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transmission mains - the largest pipes which carry flow from the water
treatment facility to the network. These pipes are often greater than
(D > 600 mm).
feeder mains - (pipelines which feed flow from the transmission main
to the individual pipe networks of every service area (D ∼ 400 - 500 mm)
distribution mains - the grid of pipelines which provides service to
all users (D ∼ 150 - 300 mm)
service lines - pipelines which go from the distribution mains to the
individual house/facility.
The individual lines are sized as per momentum equation (Darcy-Weisbach) and
energy equation (head loss equation.)
Components (continued)
The preferred design life for the various components of water supply systems is
given with the following table (Chin, Table 3.11)
Water Demand
• residential
• commercial
• industrial
• public
Typical distribution of water use for an average city (Shin, 2000, Table 3.4)
Category Average use Percent of total
(liters/day)/person
Residential 260
Commercial 90
Industrial 190
Public 70
Loss 50
Total 660
The distribution of average per capita rates among 292 water supply systems in
the U. S. that serve 95 million people is given in the table below.
Average distribution of per capita water demand (Shin, 2000, Table 3.5)
Range Number of Percent of total
(liters/day)/person systems
190-370 30 8
380-560 132 34
570-750 133 34
760-940 51 13
950-1130 19 5
>1140 27 7
Please note: these figures are based on 392 US water supply systems serving 95
million people (1984 Water Utility Operating Data, 1986 AWWA)
When planning for a water supply system, the water demand at the end of the
network design life is generally used as the basis for the project design. Because
the demand of the system 20 years in the future is not known, it is necessary to
make some kind of prediction or forecasting about the municipality growth. A
variety of Forecasting models exist, including:
• disaggregate models - break up the population into groups and predict the
growths of each group. An example of this is cohort analysis (Sykes 1995)
which segregates age and gender. These models require large quantities of
data.
• empirical models - are based solely on data.
Please note that after 10 years, empirical models are as reliable as disaggregate
models.
Population growth is not generally steady and tends to grow at varying rates.
Geometric growth phase - occurs when there are wide open spaces and is
modelled with
Arithmetic growth phase - occurs after the initial growth has leveled off and
is modelled with
Each of the above phases is generally limited to 10 years in duration. For situa-
tions when a longer projection is required a long term projection can be approx-
imated with an S-curve (most common used is a logistic curve)
Demand Variations
The demand in a water distribution system varies, daily, weekly, seasonally, and
in the case of emergencies such as fires. Typical daily variations are given in the
below figure (Chin, Figure 3.23)
The range of demand conditions are specified with peaking or demand factors.
An example of the demand factors is found in the below table (Chin, Table 3.6).
N F Fi = Ci Oi (X + P )i
where
C is the construction factor
Please see Chin for a more complete discussion of needed fire flows and the re-
quired coefficients
Required fire flow durations to satisfy insurance requirements (Chin, Table 3.10)
Example
Solution
assume:
a) find design capacity given: