electrostatic Oil Processing Unit employs much the same principles as the
more conventional oil processing systems. If differs primarily in that it utilizes the powerful
coalescing effect of the dual polarity electrostatic field, as well as the conventional coalescing
aids. As with any good system where time, and electricity are used in combination to provide
treatment, these components are in balance with each other. Therefore, if one component of
the system is changed, or lost, another must also be changed to regain this balance this is
necessary to compensate for the increased viscosity resulting from a lower operating
temperature. Also, it should be kept in mind that this balanced treating program is itself
balanced against the emulsion that is being processed. If all components of the program are
maintained and the treatment slips, it can be assumed that the emulsion has somehow
changed. Changes in emulsion characteristics are most likely to occur following the
introduction of new wells, well workovers, etc. Such changes may be temporary or permanent
- whatever the cause, a change in the treating program is necessary.
If the oil is not treating to specifications, the following troubleshooting checklist should aid in
identifying and correcting most of the problems that may occur.
A. Check the system for the following irregularities
1. Low operation temperature
a. Low level shutdown
1) A normal condition that will correct itself with additional

production.
2) A faulty drain or water valve
b. Failure of heating system (by others)
2. Excessive sludge build-up on the vessel interface
a. Inadequate heat
b. May require a change or additional type of chemical
c. It may be necessary to remove sludge from the system
3. High interface level
a. Interface control malfunction

b. Defective water dump valve
c. Water valve plugged
- 159 -
4. Increased flow rate through the system
a. Field surging
b. Flow control set too high
c. Uneven flow splitting between trains
B. Electrical Malfunctions
1. No voltage and no current, treating efficiency decreased:
Loss of electrical power to the transformer
1) Circuit breaker open

2) Master fuse open
3) Master switch open
2. Low or no voltage and high primary current
• Any of the problems listed in "A" of this checklist can give these
indications. If there is even a small secondary voltage or the primary
current shows some variation from time to time, the problem is more than
likely one or more of those listed under "A" of this checklist and not an
electrical problem.
3. Near zero voltage and current holding steady near maximum.
NOTE: The maximum current for your transformer may be determined by

dividing the KVA rating by the applied voltage. For example, a 50 KVA
transformer operating at 480 volts would draw approximately 104 amps
(50,000/480 = 104). A 100% reactance transformer should never pull more
than this value of current.
a. A low level in the treater will allow the low level safety float to ground
out the high voltage grid, resulting in the above symptom.
1) This could be the result of excessive water removal from the

coalescing section and will likely correct itself when the level is
restored to normal production.
2) Another likely cause is a faulty drain or water control valve.
b. Any one or more of the irregularities listed under "A" of this checklist, in
extreme, could give these symptoms and should be checked out before
proceeding.
c. An electrical short within the high voltage circuitry of the system is the
most likely malfunction that will give these symptoms.
Note: The reactor does not protect the low-voltage side of a 100%
- 160 -
reactance transformer; thus a problem in the low-voltage side would
not give these symptoms. To isolate a short in the high voltage
circuitry, take the following steps:
1) Disconnect and lock the transformer power supply in the "OFF"

or "OPEN" position. Be certain that power is not reaching the
transformer.
2) Remove the lid from high-voltage junction box on the

transformer and make a visual inspection. Look for burned
wiring and/or discolored insulating oil.
3) If all appears normal, isolate the transformer from the vessel by

unplugging transformer secondary wire from top of diode pack.
Be sure the plugs and lead are well away form the high-voltage
connection.
4) Temporarily secure the lid on the high-voltage junction box and

restore power to the transformer and observe the symptoms.
5) If the same symptoms are observed, low voltage and high

current, the transformer secondary winding or high voltage
feed-throughs are faulty.
6) If power readings return to normal, high volts and low

amperage, turn off power to the transformer and lock out the
power supply in the "off" position.
7) Reconnect the diode pack to the secondary, and disconnect the

two entrance bushing leads from the diode pack. Make sure
leads are away from the diode pack and other high voltage
wiring.
8) Temporarily secure the lid on the high voltage junction box

and restore power to the transformer and observe the
symptoms.
9) If the symptoms now return to low voltage and high current,

the diode pack or associated wiring is shorted to ground and
must be replaced or repaired.
10) If the readings return to normal and no discoloration of the oil

is observed around the entrance bushing conduit openings,
the problem is inside the vessel.
d) If it is determined that the short is inside the unit by Step c. above,

the following procedure should be observed:
1) Reaffirm that the symptoms are not the result of irregularities
- 161 -
covered in "A" of this checklist. They would appear as an
electrical short inside the unit.
2) Turn off all electrical power to unit.
3) Remove the production from the system and depressurize the

unit.
4) Disconnect and remove the entrance bushings and visually

check for burned appearance. (tracking). Be sure the bushings
are clean. Sulfides or B.S. build-up over the length of the
bushing can cause shorting. If there are no visible signs of
damage, a more complete determination can be made with a
"megger" to determine if there are any conductivity between the
entrance bushing contact rod and the adaptor flange.
Conductivity here indicates a bad bushing.
5) If the bushings are good, drain the vessel and remove manway
cover.
6) Before entering the vessel, once again be sure the power is off
and the power supply switch is locked in the "off" position. Also,
be sure the vessel has proper ventilation.
7) Visually inspect the insulating hangers that support the

electrode assembly. Burned or otherwise damaged insulators
should be replaced.
8) Check the electrodes for any foreign material that may be

touching either electrode and/or ground. Also, check for proper
spacing (at least 6") between the vessel wall and the electrodes
and between electrodes themselves.
9) Inspect the low-level safety switch on the top of the vessel. Be

sure the float assembly moves freely with out binding. Also be
sure that the float has not leaked and filled with liquid -
preventing it from floating up when the vessel is filled with liquid.
10) If a visual inspection has not revealed the problem, a more

complete check will be necessary. A 'megger' may be used to
check conductivity between each grid and ground, and each
other. Any conductivity will indicate that one or more of the
insulating hangers are bad. To determine which insulators are
causing the problem it may be necessary to remove the
insulators one a time and check individually. Any conductivity
across an insulator indicates a bad insulator.
4. Voltage normal, current very low, with treating efficiency decreased
- 162 -
This is an unlikely symptom but could be caused by an open within the high-
voltage circuitry of the unit;
A simple check for this problem may be accomplished by raising the interface
level in the coalescing section. As the interface approaches the grid section,
current should increase drastically if the high voltage circuitry is good. If it does
not, an open does exist in the high-voltage circuitry.
Note: The high voltage diode pack should be checked out in accordance with
Method "A".
5. Normal voltage, normal current, treating efficiency decreased
a) The high voltage diode pack in this unit is conservatively sized.

However, a voltage transient resulting from power interruptions or
lightning could result in a shorted diode pack, giving the above
symptoms. An open diode package should be checked in accordance
with Method "A" attached to this checklist.
NOTE: The diode package should be checked in accordance with

Method “A” attached to this checklist.
b) Another possible problem that would display these symptoms is the

production of a stable low water cut (2-3%) emulsion so finely
dispersed that it is concealed from the electric field. This type of
emulsion is likely to be chemically stabilized, and usually the result of
well rework or stimulation.
6. No voltage, normal current, treating efficiency normal
• Fuse blown in 100 V tertiary winding of transformer
• Located in low voltage junction box
7. Breaker/contactor kicks off immediately on energizing
• Short in primary (low voltage) side of transformer or associated circuitry
8. Breaker/Contactor kicks off intermittently or on hot days
a) Faulty circuit breaker
b) Breaker sized too small
C. CHECKING OUT HIGH-VOLTAGE CIRCUITS
Circuits that are designed to operate on high voltage will sometimes develop problems
- 163 -
that cannot be detected with normal low voltage test equipment. Although an
ohmmeter is a useful tool, it can deceive you. A conductor that is shorted with high
voltage applied may appear normal with low voltage. Thus an ohmmeter would not
detect this type of high voltage short circuits. An insulation tester, "megger" is a better
testing device for troubleshooting high-voltage circuits. Listed below is the
recommended method for checking out the high-voltage diode packs on the Dual
Polarity unit.
1. Use of Insulation Tester "Megger"
a) Disconnect and padlock transformer power Supply in the "Open" or "Off"

position
b) Be certain that power is NOT reaching the transformer
c) Remove the lid on the high-voltage junction box and isolate the diode pack
by disconnecting the high-voltage entrance bushing leads and the
transformer secondary lead
d) Connect the "Line" lead from the megger to the diode pack input terminal
and connect the "Ground" lead to the positive terminal on the diode pack.
Activate the megger. It should read high as shown on Reading#1 on the
attached sketch. Move the "Ground" lead from the positive terminal to the
negative terminal on the diode pack. Again, activate the megger and note
the reading. It should read low as in Reading #2 of Figure 3.
e) Disconnect "Line" lead of the megger from the input terminal of the diode
pack and connect the "Ground" lead to the diode input terminal. Connect
the "Line" lead to the positive terminal on the diode pack. Activate the
megger. The reading should be low as in Reading #3 of Figure 3. Move
the "Line" lead from the positive terminal to the negative terminal on the
diode pack. Again, activate the megger. The reading should be high as in
Reading #4 of Figure 3.
- 164 -
- 165 -
T e s t# 4
T e s t# 2
T e s t# 3
Test#1
- 166 -
Figure 3
- 167 -
APPENDIX A
TEST FOR DIELECTRIC STRENGTH
Testing for Dielectric Strength: For testing the dielectric strength of oil, the technique as specified by the
American Society for Testing Materials in the test method entitled, “Test for Dielectric Strength of
Insulating Oil”, Method D-877, should be followed. A 35 kV, 2 kVa test set is available and may be
purchased from the General Electric Company or Westinghouse Electric Company. The following
precautions and modifications must be observed:
Set the spacing of the two 1-inch diameter, flat disk electrodes at 0.100 inch.
Wipe the test cup and electrodes clean with dry, calendered tissues or clean, dry chamois; and
thoroughly rinse with clean, non-leaded gasoline, Standard solvent or water-white kerosene.
Fill the cup with a sample of the cleaning fluid and apply the voltage at the rate of 3 kv per second
until breakdown occurs. If the breakdown voltage is less than 26 kV, clean the cup again with
cleaning fluid and retest. After a satisfactory result, empty the cup immediately and rinse the test
unit at once.
The temperature of the oil, when tested, should be the same as that of the room which should be
between 20°C and 30°C (68°F and 86°F). Testing at oil temperatures appreciably lower than room
temperature is likely to give variable results and may be misleading.
In order that representative test specimens may be obtained, the oil sample container should be
gently inverted and the oil swirled several times before each filling of the test cup. The purpose is to
thoroughly mix any impurities present with the oil. Too rapid agitation is undesirable, as it
introduces an excessive amount of air into the mixture. Immediately after mixing, pour the oil
slowly from the container so that no air bubbles will form. Fill the cup to overflowing. Gently rock
the test cup a few times and allow three minutes for entrapped air to escape from the oil before
applying voltage.
When making the test, apply the voltage at the rate of 3 kV per second. Make only one test per cup
filling and fill the cup at least five times. Average the results to get the breakdown voltage for the
sample.
Since the oil is the major insulation of the apparatus in which it is used, its dielectric strength must
be kept up to definite standards as specified previously. If the oil fails to withstand the minimum
breakdown kV specified, it is a sign that impurities, particularly moisture, have entered it. In this
event the oil is no longer safe for use as an insulating medium and must be filtered to remove the
impurities and bring it back to its original conditions.
Acidity (Neutralization): The acidity test is one of the most satisfactory indicators of oxidation in the
oil. This is true because some of the oxidation products are of an acid nature and thus may be
detected by measuring the acidity of the oil. The main hazard of oxidation is the deposition of
sludge. Sludge occurs after the oxidation products held in solution finally saturate of the oil and any
additional products formed settle out in solid form. The acidity test indicates fairly accurately how
far oxidation has progressed.
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Appendix V
Sample EDD® Users Manual
- 169 -
INSTRUCTION MANUAL FOR
INSTALLATION, START-UP, AND OPERATION
OF CRUDE OIL DESALTERS
* * *
“CLIENT”
“CLIENT” REFINERY
* * *
The following is an example of a manual for EDD® Desalters. This manual was
prepared for a retrofit of two second stage desalters from AC to EDD® configuration.
Only those details identifying the client have been changed.
NOTE: This manual was originally prepared for the "tie rod" style composite
electrodes and the original LRC. Modifications will be required for current
composite plate mounting and current LRC configuration.
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START-UP AND OPERATION MANUAL
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
SAFETY
SPECIAL NOTES
GENERAL SAFETY
INSTALLATION AND ASSEMBLY
RECEIPT OF EQUIPMENT
INSTALLATION PROCEDURE FOR VESSEL MODIFICATION
PRECOMMISSIONING
PRECOMMISSIONING CHECKLIST
INSPECTION PROCEDURE FOR INTERNAL ASSEMBLY
PNEUMATIC CHECK-OUT PROCEDURE
ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTATION CHECK-OUT PROCEDURE
HIGH VOLTAGE ELECTRICAL SYSTEM CHECK-OUT PROCEDURE
FLUSHING OF INTERNAL DILUTION WATER HEADERS FOR EDD UNITS
HYDROTEST AND LEAK TEST
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
DESIGN CONDITIONS
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
CHEMICAL TESTING AND SELECTION
START-UP PROCEDURES
FILL
ESTABLISH CRUDE OIL FLOW
ESTABLISH PRESSURE CONTROL
ESTABLISH TEMPERATURE CONTROL
START ELECTROSTATIC SYSTEM OPERATION
ESTABLISH OIL/WATER INTERFACE
START THE DILUTION AND RECYCLE PROCESS
OPTIMIZE PROCESS
NORMAL OPERATION
MONITORING PROCESS PERFORMANCE
SWITCHING FEEDSTOCKS
PROCESS PERFORMANCE TESTING AND GUARANTEE
ANALYSIS PROCEDURE
PERFORMANCE TEST PROCEDURE
PROCESS PERFORMANCE GUARANTEE
MAINTENANCE OF EQUIPMENT
MAINTENANCE OF THE DESALTING SYSTEM POWER SUPPLY
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF VESSEL INTERNALS
TROUBLESHOOTING
GENERAL GUIDELINES
DESALTING PROCESS MALFUNCTIONS
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ELECTRICAL SYSTEM MALFUNCTIONS
WATER QUALITY PROBLEMS
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SECTION I
INTRODUCTION
It is imperative that this manual be read completely prior to start-up and that a copy be located at the plant
site at all times.
The system covered by this manual is comprised of two (2) parallel second stage crude oil desalters
retrofitted with NATCO's Electro-Dynamic Desalting (EDD) components. These components include three
transformers and three Load Responsive Controllers (LRC) for each desalter vessel, programmed for multiple
crude oil types.
Tag Oil Operating Desalter

No. Rate Temperature Vessel Size
VE-1A 50,000 145E C 12' x 32'-3"
VE-1B 50,000 145E C 12' x 32'
Upstream of these two second stage desalters is a single, larger first stage. The two process stages are
intended to work as an integral system to reduce both water and mineral contamination in the crude oil. A
more detailed description of the process can be found in Section V of this manual.
This manual is intended to provide information necessary for all activities relating to the second stage
desalters. Although the existing first stage is not being modified at this time and is not included in the scope
of this manual, it nevertheless must work in conjunction with the newly modified second stage vessels. Some
of the information contained herein may be applicable in a general way to the first stage desalter. However,
the function of the stages is quite different. The first stage in its unmodified condition is a pure AC desalter.
The two second stage vessels are NATCO's EDD (AC/DC) process. The first stage desalter should be
operated using procedures recommended by its supplier, and time tested by its operators.
No manual or set of instructions can foresee all possible situations due to the myriad combinations of
pressure, temperature, and operating conditions possible in operations. The reader is, therefore, advised that
the services of a competent on-site technical consultant during start-up and operation of this equipment is
essential to prudent and safe operation. This manual is furnished for information purposes only. NATCO
shall not be liable for the use of this manual or any of the information contained in whole or in part, as that
use relates to plant operating efficiency, plant malfunctions, plant operator interpretation, and particularly
accidents or unsafe conditions which could arise in any operating facility.
The safe operation of any facility remains the responsibility of the owner or lessee of the equipment and those
directly involved in the operation of such facilities.
NATCO's scope of supply was limited to the retrofit desalter packages. The Customer must confirm that all
components of the system are compatible.
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NATCO “CLIENT”
SECTION II
SAFETY
IMPORTANT: Read and understand the entire operating and maintenance manual before starting
to work. Observe and comply with all cautions and warnings given here, in other sections of the
manual, and in vendor literature contained in the "Mechanical Catalog" or "Vendor Equipment
Booklets".
SPECIAL NOTES
1. Make certain that all structures, vessels, and electrical equipment are properly grounded.
2. Do not enter any vessel until it is vented and checked for dangerous or explosive gas.
3. Do not work on vessels or equipment in operation or while under pressure.
4. Vent all process and instrument gas pressures before working on equipment.
5. Check for explosive gases in the area before performing any work.
6. Do not work on this equipment if any other work in the area could result in release of
explosive vapor.
7. WARNING: After equipment has been in service, do not cut or weld on any process lines
or vessels for any reason. Accumulations of hydrocarbons can result in explosive
conditions.
Any rework of vessels or piping requires special precautions that are not covered in this
manual.
8. WARNING: Safety relief valves are designed for thermal/fire relief. The Client must
confirm that the vessel design pressure is higher than the shut-in pressure produced by
feed or water injection pumps (by others).
9. WARNING: Keep hands away from mechanical linkages while equipment is in operation.
Operation is automatic and may occur without notice.
10. WARNING: The control panel and control circuits operate on 110 VAC and 24 VDC
electrical power. Use extreme care when servicing. Lethal electrical shock is possible.
This equipment must be serviced only by qualified personnel.
11. WARNING: The Load Responsive Controllers (LRC) and high voltage transformers
operate on 440 VAC electrical power. Lock power "off" before servicing. Use extreme
care when servicing. Lethal electric shock is possible. This equipment must be serviced
only by qualified personnel.
12. WARNING: The desalter high voltage electrodes and electrical system components
operate on 23,000 to 40,000 VAC electrical power. Lock power "off" before servicing.
Lethal electric shock is possible. This equipment must be serviced only by qualified
personnel. Make certain power is locked "off" before entering the vessel.
13. WARNING: Before initial testing of transformer and electrical system, the vessel must be
vented and carefully checked for any combustible vapor. After the initial start-up, the
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NATCO “CLIENT”
power must never be applied to the transformer unless the vessel is filled with liquid. Any
spark generated in the presence of combustible vapors may create a lethal explosion.
This equipment must be serviced only by qualified personnel.
14. Operate the equipment within the specified design conditions.
GENERAL SAFETY
1. Definite safety procedures should be prepared for the employees. Plant supervision
should make certain that employees understand their duties and responsibilities.
Employees should understand that it is their personal responsibility to report to their
immediate supervisor any abnormal circumstances, such as:
a. Leaks
b. Accumulation of gas or vapor
c. Defective or damaged equipment
d. Abnormal conditions such as excessively high or low temperature or pressure
e. Infractions of safety regulations
f. Unauthorized hot work
g. Unauthorized vehicles or personnel in the area
Operating personnel should be familiar with the location of fire protection and first aid
equipment in the area, and trained in the use of such equipment. Employees should know
how to report a fire or an emergency and have a clear understanding of their duties during
such emergencies.
2. Normal Operation
a. Specific operating procedures for the lighting of gas burners should be readily
available at each unit where such equipment is located. Furnaces are equipped
with pilot lights and with equipment designed to shut off the fuel supply when a
malfunction occurs. Manual resetting of shutoff equipment is necessary prior to
placing furnace in operation.
b. Transportation vehicles should not be permitted to operate within plant area or

loading area while area is contaminated with flammable vapors or while loading of
product.
c. Procedures for the loading of product should be prepared and should be followed.
d. Regular inspections of the loading area should be made of items such as

grounding of electrical equipment, housekeeping, lines, valves or cocks for leaks,
proper drainage or venting from loading area, and elimination of nearby open
flames during loading operations.
e. Procedures covering the starting up and shutting down of processing equipment

and units should be reviewed and rehearsed thoroughly by those responsible for
operation of the equipment.
3. Emergency Operations
a. General
When flammable liquids or vapors escape from tanks, vessels, or lines, available
means should be used for limiting their spread and preventing their ignition. The
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NATCO “CLIENT”
extent of the contaminated area should first be defined and the area identified by
suitable warning signs as well as patrolled. Spills should be cleaned up as soon
as possible.
b. Liquid Leaks
If a break or serious leak occurs in a liquid line, the pumps should be shut down
and any block valves closed.
If the leak involves a tank or any relatively large vessel, portable pumps may be
required to recover the liquid. Trenches, dikes, or diversion walls should be used
either to confine the liquid or divert the flow. Foam may be applied to cover the
spills in order to exclude air, but this is not normally necessary. Water spray
applied at the point of emission of a leak may aid in the dispersal of vapors and
prevent ignition.
In the case of leaks of very light products, which give off quantities of vapor, the
procedures listed for gas leaks should also be followed.
c. Gas Leaks
In the event of a break to a gas containing line or vessel, all fires in the vicinity of
the break should be extinguished. Before operations are resumed, tests should be
made at pits, trenches, or dikes where gas might accumulate. Portable gas
indicators for making such tests will indicate if a flammable gas or vapor is present.
If a break occurs in area where adjoining property is owned by outside interests,

prompt measures should be taken to notify those concerned of the potential
hazard that exists and to eliminate any sources of ignition.
It may be possible at times to disperse flammable mixtures by means of forced

ventilation or large quantities of steam or water fog.
4. Maintenance Procedures
a. General
Fire prevention in connection with maintenance work depends primarily upon

careful planning and removal of flammable liquids, vapors, and other flammable
materials before work starts. In certain instances, it is not possible to completely
remove all flammable material; and, at such times, precautions must be taken to
prevent ignition sources from contacting flammable mixtures or to exclude oxygen.
A procedure should be set up for warning personnel and stopping maintenance
work in the event of a release of flammable vapors or liquids in the area where the
work is being done.
b. Work Permit System
A written work permit system should be used whenever any maintenance or

inspection work is contemplated which requires the use of spark or flame
producing equipment. The permit should be issued only after tests have indicated
that no flammable vapors are present. It should also be ascertained that no other
work is being done or contemplated which might create a hazard during the course
of the job. The authorized persons should sign the permit, indicating that the
equipment to be worked on has been properly prepared for hot work. Any
precautionary requirements or procedures to be observed during the work should
also be outlined on the permit.
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NATCO “CLIENT”
c. Inspection
Process units and related equipment should have periodic complete inspections.
The length of time between inspections and the type of inspection conducted
should be based upon the type of equipment and its condition as determined by
previous inspections.
5. Repairs
a. When any equipment is to be repaired, it should be isolated from other equipment

which contains flammables. Connecting piping should be disconnected or
blanked, or both, in accordance with a definite procedure. Valves should not be
relied on for blanking purposes. Blanks of suitable thickness should either be blind
flanges or full-face steel plates inserted between gaskets against line flanges.
Definite responsibility for their installation and removal should be assigned. When
hot work is to be done on equipment which has been purged of gas, connections
to the equipment should be removed.
b. Care should be taken if sludge and scale remain in tanks, vessels, and piping after
flushing and washing operations. Such materials often contain flammables and
may give off vapors that can be ignited during repairs. Continued ventilation may
be necessary.
c. Before hot repair work is started on equipment which has contained or does still
contain flammable liquids or gases, careful plans should be made as to the
manner in which the work will be done. In most cases, it is desirable to open and
completely gas-free equipment before repairs are made; but there are instances
when repairs may proceed after the flammable material has been displaced by
some inert material such as flue gas or water.
d. Firefighting facilities should be readily available when repairs are being made.
Minor fires may be quickly extinguished when facilities are readily accessible and
employees are trained in their quick and effective use.
6. Good Housekeeping
Good housekeeping is an essential part of maintenance. Containers for scrap

material and refuse should be provided at convenient locations. Strict adherence
should be observed to scheduled emptying of such containers. Oil and
grease-soaked rags should be placed only in separate metal containers provided
for them.
7. Vessel Entry
a. Vessel entry refers to entry of any tank, vessel, equipment or other enclosed place
where there is a hazard of: (1) a toxic, corrosive, or flammable substances; (2)
insufficient oxygen; (3) severe restrictions that would hinder escape or rescue.
Vessel entry normally requires specific approval by plant supervision.
b. Vessel entry should include tank gauging, sampling and blowdowns.

c. All vessels should be assumed unsafe for normal entry until the following entry
procedures have been followed:
1) Disconnect and blank off all lines to the vessel.
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NATCO “CLIENT”
2) Remove all sources of ignition before removing manway covers.
3) Check all liquid traps and internal lines to assure they are free of
hazardous liquid.
4) Clean the vessel as thoroughly as possible by draining, washing with

water, steaming, ventilating or other suitable means. If steam is used,
guard against static electricity by grounding the steam nozzle. After
steaming, allow the vessel to cool slowly. Sudden cooling with water spray
may cause a static electrical charge.
d. Test the atmosphere for:
1) Oxygen: Air must contain 20-21% oxygen and the vessel should have
adequate ventilation, either forced or natural.
2) Explosive Mixture: A vessel may not be entered if the testing instrument

indicated an air-vapor mixture that exceeds 50% of the lower explosive
limit.
3) Toxic Fumes: The presence of any toxic fumes requires the use of
respiratory protective equipment, normally an air supplied mask with hand
blower, or a self-contained breathing unit; otherwise, additional cleaning or
purging of the vessel is indicated.
e. Safety Harness or Belts - Either a safety harness or belt should be worn by the
person using respiratory equipment when entering the vessel.
f. Clothing - Personal protective clothing suitable for the job inside the vessel should
be worn.
g. Observer - An observer should be stationed outside the vessel. His only duty
should be to watch the person inside the vessel. When respiratory equipment is
required for the person entering the vessel, the observer should also have suitable
respiratory equipment available.
h. Emergency Equipment - Fire extinguishers and other emergency equipment

should be available as required.
8. Electrical Equipment
Probably everyone recognizes that high voltages can be very dangerous, but some people
fail to realize that so-called "low voltage" can also be very hazardous and under certain
conditions can produce fatal injuries. Deaths have been recorded due to contact with
circuits of less than 50 volts. Actually, it is not voltage but amperage that kills. Under
certain conditions, as little as 1/10 ampere is sufficient to cause death. The following may
be used as a guide when working with electrical equipment.
a. Electrical Equipment Repairs
When electrical equipment is to be repaired, switches must be opened and tagged.

Working on "hot circuits" normally requires the permission of plant supervision.
Refer to detailed plant tag-out procedures before proceeding.
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NATCO “CLIENT”
b. Grounding
1) All electrical equipment is to be grounded.
2) If it is every necessary to move any equipment, the ground should be

replaced before the equipment is used.
c. Conduits, Cables and Wires
1) Electrical conduits should not be used to support other equipment.
2) Electrical cables and conduits should not be buried underground except in

accordance with engineering standards.
3) Exposed ends of electric wires must be taped.
4) Unused and abandoned electric wires must be removed or disconnected at

each end.
d. Fuses
1) Fuses should be removed and replaced only by authorized personnel.
2) Fuse tongs and/or rubber electrical gloves should be used and the
disconnect should be opened. Note: Rubber gloves must always be
used for voltages in excess of 150 volts.
3) Never use coins, metal foil, or other contrivances in lieu of fuses.
4) Never use fuses of greater capacity than that specified by the equipment
manufacturer.
e. Switching
1) When starting electric motors, handle all switches according to instructions.

Make contact so as to prevent arcs. Stand in a safe position.
2) Never pull a disconnect switch under load except in an emergency.
3) Always be certain that hands and feet are dry when operating switches or
plugging in electrical appliances.
4) Keep rubber mats in front of switchboards where possible.
5) Switch panel fronts should be kept closed.
f. Hand Tools and Portable Equipment
1) Extension lights without bulb protectors must not be used. Use only low
voltage lights with isolating transformers in tanks and similar places.
2) All extension cords should be of the grounded type. Before each period of
use, examine extension cords carefully for any failure of the outer
insulation, particularly at terminal points where the cord enters a plug or a
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NATCO “CLIENT”
fixture.
3) Lights and tools should not be disconnected from an extension cord while
the other end of the cord is in a socket or receptacle.
4) The ground cable with which each tool is equipped should be secured to a
suitable ground before the tool is plugged into a source of electricity.
g. Miscellaneous
1) Contact with electrical conductors should be avoided whether they are

energized or not.
2) Fenced substation areas should be entered only by authorized personnel.
3) Faulty electrical equipment must not be used. Report it immediately.
4) Before changing broken light bulbs, be certain the current is turned off.
5) No employee should work within 15' of a high voltage power line except by
special authorization of plant supervision.
11. Laboratory Safety
a. Good Housekeeping
1) Cleanliness and orderliness are absolutely essential to the safe operations

of laboratories.
2) A continuous program should be in effect to prevent the accumulation of

rubbish, rags, partly-used samples, dismantled equipment, etc.
b. Equipment
1) Inspect all gas hoses for leaks each day that they are used.
2) Extinguish all gas burners when they are not in use.
3) Glassware:
a) Discard all cracked, broken or damaged glassware.
b) Fire-polish all chipped edges on burettes, breakers, graduates, etc.
c) Avoid thermal shock with all glassware.
d) Use only glass tubing with fire-polished ends.
e) Before attempting to insert glass tubing in stopper holes, be certain

that the holes are the proper size. Always moisten the stopper hole
and the glass tubing with water, and rotate the glass tube as it is
inserted pushing it away from the body. When rubber tubing or
stoppers stick on glassware, cut them away.
f) Do not eat or drink out of laboratory glassware.
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NATCO “CLIENT”
c. Storing and Identifying Chemicals
1) Adequately label or mark bottles and containers to identify the chemical

within.
2) Keep chemicals stored in their proper place. Solvents should not be

brought into laboratory in quantities greater than 5 gallons.
3) Keep volatile combustible liquids in safety containers and away from direct
flames or sources of heat.
d. Handling Chemicals
1) When handling acids or caustic materials in quantities, always wear

protective clothing and eye protection.
2) Always pour acids and caustic materials into water, NEVER the reverse.
3) If acids or caustic materials enter the eye, flush with plenty of water and
report immediately for first aid treatment.
4) Wash hands immediately after handling chemicals bearing poison labels.

Wash hands after handling mercury and clean up mercury spills at once.
5) Dispose of acids or caustic materials in a proper approved manner.
6) Refer to vendor information and Material Safety Data Sheets for specifics
on the safe handling of individual types of chemicals, and first aid steps for
accidents involving them.
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SECTION III
INSTALLATION AND ASSEMBLY
RECEIPT OF EQUIPMENT
1. The desalter vessels are to be retrofitted in the field.
a. Two (2) vessels to be converted to EDD type desalters.
b. Control panels shipped separate for site installation.
c. Miscellaneous instruments, valves, and accessories shipped boxed for site

installation.
2. Check the equipment on receipt* at site: (*NOTE: We recommend that a NATCO Service
Technician be present to assist with the inspection and pre-commissioning.)
a. Confirm that all materials received are in agreement with the packing list and are in
good condition.
b. Check for any shipping damage. Immediately document any damage with a formal
report and photographs. Claims for damages should be sent to the freight
company.
3. Transformer and panel handling and storage should be performed with the factory
supplied shipping pallet securely attached. Lifting lugs have been provided for the
handling of tanks by over-head lift. Slings should be padded to protect painted surfaces.
Particular care should be taken to avoid any damage to bushings and insulators.
A cool, dry, and protected area should be used for the storage of electrical equipment.
The temperature of storage areas containing liquid filled power supplies should not exceed
60E C.
Electrical Schematics showing the terminal identification markings, are attached to the unit
in an envelope. Please consult these schematics for connection instructions.
4. The equipment should be checked for level and re-levelled if required.
5. Open all manways, vent, clean, and sandblast vessel interior. (Check to make sure vessel
is safe - free from vapors - before entering.)
INSTALLATION PROCEDURE FOR VESSEL MODIFICATION
1. Safety
a. If any field piping has been connected, make certain that the vessel is isolated with
solid metal blinds. The isolation is necessary to prevent any possibility of
dangerous gas or vapors from entering the vessel.
b. Make certain that all electric power is locked "OFF".
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NATCO “CLIENT”
c. Open the manways on each end of the vessel. We recommend placing a fan in
one of the manways for forced ventilation. Test for breathable air inside the vessel
before anyone is allowed to enter.
d. Place a thermometer inside the vessel to monitor the temperature.
CAUTION: If the modification is made during the hot season, the temperature inside
the vessel may become too hot for safe working conditions. We do not
recommend working in the vessel at temperatures of 120E F or above.
With hot working conditions, extreme care should be taken to maintain salt
intake and avoid dehydration or heat stroke.
e. At least two (2) people should be working together at all times. One (1) person
who is certified for confined space operations should remain out of the vessel.
f. All relevant drawings shall be distributed to persons who are working on the
modification work. Everyone involved should understand his responsibility and
work content in addition to the modification time schedule. The drawings shall be
referred to the drawing lists for mechanical assembly and transformers.
2. Installation of External Attachments and Supports
Following procedure may be taken by the Client for installation of internal piping parts and
supports prior to installing electrode plates and channel rails.
Transformer installation should be done according to the separate transformer

instructions.
Exact steps and priority of the work should be determined by the Client. Following order is
only for reference.
a. Clean internal surface of the vessel.
b. Make certain that all of the nozzle openings in the bottom of the vessel are
covered to prevent entrance of nuts, bolts or debris.
c. Remove insulation cover and materials at proposed locations for new nozzles.
d. Make cutting lines on vessel surface.
e. Remove or cut existing items as follows:
1) Pipe inlet spreaders (remove)

2) Pipes of trycocks (remove)
3) Supports and lugs for electrode (cut/remove)
4) Stilling well for level transmitter (remove)
5) Supports for transformers (cut/remove)
f. Clean internal surface again. If necessary, use handtools or sandblasting for

cleaning.
g. Cut vessel shell by gas arc cutter and smooth the cut surface by grinders.
1) 6 nozzles for 6" entrance bushings

2) 2 nozzles for 2" level transmitters
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NATCO “CLIENT”
3) 2 nozzles for 4" sludge drains
h. Provide scaffolding or temporary steps in the vessel from one end to the other end.
i. Attach following parts:
Priority of hook-up and installation of parts should be determined by the Client and
his subcontractors.
1) Platforms and supports for transformers

2) Lugs for electrode hangers
3) Lugs for support angles
4) Support angles for water injection headers
5) Brackets for float switches
6) Support angles for sludge drain headers
j. Following mechanical parts will be assembled prior to electrode assembly
1) Sludge drain pipes

2) Distribution header pipes
3) Emulsion spreader housings
4) Water injection header pipe
5) Water injection lateral pipes
6) Insulation hangers
7) Channel rails with splicers
The steps from Item 6) above are referred to in detail on the drawings.
3. Electrode Internals for EDD Desalter Vessels
a. Refer to NATCO Drawings D-92576 and D-28659 and B-90888 to B-90890.
b. Inspect the internals for shipping damage. Identify the parts and materials
according to drawings and check if their quantities are correct.
c. Make certain that all of the nozzle openings in the bottom of the vessel are
covered to prevent entrance of nuts, bolts, or debris.
d. Carefully install the Teflon® insulators (Item 4) to electrode hangers inside the
vessel.
e. Lay out the four (4) channel rails (Item 1) and fasten the grid supporting strap (Item
2) to the channels as shown on drawing using the 3/8" channel studs and nuts
(Items 5 and 7) making sure that they are 10" (254mm) apart on each rail and are
staggered on 5" (127mm) centers.
NOTE: The rail sections are spliced together with a 1" wide x 3mm thick flat bar
about 150mm long. Check to be sure that splice bars have
remained bolted in place.
f. Install the channel (Item 1) on the Teflon insulator hangers (Item 4) using nuts,
washers, and C-rail clamps (Item 3) provided with hangers. Check for true level.
Make sure all hangers are free of any stress or binding. Check end clearance of
the channels to allow minimum 6" (152mm) from vessel head. Adjust the level if
necessary by raising or lowering the rail and C-rail clamps on the hangers (Items 1
and 3).
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g. Install the two (2) 8" OD float balls onto the float switch. Refer to the float switch
assembly detail on Drawing No. [D-92577]. The float balls were shipped with the
entrance bushings, adaptor flanges and other fittings for the transformer
installation.
h. Install the FRP electrode plates onto the support straps in accordance with the
details on the drawing and the following instructions:
1) Work from one end of the vessel toward the other end.
2) Lay out electrode plates "A", "B", "C", "D", "E", "F", "G", and "H" into
separate stacks.
NOTE: The plates are fabricated from Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP).
Care should be taken to avoid damage to the plates. The
Type "C", "D", "E", "F", "G", and "H" plates are shorter for
extending the electrode into the vessel head. Each vessel
has three (3) type "A/B", "C/D", "E/F" and "G/H" plates.
3) Note that the crimp and black strip on each plate will be all installed facing
the same direction.
4) Start with plate "H" (the shortest). Refer to the electrode plate assembly
detail (Drawing No. [D-92577]) and hang the plate from the support strap.
The support strap forms a clamp that attaches to the top ridge of the plate.
The plate must be centered in the vessel.
5) Refer to the "Electrode Plate Voltage Tie-Rod" detail (Drawing No. [D-
92577]). Each plate has one (1) 8" ID hole and 1/4" hole located 12"
(304.8mm) from the center of the plate. The 1/4" hole is drilled through the
conductive strip on the plate. Insert the 1/4" bolt (Item 14) through this hole
in plate "H". Make sure that the "star" washer is located against the
conductive strip. Install the steel "voltage tie-rod" (Item 13) on the 1/4" bolt.
Slip the Teflon sleeve over the tie rod.
6) Hang plate "G" on the next set of support straps. Note that plate "G" does
not attach to the same rails as plate "H". Plate "G" and plate "H" will be 5"
(127mm) apart center-to-center. A wooden block may be cut to 4-15/16"
(154.4mm) to use as a gauge for setting the distance between plates.
Adjust the location of the support straps as required to maintain the correct
centers. Note that the 6" hole in plate "G" fits over the "tie rod" installed on
plate "H".
7) Insert the 1/4" bolt through the small hole in plate "G" for the next "tie rod".
Make sure that the 1/4" star washer is located against the conductive strip.
Install the steel "voltage tie-rod" (Item 13) on the 1/4" bolt. Slip the Teflon
sleeve over the tie-rod. Install the 1/4" all-thread stud (Item 14) into the
end of the tie-rod.
NOTE: The tie-rod on plate "H" should be in the center of the 6" hole in
plate "G".
8) Hang plate "F" on the next set of support straps. Plate "F" will be attached
to the same rails (Item 1) as plate "H". Confirm the 5" (127mm) center-to-
center spacing between the plates using the wood block gauge. Adjust the
support straps as required. Note that the tie-rod from plate "H" will connect
to plate "F". Install the star washer against the conductive strip. Install the
1/4" bolt with contact strip on the end of the tie-rod which is fixed on the "H"
plate. Screw the previous tie-rod assembly with contact strap (Items 13, 14
and 17) onto the back of plate "F". Note that the tie-rod on plate "G" should
be in the center of the 6" hole in plate "F". Provide next tie-rod on plate
"F".
9) Hang electrode plate "E" on the next set of support straps. Plate "E" will be
attached to the same rails as plate "G". Confirm the 5" (127mm) center-to-
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center spacing. Note that the tie-rod on plate "G" connects to plate "E" with
contact strip. Install the star washer against the conductive strip. Screw
the previous tie-rod assembly onto the back of plate "E". Note that the tie-
rod in plate "F" should be in the center of the 6" hole in plate "E".
10) Refer to the "electrode plate end spacer" detail. Install the end spacer
assembly (Items 14, 15, and 16) at the ends of plate "E". The spacer rod
assembly is similar to the tie-rods, except the spacers are made from FRP.
11) Hang electrode plate "D" on the next set of support straps. Plate "D" will
be attached to the same set of rails as plate "F". Check the spacing and
note the tie-rod on plate "F" connects to plate "D". Install the star washer
against the conductive strip and screw the next tie-rod assembly on the
back of plate "D". Note that the tie-rod in plate "E" should be in the center
of the 6" hole in plate "D". Install the end spacers at the end of plate "D".
12) The distance between the end of plate "E" or "D" and the vessel shell
should be the same on each end. Make a wood block gauge to check as
each plate is hung in operation.
13) Hang plate "C" on the next set of support straps. Plate "C" will be attached
to the same rails (Item 1) as plate "E". Confirm the 5" (127mm) center-to-
center spacing between the plates using the wood block gauge. Adjust the
support straps as required. Note that the tie-rod from plate "E" will connect
to plate "C". Install the star washer against the conductive strip. Screw the
next tie-rod assembly with contact strap onto the back of plate "C" with
contact strap. Note that the tie-rod on plate "D" should be in the center of
the 6" hole in plate "C".
i. Continue to install electrode plates alternating between plate "C" and "D".
Remember that the tie-rods and spacers must be installed as each plate is hung.
1) Hang electrode plate "A" on the next set of support straps. Plate "A" will be
attached to the same rails as plate "D". Confirm the 5" (127mm) center-to-
center spacing. Note that the tie-rod on plate "D" connects to plate "A".
Install the star washer against the conductive strip. Screw the next tie-rod
assembly onto the back of plate "A" with contact strip. Note that the tie-rod
in plate "C" should be in the center of the 6" hole in plate "A".
2) Refer to the "electrode plate end spacer" detail. Install the end spacer
assembly at the ends of plate "A". The spacer rod assembly is similar to
the tie-rods, except the spacers are made from FRP.
3) Hang electrode plate "B" on the next set of support straps. Plate "B" will be
attached to the same set of rails as plate "C". Check the spacing and note
the tie-rod on plate "C" connects to plate "B". Install the star washer
against the conductive strip and screw the next tie-rod assembly on the
back of plate "B" with contact strap. Note that the tie-rod in plate "A"
should be in the center of the 6" hole in plate "B". Install the end spacers
at the end of plate "B".
4) The distance between the end of plate "A" or "B" and the vessel shell
should be the same on each end. Make a wood block gauge to check as
each plate is hung in position.
j. Continue to install electrode plates alternating between plate "A" and "B".
Remember that the tie-rods and spacers must be installed as each plate is hung.
k. When the installation of plates reaches the position in the vessel where the contact
rods are installed:
1) Note that the "contact rods" are each supported by two (2) plates and that
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the contact rod assembly must be installed at the same time as the plates.
One contact rod must be mounted on two (2) "A" plates and the other on
two (2) "B" plates.
2) The contact rods should be positioned as shown on the "side view" detail in
Drawing No. D-92577 - 2/2. A deviation in the spacing of the plates from
that shown from drawing will cause a deviation in the contact rod location.
Some deviation (±1") is acceptable).
3) An extension rod must be added to the top of the contact rod assembly in
the "EDD" vessels. These extensions are shipped with the transformer
hook-up fittings. Thread a 1/2" nut onto the contact rod and then screw on
the extension. Tighten the 1/2" nut up against the extension to lock it in
place. Check to be sure that the float switch makes contact with the rod
extension.
l. After the contact rods have been installed, connect the entrance bushing to the
contact rod as shown on Drawing D-92580. There must be enough cable inside
the vessel to allow removal of the entrance bushing from outside the vessel. If
necessary, extra cable may be loosely coiled around the contact rod. (Prior to
attaching to entrance bushings.)
CAUTION: Be certain that the cable between the entrance bushing and contact rod
does not come near (within 6") of other metal parts. The system will not
work if the cable is shorted to ground or to the opposite electrode.
m. Complete the electrode installation.
n. Carefully clean all debris from inside the vessel and remove covers from nozzle
openings in the bottom of the vessel.
o. Replace the manway covers and do not allow entry until pre-commissioning
activities start. Refer to the operation manual.
NOTE: We recommend that a NATCO specialist inspect and certify the electrode and
transformer installation prior to commissioning.
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SECTION IV
PRE-COMMISSIONING
PRE-COMMISSIONING CHECKLIST
1. Commissioning team and operators have read and are thoroughly familiar with the
instruction manual.
2. Equipment was inspected on receipt and checked against packing lists and all damage
was documented and reported.
3. Equipment is set level.
4. Foundation bolts installed.
5. Internal bolts are tight.
6. Shipping supports/packing removed.
7. Ladder, platform, handrails installed.
8. All pipe spools and accessories are installed in accordance with the P&I and assembly
drawings.
9. The pneumatic hookup has been checked.
10. Electrical wiring has been checked.
11. Vessels, skid, and instrumentation are properly grounded.
12. All piping and accessories have been checked for tightness.
13. Customer field piping has been connected.
14. Temporary strainers have been installed.
15. Instrument air supply has been hooked up and regulators adjusted.
16. Control panel installed.
17. Field wiring checked.
18. Control panel operation verified.
19. LRC installed and operation verified.
20. Chemical tank is clean and pump hooked up.
21. Transformer and grid system check-out completed.
22. Internal dilution water headers flushed on EDD units.
23. Vendor literature in mechanical catalog has been reviewed and all instructions for pre-
commissioning or adjusting valves and accessories have been followed.
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24. Hydrotest/leak test completed.
25. Sample lines and sample coolers checked.
26. Chemical suppliers ready to run plant tests.
INSPECTION PROCEDURE FOR INTERNAL ASSEMBLY
1. List of Items for Internal Installation
a. Check the voltage tie-rod installation. These are the metal rods near the center of
the plates.
1) Make sure that the tie rods contact the graphite strip.
2) Make sure that the contact strip is installed on every plate.
3) Make sure that the tie rod is within 1-1/2" of the center of the holes where
they pass through the alternating plates.
4) Make sure that the Teflon sleeve that covers the steel tie rod is cut about
1/8" shorter than the tie rod. If the Teflon sleeve is too long, it will prevent
the tie rod from making good contact to the conductive strip.
5) Make sure that the "tie rods" are the Teflon sleeved steel rods and not the
fiberglass rods that are used at the ends of the plates.
b. Check the fiberglass electrode plate end spacers to be sure that none have
separated and to be sure that fiberglass rods were used and not the metal rods
that are to be used as tie rods.
c. Check the electrode plate spacing. After the installation is complete, the spacing
of the electrodes should be 5" (127mm) plus or minus 1/2" (12.7mm). This
spacing should be maintained along the length of the plate at the top and the
bottom. Check the spacing between the ends of the plates and the vessel shell to
be sure it is not less than 4-1/2" (114mm).
d. Check to be sure that the electrodes are all facing the same direction. The crimps
should all face the same direction.
e. The bottom of the plates should be located 8" (203mm) above the center line of the
vessel (±1" or 25.4mm).
f. Be sure that there are no cracked or broken plates.
g. Check the installation of the contact rods. One contact rod should be attached to
the "A" set of plates and one contact rod should be attached to the "B" set of
plates. The voltage tie rod must attach to the contact rod assembly.
h. Check the float switch assembly and clearance between the float switch and
contact rod. Be sure that the float moves freely and nothing will cause the float to
"hang up" in the vessel. When the float is in the UP position, there must be at
least 5" (127mm) clearance to the contact rod.
i. Clean and inspect the Teflon insulator hangers. These should be wiped with a
clean, soft cloth dampened with clean kerosene.
2. List of Items for Electrical Connection
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a. Check the cable connection between the bottom of the entrance bushing and the
contact rod. The connections must be tight and the cable must have at least 6"
(152 mm) clearance to any ground or oppositely charged parts. Be sure that the
cable weight has been installed and that the entrance bushing can be removed
without going inside the vessel.
b. Disconnect the bushings inside the diode box on the transformer. Make sure that
the wires are not near a ground then megger test the electrode assembly. Megger
test between electrode set "A" and "B" and between "A" and ground and "B" and
ground. This must be done with the floats up.
c. Check to be sure that there is continuity through the length of the tie rods and from
each tie rod to the conductive strip on the plates. Hook the megger at one end of
the vessel and check the opposite end to be sure the voltage is conducted the full
length.
d. Check to be sure that air is vented out of the top of the bushing housing.
e. Clean and inspect the Teflon parts of the entrance bushings. These should be
wiped with a soft, clean cloth dampened with clean kerosene.
f. Perform the electrical checks on the transformer and diode box as listed in the
procedure. These checks should be done at maximum available voltage. Lower
voltages may result in not finding some high voltage breakdown points.
g. Conduct megger checks from the ends of the electrode plate tie rods to the top of
the entrance bushing to confirm that the cables, saddles, and tie rods have
continuity.
3. Others
a. When all the other checks are complete, clean the screen in the strainer on the
dilution water supply line and flush the overhead water header. Go inside the
vessel with the water spray on and visually check to see that all of the small holes
are clear.
PNEUMATIC CHECK-OUT PROCEDURE
1. Turn on instrument air supply to the desalter skid. Maximum air pressure at skid edge
should be 100 psig and a minimum of 50 psig.
2. Blow down the instrument air header and piping to remove any dirt and scale.
3. Refer to the "Mechanical Catalog" or "Vendor Equipment Booklet" and follow the detailed
instructions for each pneumatic instrument and control valve.
4. Adjust the instrument air regulators to set the supply pressure for each instrument.
5. Check all connections and fittings for leaks by soap bubble test.
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6. Stroke all valves from full open to full close several times to confirm functional operation.
ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTATION CHECK-OUT PROCEDURE
1. Hook up field wiring to junction boxes on the desalter skids and to the LRC. (Refer to
drawings included in this manual.)
2. Make continuity checks on all field wiring. (Refer to "BB" above.)
3. Refer to the "Mechanical Catalog" and follow the detailed vendor instructions for each
instrument.
4. Turn on 24 VDC and 110 volt instrument power supply to desalter skids and functionally
check each instrument for correct operation.
HIGH VOLTAGE ELECTRICAL SYSTEM CHECK-OUT PROCEDURE
1. Before connecting line power, be sure all cables and wiring are installed and connected.
The circuit breaker should be padlocked in the OFF position.
2. Transformer, LRC, and vessel are grounded.
3. Make sure electrodes are free hanging and no loose materials ground them to the vessel
interior or to each other.
4. Study the LRC manual and drawings (Appendix A).
5. With the local disconnect at the transformer locked "OFF", load in the required operating
parameters into the controller and perform the necessary calibrations as instructed in by
the LRC manual.
6. Using the following procedure, complete all steps of the electrode electrical check:
Step #1
a. Set the LRC to "manual mode" and with "secondary KV" displayed.
Step #2
a. Make certain there are NO explosive gases in or around vessel.
b. Make certain the disconnect is in the OFF position.
c. Using wiring harness provided in the packing box, jumper across diode pack to
effectively short it out. Refer to Sketch 1.
d. Tie or block both level float switches in the UP position. Make sure there is no
contact with the charged electrode or the upright connector rods.
e. Make certain NO ONE is in or on the vessel,
f. Close the circuit and following the instructions for the LRC in the manual mode,
gradually increase the secondary voltage up to 20 KV.
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g. Check the primary amperage. Amperage should be between 0-2 amps.
Step #3
a. Open the circuit breaker and padlock it in the OFF position.
b. Go back inside the vessel and release the float switches so that they contact the
vertical high voltage connecting rods. Make sure each float is resting fully on the
rod, remove the material previously used to tie the floats in the up position from the
vessel interior.
c. Make one more internal inspection to be sure the float switch is free to swing
upward with fluid rise.
d. Leave the vessel and make certain no one is in or on the unit.
f. Close and bolt all vessel access manways.
g. The circuit breaker MUST remain in the OPEN or OFF position from now until the
electrodes are covered with oil.
h. Remove the jumper wires from the high voltage diodes and replace original wiring
before closing the junction box.
i. The unit is now electrically prepared for start-up.
FLUSHING OF INTERNAL DILUTION WATER HEADERS FOR EDD UNITS
There are many small holes in the internal distribution header and if they become plugged, the
efficiency of the operation will be reduced.
Any dirt or grit that might have entered the dilution water piping must be flushed out before start-
up.
1. Supply dilution water or other clean water through connection "4N" on the "EDD"
assembly. A temporary strainer should be installed in the piping at skid edge.
2. Go inside the vessel and remove the plug from the end of one of the distribution laterals.
3. Start water flow at approximately 30 gpm and allow to run about five (5) minutes. Replace
the plug in the end of the tube and repeat the process for each of the remaining laterals.
4. During the flushing process, check to be sure that water is spraying from each of the small
holes. If necessary, use a small wire to unplug any hole.
HYDROTEST AND LEAK TEST
Both vessels and piping will require hydrotesting at the completion of modifications.
These instructions were written with reference to assembly drawings and flow diagrams. The
procedure is for one (1) train. Both trains are identical in operation and start-up procedure.
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Hydrotest water should be clean, potable, deoxygenated, with a corrosion inhibitor.
1. The customer must determine the extent of vessels and piping that will be hydrotested
together. All of the components must be rated for the test pressure. It is recommended
that the entrance bushings should be replaced with blind flanges during hydrotest.
2. Isolate any component that may be damaged by exposure to water or the designated test
pressure. Do not test demulsifier chemical lines with water.
3. Isolate the vessels and piping to be tested by closing appropriate block valves or by using
blinds.
4. Close all vent, drain, purge and sample valves on the piping, vessels, and instruments.
5. Make sure that all block valves, control valves, and bypass valves in the piping to be
tested are open.
6. Open isolation valves on relief valves, level switches, level transmitter, and level gauge.
Close isolation valves on pressure gauges.
7. Open high point vent valve(s) as necessary and begin to slowly fill the system with water.
The vent valves on the top of the oil outlet piping from the first and second-stage desalters
should be opened along with others depending on the extent of piping and equipment to
be tested.
8. Slowly fill the system until water begins to overflow the vents. Close the vent valves as
each section or vessel is filled.
9. When the system is full and before starting to increase the pressure, check the system to
be sure that pockets of air have been eliminated. Open vent valves on level switches,
level transmitters, and level gauges to vent trapped air. Open the drain valves under the
safety relief valves. Open sample valves on vessels and piping.
10. The system can now be slowly pressured up to the test pressure.
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SECTION V
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
DESIGN CONDITIONS
Specified Crude Feedstock Feed 1 Feed 2

Maximum Crude Throughput (bpd-each) 50,000 50,000
Crude Specific Gravity (60E C, 15.6E C) + /-0.015 0.8990 0.8866
Maximum Feed BS&W (%) 0.075 0.05
Feed Salt Content - See "Guaranteed Performance"
Maximum Viscosity (Cst) + /-15%
@ 30E C 500 30
@ 70E C 50 8.0
Operating Temperature (E C) 135-145 130-145
Operating Pressure (kg/cm2g) + /-1 11 11
Maximum Required Dilution Water (bpd) 3000 3000
Minimum Performance
BS&W (%) in Product 0.3 0.2
Salt (PTB NaCl) in Product @ Second Stage Outlet
Feed Salt Content @ Second Stage Inlet

# 1.5 PTB NaCl ** **
# 4 PTB NaCl ** **
# 7 PTB NaCl **
#12 PTB NaCl **
Estimated Performance
Salt (PTB NaCl) in Product @ Second Stage
Feed Salt Content @ Second Stage Inlet

# 1.5 PTB NaCl ** **
# 4 PTB NaCl ** **
# 7 PTB NaCl **
#12 PTB NaCl **
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Refer to drawing J9210140. This two-stage desalting process consists of two (2) consecutive
steps of dilution and dehydration. The brine from the system as a whole is discharged from an
existing AC first-stage desalter to disposal. The brine from the second-stage desalters is pumped
through a recirculation loop and injected into both the incoming crude, ahead of the first-stage
desalter heaters, and into the second stage feed. Fresh dilution water may be injected either or
both of two places for each second-stage desalter. Part of the dilution water may be injected into
the crude stream after the first dehydration step, prior to entering the second-stage desalter
vessels. The second "overhead" dilution water stream is injected inside the second-stage
desalters through a connection in the top of the vessels.
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The heated crude is pumped to the inlet piping of the first-stage desalter where it is combined with
the recycled brine.
The dehydrated crude leaving the first stage desalter is split into two streams under flow control,
and fed to each second-stage desalter through a manual mixing valve prior to entry into each
desalter. The mixing valves serve to bring the dilution water into contact with the finely dispersed,
highly concentrated salt water in the crude oil.
The fluid stream enters each second-stage desalter near the bottom of the vessel. The stream is
routed through inverted-trough metered orifice distributors which extend the entire length of the
desalter for uniform distribution of the crude to the coalescing area. The trough type distributors
are of open bottom design and water sealed to force the oil upwards and at the same time allow
free fall of the large water particles to the water section of each vessel.
The water level in the desalter is controlled by a float-operated, oil-water interface controller. This
control is an electric, proportional device which sends a 4-20 milliamp signal to the customer's
control panel, which in turn directs a corresponding pneumatic signal to a diaphragm-operated
water discharge valve.
The oil rises into the electrode area where the remaining water particles are electrically coalesced
from the oil. The coalesced water falls to the bottom of the desalter where it is discharged as
previously described.
The oil rises into the EDD electrode area where the overhead dilution water is electrically mixed
and then coalesced from the oil. The coalesced water falls to the bottom of the desalter where it
is discharged as previously described.
The dehydrated oil then exits at the top of the vessel through two (2) outlet connections and is
combined into a single outlet header.
The total dilution water injection rate is metered and controlled by a diaphragm operated valve.
The overhead dilution water injection rate is controlled by a flow control valve.
The internal design of the second-stage desalters is shown on:
1) Drawings D-92576/77/78/79 and 80 (for VE-1A)
2) Drawings D-92585/86/87 and 88 (for VE-1B).
At this point in the system, the crude oil has been dehydrated.
CHEMICAL TESTING AND SELECTION
Chemical testing, selection, or supply is beyond NATCO's scope of supply. This section is
included only for Customer information.
Preliminary selection of demulsifier chemical is a necessary part of the pre-commissioning

process. Selection of the proper demulsifier is much different than selection or specification of
other commodities that may be used in the operation or maintenance of equipment.
The selection/specification of a demulsifier is complicated because the chemical is a blend of two,

three, or more base compounds out of a possible selection from hundreds of compounds. The
oil/water solubility of each base compound may be quite different and two or more solvents may
be required in the formulation in order to maintain a stable solution. A chemist must consider
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many factors in preparing a formulation including solubilities, pour points, and volatility.
The selection process begins by requesting several (at least three) reputable chemical suppliers
to send a representative to visit each plant site to become familiar with the process and equipment
and to run preliminary "bottle tests". Bottle tests on a fresh representative sample of the
production to be treated constitute a fairly reliable method for chemical suppliers to screen
possible formulations. Bottle tests on aged samples may be very unreliable and give misleading
results. If the chemical supplier has experience in the same field and formation with similar
production equipment and methods, the bottle testing may not be required.
Each supplier should be able to propose one or two demulsifier formulations based on his
preliminary work.
The chemist will select the base compounds and make a formulation to fit a specific application.
Each oil field, each formation in the field, each location, and sometimes each well, will produce an
emulsion with characteristics that are different from any others. The variations in the emulsions
are due to the chemical and physical characteristics of the crude oil and water including:
1. Chemical composition (the amount of paraffins, asphaltenes, and natural surfactants have
a great effect on the emulsion).
2. Amount and type of solids produced.
3. Oil gravity.
4. Water gravity (salt content and composition).
5. Amount of gas.
6. Production temperature/pressure.
Other factors affecting the emulsion and chemical selection include:
1. Method of production (flowing wells, surface pump, downhole pump, water flood, chemical
flood, steam flood, fire flood, etc.).
2. Pressure drops.
3. Length of flow lines.
4. Retention time in vessels or tanks (age of emulsion).
5. Other chemicals (water and corrosion).
6. Type of pumps.
For refinery applications, other factors which enter into chemical selection include the following:
1. The variation of the expected crude oil slate. Chemicals must often perform over the total
range of oil types to be processed.
2. The length of each crude oil run. Short runs will make chemical changes between oils
impractical.
3. Conditions of storage in the tank farm. If tanks tend to stratify before processing, wide
swings in suspended solids may be experienced as the tank is drawn down.
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4. Slop oil recycle. The quantity and type of slop oil recycled can have a great influence on
the influx of suspended solids, stable emulsion, and precipitated hydrocarbons.
5. Compatibility of the oils being processed. Incompatible oils can result in the precipitation
of asphaltenes and other semi-soluble hydrocarbon fractions.
Final demulsifier selection should be based on competitive full scale plant tests. The "optimum"
demulsifier should allow the process to meet the required product specifications at the lowest total
operating costs. Total operating costs include chemical, fuel, maintenance, and plant upsets. The
cheapest chemical may not always be "optimum" when all factors are considered. Other
considerations include condition of oil and water interfaces, buildup of interface sludge, water
quality, and availability of qualified service personnel.
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SECTION VI
START-UP PROCEDURES
The desalting system is a two-stage process consisting of one single first stage desalter and two
smaller parallel second stage desalters. The first stage desalter is outside the scope of this
instruction. It should be started using the procedures supplied by the original supplier, and which
have been followed in the past. This instruction is concerned with start-up of the second stage
desalters.
The two second stage units can operate independently of each other. Therefore it is not
necessary to start each of them simultaneously; it is acceptable to start one completely, then start
the other. However, it is recommended that each step of start-up be completed for both units
before proceeding to the next step, and in that way, that both units be brought on-stream
approximately together.
FILL
Before steady state flow can be established, it is necessary to fill the desalter vessels with water
(to the interface level) and oil. According to the start-up master plan the vessels (and entire piping
system) will be empty at the beginning of the fill process.
With all water discharge and drain valves closed, open block valves in desalter feed line allowing
oil to fill vessel. Open block valves in desalter discharge line. The vessels must be filled with oil
to displace all air before any electrical power is turned on to the electrodes and flow proven.
In an alternate plan if the desalters begin the filling process full of hydrotest water, the water must
be displaced with oil. As oil is fed to the desalter at a slow rate, the water outlet valves are
opened allowing water to discharge. Open the by-pass around the pump, and the by-pass around
the control valve CV-L102 or CV-L103. The water should be routed to the "Pump out" drain. The
drains can also be opened to speed up the water discharge rate, then closed before the oil-water
interface reaches the desired control level. As the level approaches the control point, close the
bypass around the control valve, and put the control valve and level control loop into operation.
(Refer to instructions for the individual components.) When the vessel is full of oil above the
interface, open the vents to bleed air from the high points of the vessel such as entrance bushing
connections.
ESTABLISH CRUDE OIL FLOW
1. With the desalters full of oil the feedstock charge rate may be set at the full design rate.
After establishing satisfactory operation, adjust the Flow Control Valves CV-F101 and 102
as required to balance the flow to each of the two second stage desalters. Each vessel
should have a flow of 50,000 bpd of raw feedstock (at standard conditions).
2. Start the injection system for chemical additives. The dosages should be those
determined during chemical testing.
ESTABLISH PRESSURE CONTROL
Establish a back pressure on the desalters by adjusting Pressure Controllers IC-P101 and 102.
The pressure should be between 10 and 12 kg/cm2 to avoid vaporization of any components of
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the crude.
ESTABLISH TEMPERATURE CONTROL
Establish a steady operating temperature for the feedstock of between 130 and 145oC for Arabian
oil, and between 135 and 145oC for the Chinese oil.
START ELECTROSTATIC SYSTEM OPERATION
1. Observe flow to ensure steady rate. Observe pressures and temperatures for operation
within the recommended limits. The electrostatic system can be energized whenever the
operating temperature is above 90oC. Ensure chemical injection is functioning properly.
2. Using the procedures given in the Load Responsive Controller (LRC) operating
instructions, program the controller for operation in the manual mode. Install the following
starting set points into the LRC:
For Feed #1 Crude: Settle Voltage (KV) 12

Mix Voltage (KV) 20
Settle Time (Sec) 1
Disperse Time (Sec) 1
Mix Time (Sec) 5
Coalesce Time (Sec) 5
For Feed #2 Crude: Settle Voltage (KV) 20

Mix Voltage (KV) 20
Settle Time (Sec) 0.7
Disperse Time (Sec) 0.7
Mix Time (Sec) 1
Coalesce Time (Sec) 0.7
3. Ensure power is turned on at main swithgear (main breakers, contactors, etc.)
4. Energize the desalter electrodes by pushing the LRC "ON" switch. Calibrate the screen
values for voltage and amperage feedback. Operate the transformer for 8 hours at the
above settings.
5. At the end of the 8 hours, begin a series of incremental increases in the Mix Voltage
setting, increasing 5 KV each hour until the Mix Voltage reaches 35 KV, or until the voltage
is limited by high current.
ESTABLISH OIL/WATER INTERFACE
With the electrical system operating, water can be introduced into the vessel to create a water
layer and establish an oil/water interface. This water should be added through the desalter
internal (overhead) water injection line. As the interface level rises to the desired level, open the
water discharge block valves and the block valve in the bypass around the recycle pumps, and put
the interface level control system into operation by adjusting IC-L102/103 until control valves CV-
L102/103 are throttling the water outlet stream and the interface is stabilized. The design normal
interface level is 826mm (32.5") below the vessel centerline.
START THE DILUTION AND RECYCLE PROCESS
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NATCO “CLIENT”
The dilution water can be injected into the second stage desalters at two different points. The first
is the overhead dilution injection, the second is injection into the feed line ahead of the mixing
valve and/or preheat train for a single or first stage desalter. Dilution can be accomplished
through either of these points, or through both at the same time. Thus second stage dilution is
possible in the following ways:
1. Overhead dilution directly into the second stage desalter vessel.

2. Injection of wash water into second stage feed stream, ahead of mixing valve.
3. Both overhead injection plus second stage feed stream injection.
Effluent water from the second stage desalters can be routed in three directions. First, it can be
discharged for disposal. Second, it can be recycled back to the feed of the first stage desalter
(inter-stage recycle). One or the other of these options will be required, and both options require
that discharge be made under interface level control from the second stage desalter. A third
option for the second stage effluent water, used in combination with one of the other two, is to
recycle it back to the feed of the second stage (internal recycle). Thus the following combinations
are possible for the second stage effluent water:
A. Second stage water discharge to disposal.

B. Inter-stage recycle of second stage effluent water.
C. Second stage discharge to disposal plus a portion internally recycled.
D. Inter-stage recycle plus a portion internally recycled.
In all cases the water from the first stage desalter will have to be discharged to disposal.
Any of wash water options 1, 2 or 3 can be combined with any of the effluent options A, B, C or D
as desired. These variations give great flexibility for meeting a wide variation of conditions and
needs. Generally the most efficient use of available dilution water is expected using option 1 in
combination with option D. Start-up is initiated with option 1 and option A, using the following
steps:
1. When the desalter is stabilized in crude flow, pressure, and temperature, the dilution
process may be initiated. Ensure that wash water heaters are operating, and that any
necessary chemical additives to the wash water are supplied, and injectors working.
2. With fresh water pumps running, open valves to allow fresh water to overhead injection
line only. Adjust overhead fresh water flow controller such that the control valve throttles
the flow to about 1000 bpd (6.6 m3/hr).
3. Close the block valve in the pump discharge line upstream of the level control valve.
Open the block valves in the pump suction and the main recycle lines. Start water
discharge pump. Make any necessary adjustments to the interface control settings.
4. If not already operating, put the first stage desalter into operation at this time.
5. Open the internal recycle line and adjust the flow control valve to obtain a flow of about
1500 bpd (9.9 m3/hr). The mixing valve should be wide open to start with.
Once these steps have been completed, the basic systems of the desalters have been started.
Yet without optimization good desalting is unlikely, so now with all systems operating in a stable
manner, proceed to that phase of the start-up.
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NATCO “CLIENT”
OPTIMIZE PROCESS
This step in the start-up involves adjusting operating parameters so as to obtain the most efficient
operation for the feedstock being processed. When feedstocks are changed, the parameters may
have to be altered for optimum performance.
Optimization begins with certain initial settings, then empirically tests each setting for its effect on
performance. After a change is made, sufficient time must be allowed for the effects of the
change to come to steady state. This usually requires at least 2-3 theoretical exchanges of oil
downstream of the point of application of the change for oil phase equilibrium to be reached.
Water phase equilibrium will require an even longer time. The desalter should be operating at full
flow capacity to minimize fluid displacement time.
Performance with each changed variable is tested by measuring the inlet and outlet salt contents
and BS&Ws. When the optimum settings are found for all parameters, they are recorded for
future reference when processing that feedstock. Use the following procedure for optimization:
Optimization of Electrical Parameters
1. The first variables to be tested are the settings of the Load Responsive Controller (LRC).
Initial settings are as given in a previous section. Take samples of the second stage
desalter feed and oil outlet, and measure for salt content and, in the outlet, BS&W.
2. Variables for adjustment in the LRC include:
SETTLE VOLTAGE
MIX VOLTAGE
SETTLE TIME (duration of settling segment of the cycle)
DISPERSE TIME
MIX TIME
COALESCE TIME
Generally, higher MIX VOLTAGE and longer MIX TIME results in better contact of the salt
by the dilution water; and lower SETTLE VOLTAGE and longer COALESCE and SETTLE
TIMES result in better water removal. There are limits to how high and how low to go,
determined by the oil itself. For example a very high MIX VOLTAGE may mix so hard that
it creates a dispersion of the dilution water which cannot be removed in the subsequent
dehydration. Or high MIX VOLTAGE may cause short circuiting, and therefore require
lower voltage for operation. This is often typical of very conductive oils. There is a limit to
how low to set the SETTLE VOLTAGE also. Usually voltages below about 10 KV are less
effective at coalescing dispersed water droplets in crude oil.
The durations of each of the four segments of the modulation cycle depend on properties
of the oil. Generally lighter oils desalt best with short cycle times of 2-3 seconds, while
more viscous oils typically need a longer period of up to 10-12 seconds.
3. Study the salt and BS&W figures from the first set of samples to determine whether to
increase or decrease either the MIX VOLTAGE or the SETTLE VOLTAGE, or to change
the time settings. While generalities such as those given above are helpful, this is
basically a "trial and error" procedure. At full crude flow rate changes made to the LRC
should reach oil phase equilibrium after about 20-25 minutes. Only change one parameter
at a time in order to best discern the effect of each.
4. "Optimum" performance may, in fact, be a compromise between those conditions which

produce lowest salt, and those which produce lowest BS&W. The two subprocesses
which make up the desalting process, mixing and dehydration, may not optimize at the
same conditions. It will then be necessary to make a decision about the best operating
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NATCO “CLIENT”
conditions. Record the optimum values for LRC operation.
Optimization of Mixing Valve
5. For initial setting, adjust the manual mixing valve such that the pressure drop through the
valve is 15 psi. This should produce satisfactory (but not optimum) desalting performance.
To optimize the mixing valve may require more attention than is available during start-up.
When time permits, the mixing process can be optimized using the following procedure.
Check the outlet crude BS&W and salt content. Adjust the mixing valve to increase the
pressure drop across the mixing valve by 5 psi over the initial 15 psi setting. After an
interval 30-45 minutes of operation at the new condition again check BS&W and salt. If an
improvement was observed, increase pressure drop by an additional 5 psi, and check.
Now reduce the pressure drop to 5 psi lower than the initial setting, and check
performance. If improvement was observed, decrease another 5 psi and check again. It
may be helpful to repeat this sequence more than once. The resulting performance as a
function of mixing valve pressure drop can be plotted on a graph.
6. Select the best performance point on the pressure drop graph and set mixing valve
accordingly.
Optimization of Dilution and Recycle Rates
7. With the crude throughput at design capacity, and the optimum electrical settings and
mixing valve setting installed, the dilution and recycle rates can be optimized. Generally,
the greater the amount of water used, the higher will be the salt removal efficiency. This
rule, however, is often limited by dilution water availability, or by conductivity of the water
and oil mixture.
8. Set the internal recycle at a flow rate of 2500 bpd (16.6 m3/hr), or 5% of the crude flow
rate. The internal recycle is completely independent of the dilution water rate, so this rate
can be varied as desired within the capacity range of the water pump.
9. Adjust the dilution water going to the desalter overhead to a flow rate of 1000 bpd (6.6
m3/hr), 2% of the oil rate. Equilibrium in the water phase may take several hours, but
conditions close enough to steady state in the oil phase can be attained in about an hour.
Measure salt and BS&W content of samples, as before.
10. Readjust the dilution water rate to the desalter to 1500 bpd (9.9 m3/d), 3% of oil rate,
stabilize, and measure results again. Repeat this for increased dilution rates up to the
maximum available, or until the electrostatic system draws excessive current and loses its
voltage field, whichever comes first.
11. If desired, the effects of changing the internal recycle rate can be measured by repeating
steps 8-10 for other recycle rates of, say 3% and 7%.
12. Once the data is complete for dilution and recycle operation, select the best operating
conditions and install those values for the corresponding parameters. Record all
optimized settings.
Optimization of Other Parameters
13. If any variation in chemical demulsifier is to be tested, that can be done at this time.
Likewise, if dilution water pH or other treatment is to be tested, it can be done by making
changes, allowing for equilibrium, then sampling and analysis.
14. Variation of the oil-water interface is not normally necessary. The allowable variation is
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NATCO “CLIENT”
relatively small, from the normal interface level (NIL) of 826 mm (32.5") below vessel
centerline, up or down about 6". Changing the level by more than that can impair fluid
distribution. Variation of the interface level can affect the electrical field flux, the amount of
interface sludge tolerated, and the phase retention times slightly. Variation from NIL
should only be made if an operational difficulty suggests such change might be beneficial.
After completion of these steps, the performance of the unit should be well known over a range of
parameter values. Whenever this feedstock is processed, these settings should be installed.
Remember that each time the feedstock is changed, the operating conditions may need to be
changed to reflect the parameters determined to be optimum for that particular oil.
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NATCO “CLIENT”
SECTION VII
NORMAL OPERATION
Once the desalter is started up and optimized the operation is not maintenance intensive. So long
as operating parameters remain constant, performance will be consistent. Normal operation is
that which involves no unintentional changes of operating parameters. Should unexpected
changes occur with operation or performance. consult Section X TROUBLESHOOTING. During
normal operation a degree of attention to the prevention of operational problems is prudent. This
is found in Section IX MAINTENANCE.
MONITORING PROCESS PERFORMANCE
The performance of the desalters should be monitored during normal operation to ensure that
operation is, indeed, normal. The following items should be monitored. Frequency of monitoring
is suggested. However, frequency should be modified to suit the needs of the particular
circumstances. Monitoring should be more frequent initially after start-up, and then can become
less frequent as conditions warrant.
Crude Salt and BS&W
Depending on the consistency of the feedstock and other experience based factors, the salt and
BS&W of the desalter outlet should be checked anywhere from every couple of hours to once
daily. Sampling and testing methods may be whatever is standard practice in the refinery. If
short-cut procedures are used for routine monitoring, results should be compared to those
obtained using procedures given in Section VIII PROCESS PERFORMANCE TESTING AND
GUARANTEE.
Electrostatic System Voltage and Current
The voltage and current of the electrostatic system should be observed on a bi-hourly basis. High
current and low voltage can signal a problem which should be diagnosed using troubleshooting
procedures from Section X.
Interface Sludge Accumulation
If interface rag builds into too thick a layer, it will be detected by the interference it causes to the
operation of the electrostatic system. However before that occurs, the build-up can be detected
by interface sampling. If interface sludge is discovered to be a problem, it should them be
addressed by special chemical treatment, or by draining the interface sludge away for segregated
treatment.
Operating Conditions
Using the Distributed Control System, all basic process operating conditions such as flows,
temperatures, pressures and levels should be observed regularly. Unexpected changes should
be investigated immediately, of course.
Effluent Water Quality
The oil and solids content of effluent water from all desalter vessels should be checked at least
monthly to detect problems such as corrosion or bacterial growth. Such checks should be
performed during normal operations, and not at times when mud-washing is occurring or when
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NATCO “CLIENT”
interface sludge is being discharged from the water outlet.
SWITCHING FEEDSTOCKS
After start-up when the operating parameters are optimized, a standard set of conditions should
be developed for each feedstock. Later, if new feedstocks are introduced, optimization and
standardization should be repeated for the new oils. When a switch of feedstocks is made, the
standard (optimum) conditions for that particular oil are installed in the operation. Assuming that
crude oil flow is uninterrupted during switching, the following order for changes is suggested for
minimizing transition upset.
1. Alter demulsifier type and dosage as needed. This should be done immediately when the
oil switch is made.
2. Alter operating temperature if different. Adjust the control set point as soon after switching
oils as practical.
3. Adjust the mixing valve pressure drop in the second stage feed approximately 30 minutes
after the new feedstock is introduced. Make necessary adjustments in the rate of flow for
any feed stream dilution or internal recycle.
4. Switch program variables in LRC. The LRC can store several different sets of operating
parameters, so that it is necessary only to retrieve the set corresponding with the particular
feedstock being brought on-stream. These changes to the second stage desalters should
be made about 40 to 50 minutes after the new feedstock has been introduced.
5. At about the same time as number 4 above, adjust the second stage overhead internal
fresh water injection rate as required.
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NATCO “CLIENT”
SECTION VIII
PROCESS PERFORMANCE TESTING AND GUARANTEE
ANALYSIS PROCEDURE
To determine the performance of the desalting process it is necessary to accurately measure the
amount of salt in the process feed stream, and both salt and BS&W in the product stream. This
requires representative sampling of each stream, followed by analysis of the samples. It also
requires a periodic measurement of feedstock properties and of process operating parameters to
ensure operation is within the guaranteed conditions.
Sampling
Sampling method for salt and BS&W analysis is important. Samples should be withdrawn from
designated sample points which incorporate sample cooling prior to pressure release across the
sample valve. The sample should ideally be extracted from the center of the flow line through a
stinger (extension of the sample tube into the line). Alternately samples should be taken from the
side of horizontal lines, or from vertical lines away from elbows. Analysis should be done as soon
as possible after samples are taken. It is essential that the samples lines should be adequately
purged before collecting the sample to insure that fresh, representative liquids are collected.
Analysis for Salt
Analysis of both inlet and outlet samples for salt content should be accomplished with a procedure
incorporating hot water extraction, followed by some method of ion measurement. Such a method
measures both crystalline and aqueous phase salts, which are the objective of the desalting
process. It will not measure ions which are organically bonded. These ions, if they exist, are not
water extractable, and are not covered in the process guarantee. One client’s standard method
utilizes UOP Method 579-64T. This salt measurement procedure is acceptable for performance
evaluation, either for proving the Process Performance Guarantee, or for routine process
monitoring.
Analysis for BS&W
Guaranteed BS&W is based on the ratio of separable water to total fluid at the process operating
conditions. At elevated temperatures some oils exhibit a solubility for significant amounts of
water. Water which is present in the oil in true solution cannot be removed by a desalter.
When a sample of oil is withdrawn for BS&W measurement, cooling prior to pressure letdown is
imperative to avoid vaporization of all water. However when this cooling takes place, soluble
water in the oil will come out of solution and exist as dispersed water. Even if the desalter
removed all dispersed water at operating temperature, cooling of the sample will liberate dissolved
water, resulting in a relatively high content of dispersed water.
In order to avoid this inaccuracy the solubility of the water in the oil must be considered in sample
analysis. To account for dissolved water, the water solubility as a function of temperature in the
particular oil being processed can be determined. With such a functional relationship defined,
either centrifugal separation (ASTM D96 or equal), or titration by Karl Fischer method (ASTM
D1744 or equal) can be used for water measurement. Results obtained must then be corrected
by subtracting out the dissolved water, obtained from the solubility-temperature function.
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NATCO “CLIENT”
PERFORMANCE TEST PROCEDURE
The tests conducted to prove conformance with the Process Performance Guarantee shall be
performed in compliance with the following instructions:
1. Desalting equipment and all related equipment and systems shall be maintained in good
working condition prior to and during the performance tests.
2. NATCO shall be contacted at least two weeks prior to performance testing. A NATCO
engineer shall be allowed access to the entire desalting process for observation and
consultation at least one week prior to and during validity testing period.
3. Laboratory facilities and procedures shall conform to the instructions set forth in
ANALYSIS PROCEDURE above. NATCO's engineer shall be given access to observe
laboratory analysis.
4. The desalter shall be operated strictly within the Performance Design Conditions defined
below. Sufficient measurement of operating conditions and feedstock properties shall be
made to ensure that operation remains within the limits of these conditions throughout
testing. For expected and guaranteed performance refer to PROCESS GUARANTEE.
5. NATCO's engineer reserves the right to request evidence of demulsifier performance.

Alternately NATCO will be assisted in conducting tests of their own to verify that chemical
destabilization of the crude oil is being accomplished.
6. The desalter will be operated in a normal manner during tests. The feedstock to be tested
shall be processed through the desalters for at least two days prior to commencement of
the formal test period. Recommendations made by NATCO's engineer for changes in
process variables just prior to and during testing shall be accommodated if at all possible.
7. The test for each feedstock shall cover a 24 hour period. Each feedstock shall be tested
separately. Performance testing shall commence at least 30 hours prior to a crude
change. While the test is underway the density and viscosity of the feedstock shall be
measured at the beginning of the test and at 12 and 24 hours into the test.
8. All process related variables shall be recorded on the attached DATA LOG SHEET once
every four hours. The client must output the operating conditions from the data logger
printer of the DCS every four hours regarding operating parameters of the desalters. On
the same schedule, inlet and outlet samples shall be taken for each of the two parallel
second stage desalters separately, or for the pair acting as a unit. At the end of the 24
hour period, the arithmetic average of all six outlet samples and all six inlet samples for
both second stage desalters shall be compared against the guarantee figures to ascertain
if guaranteed performance was met.
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NATCO “CLIENT”
PROCESS PERFORMANCE GUARANTEE
NATCO offers a Process Performance Guarantee that each EDD desalter supplied by NATCO
(used in conjunction with process components supplied by others, but necessary for operation)
will reduce the salt content and limit the BS&W content of the specified oils in accordance with
"Guaranteed Performance" when operated within the "Performance Design Conditions" set forth
below.
Performance Design Conditions
Specified Crude Feedstock Feed 1 Feed 2

Maximum Crude Throughput (bpd-each) 50,000 50,000
Crude Specific Gravity(60EF, 15.6EC) +/-0.015 0.8990 0.8866
Maximum Feed BS&W (%) 0.075 0.05
Feed Salt Content-See "Guaranteed Performance"
Maximum Viscosity (Cst) +/-15%
@30EC 500 30
@70EC 50 8.0
Operating Temperature (EC) 135-145 130-145
Operating Pressure (kg/cm2g) +/-1 11 11
Maximum Required Dilution Water (bpd) 3000 3000
Guaranteed Performance
BS&W (%) in Product ** **
Salt (PTB NaCl) in Product @ Second Stage Outlet
Feed Salt content @ Second Stage Inlet

# 1.5 PTB NaCl ** **
# 4 PTB NaCl ** **
# 7 PTB NaCl **
#12 PTB NaCl **
Estimated Performance (Not part of the Process Guarantee)
Salt (PTB NaCl) in Product @ Second Stage
Feed Salt content @ Second Stage Inlet

# 1.5 PTB NaCl ** **
# 4 PTB NaCl ** **
# 7 PTB NaCl **
#12 PTB NaCl **
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SECTION IX
MAINTENANCE OF EQUIPMENT
MAINTENANCE OF THE DESALTING

SYSTEM POWER SUPPLY
Maintenance of the desalting system involves a program of upkeep for the individual components.
However, most of the components are typical process hardware which is maintained in
accordance with well established manufacturers procedures or company practice. This chapter
will address some considerations in the maintenance of the high voltage Transformer/Reactor,
which is a specialty item in NATCO's desalting system.
General Specifications
Primary AC voltage to match power

source, single phase, 50 or 60
Hz
Secondary 16.5/23.0 KV
Tertiary 100V
Temperature Rating 55EC Rise, 50EC Ambient
Insulation Class Class A
Construction Fluid filled outdoor enclosure
Enclosure Walls - 7 or 10 gauge hot rolled,

pickled and oiled steel sheet per
ASTM A569
Lid - 10 gauge hot rolled,

pickled and oiled steel sheet per
ASTM A569
Bottom - 25" gauge hot rolled

steel plate per ASTM A569
Lids fastened with alloy clamps

torqued to 240 in lbs
Enclosure designed to
withstand 7 psig; completed
units pressure tested at 4 psig
with nitrogen and shipped with
1/2 psig residual pressure of
nitrogen
Insulating Fluid Exxon Univolt 60, 61 or

equivalent (Cross Oil)
Component Description
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The power supply consists of three major components - transformer, reactor, and rectifiers,
mounted in an oil filled enclosure.
The transformer and reactor are designed to provide the necessary voltage transformation, and to
provide 100% system reactance. Both are constructed of laminated grain oriented silicon steel
cores. The reactor is air gapped to prevent saturation. Low voltage windings are aluminum or
copper strip, high voltage windings are copper wire. All windings are suitably braced to withstand
stresses caused by short circuit stresses. Winding insulation materials are thermally upgraded by
vacuum varnish process to increase service life. All input connections for transformer and reactor
are made in air filled low voltage terminal chamber.
Rectifiers are RC compensated, have a PIV rating of 90KV, and are sized for two (2) times highest
normal operating current. Rectifier assembly is located in the oil filled high voltage termination
chamber.
Maintenance Information
All maintenance work must be performed with power off. All power sources should be locked
out/tagged out in compliance with OSHA Standards 1910.213, 1910.218, 1910.261, and
1926.400, as well as applicable state, county and municipal requirements.
Periodic maintenance should be performed at least once each six months, more often when used
in contaminating atmosphere and/or unusual loading conditions exist. The following procedure
should be used.
1) Outside Cleaning: Remove accumulation of dust and other foreign matter from bushings,
gauges and tank. Accumulation of matter on bushings can cause arcing to ground. Dirt on
the tank can decrease the heat dissipation of the tank and result in the unit overheating.
2) Check Oil Level: Inspect the oil level in the tank. If it is necessary to refill the unit, use only
the type of oil specified by NWL. Fill through the filling hole on the cover. Do not allow the
unit to stand without liquid. After filling, allow the unit to stand for at least eight (8) hours to
allow entrapped air to escape from the winding. Then operate the transformer under a "no-
load" condition for at least one (1) hour before placing in regular service at full voltage.
(This can be achieved by disconnecting the wire from the diode assembly to the entrance
bushing. Observe proper electrical hazards operating instructions by eliminating all power
sources while disconnecting and connecting wiring.)
3) Deposit Check Inside the Tank: The amount of deposit that accumulates in the oil is of great
importance. If a sample of oil from the bottom of the apparatus indicates that the oil is badly
discolored or contains sediment, an internal inspection should be made for sludge deposits.
Proper disposal of oil is the responsibility of the owner/operator. Should there be a deposit
on any surface of the tank, filter the oil, and thoroughly clean the core and coil structure and
tank by forcing clean, dry oil through the ducts and against all surfaces. Suitable pressure
for this operation can be obtained from a filterpress pump.
When oil is found to be in very bad condition, filtering may remove most of the sludge, but
badly sludged oil, even after filtering, may soon form a new deposit of sludge. When such
conditions occur, it is usually more economical to obtain new oil or to reclaim the old oil. If it
is necessary to untank the unit, contact NATCO.
4) Check on Dielectric Strength: Oil should be sampled and tested every six (6) months or so.
The recommended time between inspections and tests depends on local climatic conditions,
the load on the apparatus and the importance of minimizing service interruptions. Intervals
between tests should be one year or greater depending on the above considerations.
Accurate records of these tests should be kept. If at any time, the oil tests below 22 KV at
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room temperature, use a filter press or oil purifier to restore the dielectric strength to 26 KV
or more.
5) Sampling and Testing: It is recommended that the American Society for Testing Materials'
standard methods for sampling (latest revision of D-923) and testing (latest revision of
D-117) be followed when sampling and testing electrical insulating oils. The accuracy of
results may be seriously affected if the samples are not correctly obtained, handled, and
tested. The following are a few important points which experience has indicated as
essential.
5.1) Sampling Procedure: Use glass receptacles if possible, so that if any water is present it may
readily be observed. Chemically cleaned one-quart, clear glass, screw-cap sample bottles
are recommended. If metal containers are used, be sure they are free from rust, solder and
other contaminants.
5.2) Rinse sample containers with dry non-leaded gasoline, Stoddard solvent, or dry water-white
kerosene until they are entirely clean. Always wear appropriate approved personal
protective equipment when using hydrocarbon solvents. Make sure ventilation is adequate
and proper fire prevention standards are followed. Invert and drain to remove excess
solvent, and then wash them with strong soapsuds, rinse thoroughly with water, and dry in
an oven at 105EC to 110EC. After drying, store them unstoppered in a dry, dust-free cabinet
or compartment at a temperature of not less than 38EC (100E F). If they are not stored in a
hot cabinet, cork and cap the containers immediately after drying.
5.3) Take samples when the oil is at least as warm as the surrounding air. Insulating oil is not
hygroscopic, but cold oil may condense enough moisture from a humid atmosphere to
seriously affect its insulating properties. Take samples from outdoor apparatus on a clear
day only, and guard against contamination by wind-blown dust, etc..
5.4) Before taking a sample from apparatus, carefully clean the valve and allow enough oil to run
out so that any contamination that may have collected in the valve will be removed. Take
the sample from the small valve provided for that purpose. If no valve is supplied, use a
sample thief device.
5.5) Rinse the container several times with the same oil as the sample to remove any
contamination that may have collected in the container. Do not mix these rinsings with the
oil samples.
5.6) Carefully seal the containers to prevent leakage or exposure of the oil to the atmosphere.
Use glass stoppers, clean corks or screw caps to seal the glass receptacles. If corks are
used or if the screw caps contain cork disk inserts, the cork should be covered with a tin or
aluminum foil. Composition-cork gaskets covered by tin or aluminum foil should be used
when the oil samples are placed in metal containers.
Testing for Dielectric Strength: For testing the dielectric strength of oil, the technique as
specified by the American Society for Testing Materials in the test method entitled, "Test for
Dielectric Strength of Insulating Oil", Method D-877, should be followed. A 35 KV, 2 KVA
test set is available and may be purchased from the General Electric Company or
Westinghouse Electric Company. The following precautions and modifications must be
observed:
a) Set the spacing of the two 1-inch diameter, flat disk electrodes at 0.100 inch.
b) Wipe the test cup and electrodes clean with dry, calendared tissues or clean, dry
chamois; and thoroughly rinse with clean, non-leaded gasoline, Stoddard solvent or
water-white kerosene.
c) Fill the cup with a sample of the cleaning fluid and apply the voltage at the rate of 3
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KV per second until breakdown occurs. If the breakdown voltage is less than 26 KV,
clean the cup again with cleaning fluid and retest. After a satisfactory result, empty
the cup immediately and rinse with oil sample to be tested. Then proceed with the
test at once.
d) The temperature of the oil, when tested, should be the same as that of the room
which should be between 20EC and 30EC (68E F and 86E F). Testing at oil
temperatures appreciably lower than room temperature is likely to give variable
results and may be misleading.
e) In order that representative test specimens may be obtained, the oil sample container
should be gently inverted and the oil swirled several times before each filling of the
test cup. The purpose is to thoroughly mix any impurities present with the oil. Too
rapid agitation is undesirable, as it introduces an excessive amount of air into the
mixture. Immediately after mixing, pour the oil slowly from the container so that no
air bubbles will form. Fill the cup to overflowing. Gently rock the test cup a few times
and allow three minutes for entrapped air to escape from the oil before applying
voltage.
f) When making the test, apply the voltage at the rate of 3 KV per second. Make only
one test per cup filling and fill the cup at least five times. Average the results to get
the breakdown voltage for the sample.
g) Since the oil is the major insulation of the apparatus in which it is used, its dielectric
strength must be kept up to definite standards as specified previously. If the oil fails
to withstand the minimum breakdown KV specified, it is a sign that impurities,
particularly moisture, have entered it. In this event the oil is no longer safe for use as
an insulating medium and must be filtered to remove the impurities and bring it back
to its original condition.
i) Acidity (Neutralization): The acidity test is one of the most satisfactory indicators of
oxidation in the oil. This is true because some of the oxidation products are of an
acid nature and thus may be detected by measuring the acidity of the oil. The main
hazard of oxidation is the deposition of sludge. Sludge occurs after the oxidation
products held in solution finally saturate the oil and any additional products formed
settle out in solid form. The acidity test indicates fairly accurately how far oxidation
has progressed.
Oil Specifications
(Cross Oil now) UNIVOLT
PROPERTY N60, N61
Physical Properties
Aniline Point, EC 76
Color 10.5
Flash Point, EC 160
Interfacial Tension @ 25EC, dynes/centimeter 46
Pour Point, EC -56
Specific Gravity @ 15EC/15EC 0.879
Viscosity, SSU/cST @
100EC 34/2.4
40EC 57/9.5
0EC 256.5/42.8
Visual Appearance Clear and Bright
Chemical Properties
Approved antioxidant content, wt % 0.05, 0.30
Corrosive sulfur Non-corrosive
Moisture, ppm 25
Neutralization number, mg KOH/g of oil 0.01
- 212 -
Oxidation stability
Method A (acid/sludge test)
72 hours
sludge, wt % 0.025, 0.016
Neutralization value, mg KOH/g 0.150.08
164 hours sludge, wt % 0.06, 0.023

Neutralization valve, mg KOH/g 0.38, 0.03
Method B (rotary bomb oxidation test) 215, 260
Electrical Properties
Dielectric breakdown voltageat 60 hertz
Disc electrodes, KV 35
VDE electrodes, KV
@ 0.040-in gap or 32
@ 0.080-in gap 60
Dielectric breakdown voltage impulse, 25E C, KV
Needle (negative)-to-sphere (grounded) @ 1-in gap 175
Power Factor at 60 Hertz, % at:
25E C 0.01
100E C 0.09
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF VESSEL INTERNALS
General maintenance of vessel internals is limited to shutdowns. When a scheduled shutdown is

planned, the agenda should include inspection and upkeep of desalter internals, especially those
which are part of the electrostatic system.
Inspection may be performed for two reasons. It can be conducted as part of a routine
turnaround, scheduled and planned in advance, or it may be conducted because of a problem
found in the system, and isolated to the vessel interior. If a problem is suspected, refer to Section
X TROUBLESHOOTING for procedures for diagnosing and isolating the cause. In some cases
the solution may require vessel entry. This is not common, but is possible. CAUTION - Refer to
Section II SAFETY for safety information pertaining to vessel entry and high voltage equipment
maintenance. The following general guidelines are recommended:
1. In accordance with the safety instructions, ensure that all sources of electrical power to the
vessel interior are turned and locked off.
2. Clean and purge the empty vessel of all hydrocarbon liquids and vapors, as described in the
safety instructions.
3. Wipe all Electrode Insulators clean with a soft, non-abrasive rag soaked with a hydrocarbon
solvent. In the same way clean the high voltage Entrance Bushings. These Teflon parts
should be closely inspected after cleaning for surface damage or impenetrable deposition. If
any is found, the part should be replaced.
4. Inspect the Electrode Plates for damage such as deformation, delamination, swelling or
cracking. If such damage is found, and if it is severe, the affected plate(s) should be replaced.
Minor delamination will not adversely affect performance and is acceptable.
5. Inspect electrical Entrance Cables (internal-from bushing to electrode), Contact Rods, and
Low Level Float Switches for corrosion, movement, and mechanical soundness.
- 213 -
6. Inspect internal overhead Dilution Water Distributor. Check holes to ensure they are not
plugged.
7. Check vessel walls for corrosion, particularly at or below the oil/water interface. Check
the internal structures for corrosion or damage, and repair if necessary.
- 214 -
SECTION X
TROUBLESHOOTING
GENERAL GUIDELINES
Trying to isolate the cause of a problem in a desalting process requires a systematic approach of studying
the symptoms, applying the basic principles of desalting, and narrowing the possible causes. Then the
possible causes must be checked out to isolate the one or more which are responsible for the trouble.
Desalting basically consists of two sub-processes: mixing and dehydration. Understanding this simple
principle will aid in isolating problems with the desalting process. When the water content of the desalted
crude is within specification, but the salt content is high, that indicates a problem with the mixing process.
If, on the other hand, the water content as well as the salt is high, poor dehydration is indicated.
Following is a cause-and-effect approach to troubleshooting the problems associated with the desalting
process, presented under these headings:
Desalting Process Malfunctions

Electrical System Malfunctions
Water Quality Problems
The basic symptoms and manifestations of a problem may be process related. Yet the cause is frequently
traceable to a mechanical or operational problem such as many of those listed in the following outline. Or
the cause may be a problem with the function of the electrical system. If so, the search moves from the
first section to the second section, "Electrical System Malfunctions". Details for checking the electrical
system are included.
In the following outlines, the basic symptoms and general cause are listed under the capital letter as a
main heading. Specific causes are listed under further outline breakdown.
- 215 -
DESALTING PROCESS MALFUNCTIONS
A. High salt content in outlet due to off-spec feedstock
1. Feedstock with different salt or water content than system was designed for. Check material
balance.
2. Change in feed characteristics due to variation in conditions.
a. Blended recycled (slop) oil

b. Field contaminants such as frac sand, drill mud, acid
c. Unusual emulsion stabilizing factors
B. High salt content in outlet due to inadequate dilution. This can be identified when the high outlet salt is
accompanied by low BS&W in the outlet.
1. Insufficient dilution water. Pump capacity problems
a. pump rotation reversed

b. foreign material in pump
c. air in water at suction
d. pump suction cavitation
e. wrong pump speed
f. supply line scaled up
g. strainer plugged
2. Insufficient mixing of dilution with entrained water
a. pressure drop across mixing valve too low

b. dilution water temperature too low
c. crystalline salt present in oil
d. (ElectroDynamic systems only) mixing voltage too low or mixing cycle duration too short
3. Dilution water salinity too high (where other than fresh water is used)
C. High salt content in outlet due to inadequate dehydration. This is identified when both the salt and
BS&W of the outlet are high.
1. Emulsion not destabilized chemically
a. loss of power to injector

b. sticking or worn check valve in chemical pump
c. broken or plugged chemical line
d. no chemical in tank
e. pump airlock
f. chemical rate set too low; adjust stroke or speed
g. new chemical formulation needed
h. chemical injected too near desalter inlet; no reaction time
2. Low operating temp
a. heating system control point set too low

b. control system malfunction
- 216 -
c. required duty higher than available duty
3. Abnormally high emulsion stability
a. mixing valve pressure drop too large

b. feedstock off-spec or abnormally agitated
4. Flow rate of crude too high
a. rate higher than design

b. average rate OK, but flow surging
5. Interface sludge build-up
a. chemical dosage or formula not optimized for sludge treatment

b. low operating temperature
c. sludge not being effectively drained
6. Level problems
a. interface level control or valve malfunction

b. low level of oil due to rapid water or sludge draw-off; usually temporary condition
c. high interface due to water outlet plugged with sand
7. Electrical system malfunction - see below
8. Voltage not optimized (ElectroDynamic system only)
a. if salt in outlet is acceptable, only BS&W is high, then reduce mixing voltage
b. if salt and BS&W too high, increase voltage of mixing cycle, or duration of coalescing cycle
- 217 -
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM MALFUNCTIONS
A. Loss of electrical power. The symptoms are no pilot light, no voltage, no current, decreased
dehydration
1. Circuit breaker open

2. Master switch open
3. Master fuse open
B. Short in high voltage (secondary) circuit due to process upset. Symptoms are pilot dim, voltage low
and unsteady, current high but unsteady (See "Desalting Process" above)
1. Interface sludge accumulation

2. High influx of stable off-spec emulsion
3. Foreign material in desalter
4. High interface level
5. Wax or paraffin accumulation in electrical section
C. Short in high voltage circuit due to component malfunction. Symptoms are pilot out, voltage low or
zero, current high but steady
1. Entrance bushing malfunction
a. burned wire
b. surface tracking of current
c. corona deterioration
2. Electrode insulating hanger malfunction
a. surface tracking
b. corona deterioration
3. Rectifier malfunction
4. Transformer short in secondary coil
a. dirty or wet insulating oil

b. transformer operating too hot
5. Low crude oil level causing internal switches to ground secondary circuit
a. malfunction of flow or level control system

b. temporary condition due to rapid water or sludge draw-off
D. Open circuit in high voltage circuit (unlikely but possible). Symptoms are pilot on, voltage high, current
low, decreased dehydration efficiency
1. Rectifier malfunction
2. Entrance bushing wire burn-through
3. Transformer burn-out
E. Open tertiary (meter) circuit. Symptoms are pilot off, no voltage, normal current, dehydration normal
1. Blown fuse in low voltage Junction Box

- 218 -
2. Circuit breaker shuts off when energized
F. Short in primary circuit
1. Short in transformer primary coil

2. Short in power feed wiring
G. Breaker problem. Symptoms are circuit breaker shuts off intermittently, or on hot days
1. Breaker malfunction
2. Breaker too small for load
Electrical System Checkout Procedures
Use the following procedures to check out electrical system malfunctions. Before attempting to isolate
electrical problems read the section of this manual on SAFETY. Only qualified electricians experienced in
high voltage equipment should attempt to perform these procedures:
A. To isolate a short in the high-voltage circuitry, take the following steps:
1) Disconnect and padlock the transformer circuit breaker in the "OFF" or "OPEN" position. Be
CERTAIN that power is not reaching the transformer.
2) Remove the top flange from the entrance bushing housing and visually inspect the interior. Look
for signs of arcing (burn spots on insulation, wires, or contact rods) and/or discoloration of the
insulating oil. Oil which has been subjected to arcing will often have a sharp, acrid odor and
will look dark in color or have an opaque appearance. Fresh oil should be clear and relatively
colorless. If possible, take a sample of oil and have its dielectric value measured. Discolored
oil should be replaced with fresh oil. Clean oil with low dielectic value may be reconditioned by
filtering. Take precautions to minimize exposure of the oil to airborne dust or moisture.
3) If all appears normal, isolate the transformer from the vessel by disconnecting the high voltage
connections inside the entrance bushing housing. Always discharge the circuit before
touching the conductors. Be sure that all conductors are well away from the high-voltage
connections.
4) Restore power to the transformer and observe the symptoms. If high voltage is restored and
the primary current is low, the problem is in either the connection wires or conductors in the
entrance bushing housing, in the vessel entrance bushings, or inside the vessel. Also observe
whether voltage cycling of the LRC is occurring.
5) If the problem appears to be in the vessel entrance bushings, try connecting them one at a
time to isolate which bushing is the problem. To do this, first DE-ENERGIZE THE
TRANSFORMER AND SECURE IT “OFF”, re-connect one of the entrance bushings, and
restore transformer power. Repeat the process on the other bushing. Refer to the
maintenance instructions for bushing replacement, if necessary.
6) If no problem is found in Step 4 above (that is, the condition of low voltage and high current
persists), DE-ENERGIZE THE TRANSFORMER AND SECURE IT “OFF”, remove the cover
from the high voltage junction box (diode compartment), and visually inspect the components
and the oil as in Step 2 above including sampling the oil and measuring its dielectric value.
7) If no problems are evident from the visual inspection, temporarily secure the lid on the
high-voltage junction box, diconnect the connections between the diode pack and transformer
- 219 -
output bushings, and restore power to the transformer and observe the symptoms.
8) If readings return to normal (high voltage and low current), the transformer output bushings are
faulty.
9) If power readings still show low voltage and high current, turn off power to the transformer and
padlock the circuit-breaker in the "OFF" position.
10)Disconnect the diode pack from the high voltage AC bushing which is located on the wall of the
diode compartment adjoining the main transformer tank. Be sure to discharge the circuit
before touching the leads. Make sure leads are away from the diode pack and other high
voltage wiring.
11) Temporarily secure the lid on the high-voltage junction box and restore power to the transformer
and observe the symptoms.
12)If the readings now show high voltage and low current, the diode pack, transient suppression
circuit, or associated wiring is shorted to ground and must be replaced or repaired.
B. If it is determined that the short is inside the vessel (either entrance bushings or internal electrical
components), the following procedure should be observed:
1) Reaffirm that the symptoms are NOT the result of process irregularities covered in the check list.
They could appear as an electrical short inside the unit.
2) Turn OFF all electrical power to unit. All power sources should be locked out/tagged out in
compliance with OSHA Standards 1910.218, 1910.261 and 1926.400, as well as applicable
state, county and municipal requirements.
3) Remove the production from the system and depressurize the unit.
4) Disconnect and remove the entrance bushings and visually check for burned appearance
(tracking). Be sure the bushings are clean. Sulfides or sediment buildup over the length of the
bushing can cause shorting. If there are no visible signs of damage, a more complete
determination can be made with a "megger" to determine if there is any conductivity between
the wire conductor and the pipe. Conductivity here may indicate a bad bushing.
5) If the bushings are good, drain the vessel and remove manway cover.
6) Before entering the vessel, once again be sure the power is "OFF" and the circuit breaker switch is
locked in the "OFF" position. Also, be sure the vessel has proper ventilation. Provisions of the
OSHA proposed standard for work in confined spaces should be followed to ensure
appropriate worker protection.
7) Visually inspect the insulating hangers that support the electrode assembly. Burned or otherwise
damaged insulators should be replaced.
8) Check the electrodes for any foreign material that may be touching either electrode and ground.
Also, check for proper spacing (at least 6") between the vessel wall and the electrodes and
between electrodes themselves.
9) Inspect the safety float and shorting assembly. Be sure the float assembly moves freely without
binding, also that the float has not leaked and filled with liquid preventing it from lifting off the
contact rod when the vessel is filled.
- 220 -
10) If a visual inspection has not revealed the problem, a more complete check will be necessary.
With the float assembly lifted away from the contact rod assembly, a "megger" may be used to
check conductivity between each electrode and ground, and each other. Any conductivity will
indicate that one or more of the insulating hangers are bad. To determine which insulators are
causing the problem it may be necessary to remove the insulators one at a time and check
individually. Any conductivity across an insulator indicates a bad insulator.
C. To check for an open circuit in the high voltage circuit:
1) A simple check for this problem may be accomplished without draining the vessel by raising the
interface level in the coalescing section. As the interface approaches the grid section, current
should increase drastically if the high voltage circuitry is good. If it does not, an open does
exist in the high-voltage circuitry. Appropriate precautions should be taken to prevent carry-
over of water or sludge out the oil discharge, particularly with refinery desalters. Note: The
high voltage diode pack should be checked out in accordance with following.
D. To check out the rectifier package and other high voltage circuits:
Circuits that are designed to operate on high voltage will sometimes develop problems that cannot be
detected with normal low voltage test equipment. Although an ohmmeter is a useful tool, it can
deceive you. A conductor that is shorted with high voltage applied may appear normal with low
voltage. Thus an ohmmeter would not detect this type of high voltage short circuit. An insulation
tester, or "megger", is a better testing device for troubleshooting high-voltage circuits. Listed below
are two methods for checking out the high-voltage diode packs on the Dual Polarity unit.
Use of Insulation Tester "Megger"
Step 1 Disconnect and padlock transformer circuit breaker in the "OPEN" or "OFF" position. Be
certain that power is NOT reaching the transformer. Follow all applicable requirements of
OSHA Standards 1910.213, 1910.218, 1910.261 and 1926.400, as well as relevant state,
county and municipal standards.
Step 2 Remove the lid on the high-voltage junction box and isolate the diode pack by disconnecting
the high-voltage entrance bushing leads and the transformer secondary lead.
Step 3 Connect the "Line" lead from the megger to the diode pack input terminal (center) and connect
the "Ground" lead to the positive terminal on the diode pack. Activate the megger. It
should read high. Move the "Ground" lead from the positive terminal to the negative
terminal on the diode pack. Again activate the megger and note the reading. It should
read low.
Step 4 Disconnect "Line" lead of the megger from the input terminal of the diode pack and connect
the "Ground" lead to the diode input terminal. Connect the "Line" lead to the positive
terminal on the diode pack. Activate the megger. The reading should be low. Move the
"Line" lead from the positive terminal to the negative terminal on the diode pack. Again,
activate the megger. The reading should be high.
CAUTION: Discharge voltage from megger after each reading. If

readings do not correspond with those described, diode
package is faulty.
CAUTION: NEVER connect a “megger” to the transformer primary

leads. This action could result in destruction of the
transformer.
- 221 -
WATER QUALITY PROBLEMS
A. Gross oil carryover with effluent water (>5000 ppm)
1. oil "sucked" out with water

2. vortexing at water outlet
a. No anti-vortex provision
b. Interface level too low
3. Interface sludge layer being carried out with the water
a. Incompatibility in feed-stocks precipitating asphaltenes or wax.

b. High suspended solids load in feedstock (tank bottom carry-over, etc.)
B. High oil carryover with effluent water (500 - 5000 ppm)
1. Insufficient water phase retention time

2. Water rate higher than design
3. Interface too low
4. Dehydrator/Desalter vessels fouled with solids deposition. (If extreme, could result in gross
carryover)
C. Inadequate demulsification
1. Chemical demulsifier not optimum for water quality.

2. Chemical dosage too high or low
3. Chemical not injected far enough upstream of desalter.
4. Additional chemicals, such as wetting agents, may be required.
D. Incompatibility between produced and dilution water. Emulsion stabilized by precipitate
E. High solids content in effluent water. Solids accumulation in bottom of vessel or suspended in water
phase
1. Sand or produced solids

2. Incompatibility of produced water and dilution water forming precipitate.
3. Severe corrosion in system (example: iron sulfide)
4. Sample taken during mud-wash operation.
- 222 -
Appendix VI
Brochures
Crude Oil Dehydration and Desalting Solutions
Desalting: Field or Refinery
Electro-Dynamic Desalters: Field or Refinery
Dual Polarity Electrostatic Treater
TriVolt and TriVoltmax Electrostatic Dehydrators and Desalters
TriGrid and TriGridmax Electrostatic Dehydrators and Desalters
Electromax Treater
Horizontal Performax Treater
Horizontal Vertical-Flow Treater
Vertical Emulsion Treater
Direct Current Electrostatic Treaters
Laboratory Services: Dehydration and Desalting
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Dual Polarity Performance Enhancers
Electro-Dynamic Desalters
Research and Development
- 223 -

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NATCO

Description of Processes ..................................................................................................................1

Summary of Processes ...................................................................................................................20

Performance Case Studies: Actual Installations ............................................................................24

Sub-System Specifications ............................................................................................................34

“How to Design an Efficient Crude Desalting System”

Refinery Desalting Systems

Appendix III: Components

Appendix IV: Sample Dual Polarity® Users Manual

Appendix V: Sample Electro-Dynamic® Desalter Users Manual

Appendix VI: Brochures

Crude Oil Dehydration and Desalting Solutions

©NATCO, Houston, Texas 1997, revised March 2000, August 2003

Mechanical Forces for Coalescence and Sedimentation

Where: f = viscous drag force

• Dipolar Attraction: Electrical

A drop in an AC electrostatic field primarily experiences dipolar attraction. Electrophoretic

Power Unit 1 Power Unit 2 Power Unit 3

Grid 1 Grid 2 Grid 3

TriVolt AC Electrostatic Coalescer

Plate AC Field Devices

Another technique developed by NATCO for

Dual Polarity® Devices

Dual Polarity® Electrostatic Fields

Process Conditions: Magnitude of Forces:

Pulsed and Modulated Dual Polarity® Devices

Conventional Transformer Protection

Provides Protection Only!

Another way to control power …

Crude Oil Conductivity Æ

Slow Modulation Voltage Cycle

Field Control by Load Responsive Controller (LRC®)

Dual FrequencyTM Devices

Conductivity in Dehydrator and Desalter Design

A conceptual illustration of composite electrodes is shown below.

Conductive Epoxy Plate

Mixing: Sustained high

Countercurrent flow is essential for

The Electromax® Dehydrator utilizes a combination of electrostatic and mechanical coalescing

Experience: Hundreds of units deployed in oilfield and refinery dehydration/desalting

Dual Polarity® (AC/DC) Configurations

Application: Refinery and oilfield dehydration/desalting systems requiring dehydration to

Dual FrequencyTM Configurations

Application: Refinery or oilfield dehydration and desalting systems requiring maximum

Application: Refinery or oilfield desalting systems requiring maximum desalting

Client: Refinery, New Mexico, USA

Client: Refinery, The Netherlands

Client: Refinery, Japan

Client: Petrochemical Plant, Thailand

Client: Field Desalters, Egypt

Client: Field Desalters, Kuwait

Client: Field Desalters, Saudi Arabia

Client: Refinery, Ecuador

Client: Power Company, Korea

1. Coagulation: The chemical destabilization of the system. Before dispersions can be

Comparative Results: 19.5ºAPI Brazilian Crude Oil

Effluent Water Treatment

Water exhibits an appreciable solubility in

Bar Grating or AC Grids

Electrostatic coalescence generally proceeds through a mechanism of drop polarization,

Liquid Distribution Systems

Box-Type Spreader with Open Bottom

Dilution Water Distributors

Electro-Dynamic® Desalters incorporate a header/lateral spreader system for injecting