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LAUZON, P., KONING, A., and DONOHUE, I. Stress development in refractory due to the rate of temperature
change: a pressure vessel refractory lining design consideration. Hydrometallurgy Conference 2009, The
Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 2009.

Stress development in refractory due to the rate of

temperature change: a pressure vessel refractory
lining design consideration
P. LAUZON*, A. KONING*, and I. DONOHUE*
*Hatch, Ontario, Canada

Vessels that are used for pressure hydrometallurgical operations

require an impermeable membrane that provides corrosion protection
and one or more courses of refractory lining or ceramic brick. A
significant amount of work goes into the design of a refractory lining
to ensure that it is mechanically stable at steady state process
conditions. Steady state analysis techniques are covered in detail in
the paper ‘Design fundamentals for hydrometallurgy pressure vessel
refractory linings’ by A. Koning and P. Lauzon. Since new
hydrometallurgical processes are pushing the pressure and
temperature envelope with each new generation of plants it becomes
equally important to perform transient analysis.
The purpose of this paper is to build on the design fundamentals of
refractory linings by demonstrating the importance of transient
thermal and stress analysis. A transient analysis is necessary because
heating or cooling a vessel too quickly can result in lining failure as a
result of exceeding the stress limits of the refractory. To demonstrate
the effects that the rate of temperature change has on the stresses in a
refractory lining, a transient thermal and stress analysis was
conducted on a typical refractory lining design for an autoclave.
The results obtained from the analysis shows a significant increase
in peak stress when the rate of heating or cooling is increased by
5°C/h. Peak stresses were increased by approximately 2 MPa. A stress
increase of this magnitude is significant because tensile failure of
refractory brick occurs in a range of 6 to 10 MPa. The magnitude of
stress development is highly dependent on geometry, materials, and
the thermal boundary conditions. Since stress development is affected
by multiple factors it is important to analyse the transient effects of
heating or cooling a vessel.

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Introduction
Pressure hydrometallurgy operations require vessels to be lined with an impermeable
membrane for corrosion protection and one or more courses of refractory or ceramic brick.
Examples of unit operations that utilize composite lining systems include pressure oxidation
autoclaves, sulphide precipitation autoclaves, chloride leach reactors, flash vessels, cyclone
separators, and direct contact condensers (heater vessels and quench vessels). The refractory
lining must satisfy multiple requirements: it must thermally insulate the membrane from
process fluid, be structurally stable, provide erosion resistance, be chemically compatible with
process fluid, and provide an economic service life.
Refractory lining design begins with selecting lining materials based on chemical stability in
the process environment. The thickness of the different refractory layers is initially
determined using 1D heat transfer calculations. If the membrane or shell temperature is
greater than what is permitted then the refractory thickness is increased. Following the
thermal analysis is a 1D mechanical stability analysis, which is used to examine various
loading conditions and the effects of material properties. Mechanical stability is determined
by ensuring that the hot face refractory layer is in compression through all operating
conditions and that the stresses do not exceed the material’s failure strength. An equally
important consideration is the calculated overlap between the brick lining and the membrane.
This stability factor requires that the overlap should be positive, that is, that the steel shell
should be in contact with the refractory lining throughout all operating conditions.
The main drawback of 1D calculations, is the assumption of an infinitely long cylindrical
vessel that does not take into account the effects of additional attachments: supports, nozzles
and hemi-heads. A designer must resort to the use of finite element analysis (FEA) because
the various attachments require complex mathematical analysis for which exact formulae are
difficult or impossible to obtain. With the use of 2D axisymmetric and full 3D models the
designer will perform thermal and stress analysis for various load conditions. FEA will
highlight hot spots in the vessel or stress concentrations, which would lead to failure. The
designer can then concentrate on the hot spots or stress concentrations and modify parameters
such as gaps, geometry, and material selection in order to eliminate these hot spots or stress
concentrations.
Once a refractory lining design passes the mechanical stability and thermal requirements at
steady state process conditions it becomes necessary to examine the effects of start-up and
shutdown procedures. Steady state analysis techniques are covered in detail in the paper
‘Design fundamentals for hydrometallurgy pressure vessel refractory linings’ by A. Koning
and P. Lauzon. Analysis of start-up and shutdown procedures for a vessel is required because
a refractory lining is dramatically affected by the rate of temperature change. The purpose of
this paper is to demonstrate the effect that the rate of temperature change has on refractory
stresses during start-up and shutdown.
If the vessel is heated or cooled too quickly stresses can be generated that exceed the stress
limits of the refractory, leading to failure of the lining. It is the hot face of the process brick
that will experience the greatest effects of thermal shock and will crack or spall if the rate of
temperature change is too high. To assist in prolonging the life of the refractory lining it is
important that appropriate heating and cooling rates be determined and followed. The
damaging effects of a large rate of temperature change will be discussed and examined using
FEA.

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Transient thermal stresses

Refractory material is selected for its excellent insulating material properties: low
conductivity, high density, and high specific heat capacity. The insulating ability of the
refractory is required for the thermal protection of the vessel membrane. The downside is the
length of time required to heat or cool the refractory lined vessel.
When the refractory in a pressure vessel is being heated it resists the transfer of heat from
the hot face to the cold face, generating steep thermal gradients through the material. Stresses
are generated within the refractory as a result of uneven thermal expansion due to the non-
uniform temperature distribution. If the refractory is heated quickly, large enough compressive
stresses can be generated, which cause the lining to fail due to thermal shock. The same type
of failure can also occur when the vessel is cooled too quickly. In this case the hot face
becomes cooler than the remainder of the refractory and develops a tensile stress. The results
of a transient thermal and stress analysis, using FEA, effectively shows the magnitude of
stresses generated as a result of rapid temperature change.

Transient analysis using FEA

The effects of rapid temperature change on refractory will be shown using the results from a
two-dimensional FEA model. Figure 1(a) shows the general arrangement of the model used
for the analysis, which approximates a cross-section of a quarter of the pressure vessel’s
cylindrical body. It is assumed that this geometry represents an infinitely long cylinder into
the page. In the model, plane strain applies. This model geometry will behave identically to a
complete annulus and reduces the computational time because the model is smaller.
The model is made up of 8 different layers as shown in Figure 1(b): steel shell, lead
membrane, 3 mortar layers, and 3 brick layers. The brick layers are modelled as monolithic
layers that do not account for the mortar that is between the bricks circumferentially or
axially. These mortar joints could be modelled but are not necessary to show the effects of the
rate of temperature change.

Figure 1. (a) General arrangement of the model used for the transient analysis and (b) the different material layers

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The model geometry is a representation of the cylindrical portion of an autoclave.

Thicknesses used for each layer in the model are from the design of an existing autoclave. The
autoclave is being used for the processing of an orebody that contains gold. Transient thermal
and stress analysis was conducted using the 210°C process design temperature for this
particular autoclave. Autoclaves used to process an orebody containing gold can have process
temperatures that range from about 200°C to 250°C. Process conditions will vary depending
on the orebody being processed, the chemical reaction taking place, and the type of vessel
being used.

The effect of heating rate on refractory

The refractory used to line a vessel is selected for its excellent insulating properties to keep
the membrane below a particular temperature at process conditions. At steady state operating
conditions the thermal gradient through the refractory generates compressive hot face stress
and tensile cold face stress. Larger stresses will be developed in the refractory as the vessel is
being heated, as shown in Figure 2. The peak stress occurs when the vessel reaches the 210°C
process temperature and then stabilizes to a steady state position. For the given analysis a
5°C/h increase in the heating rate increased the peak stress by approximately 3 MPa. A peak
stress is formed due to the thermal gradient through the refractory.
The steepest thermal gradient occurs when the vessel reaches the desired process
temperature. This is illustrated by the thermal gradient at the time of 19 h for Case 2 in
Figure 3. This occurs because the hot face has achieved its steady state temperature but the
remainder of the refractory is still being heated. The faster a vessel is heated the steeper the
thermal gradient through the refractory when the vessel reaches the process temperature, as
shown in Figure 4 for Case 1 and Case 2. This accounts for the largest peak stress for Case 2.
The slope of the thermal gradient through the refractory and stresses are reduced over time as
the refractory reaches steady state.
The 12 h hold shown for Case 3 and 4 in Figure 2 is an example of a temperature hold
typically included in a vessel heating schedule during commissioning or after prolonged shut-
down. The hold period allows the lining to settle into place and helps prevent damage to the

Figure 2. Hot face stress of the process brick

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lining. It provides time for the acid to completely soak through the refractory to prevent
flashing. A hold period allows the vessel to reach an equilibrium state so the operator has an
opportunity to check that nothing is out of the ordinary (i.e. hot spots) before continuing the
heating process.

Figure 3. Process brick thermal gradient for Case 2

Figure 4. Process brick thermal gradient

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The effect of cooling rate on refractory

The tensile strength of refractory typically falls within a 6–10 MPa range. When a vessel is
cooled there is greater potential for lining failure due to the possibility of exceeding the low
tensile strength of the refractory. Looking at Cases 2, 3, and 4 in Figure 5 it can be seen that
the peak stress is approaching the tensile strength of refractory as the cooling rate is increased.
The stress on the hot face has become tensile because it is now cooler than the cold face. For
the given analysis a 5°C/h increase in the cooling rate increased the peak stress by
approximately 2 MPa. A peak stress is formed due to the thermal gradient through the
refractory.
For Cases 2, 3, and 4 the steepest thermal gradient occurs when the vessel temperature
reaches 60°C and cooling by means of natural convection is initiated. This is illustrated by the
thermal gradient at a time of 6 h for Case 4 in Figure 6. It can be seen that at the 7 h mark the
hot face increased in temperature and the remainder of the refractory continued cooling. This
occurred because the rate of heat removal due to convection is slower than the rate of heating
by the latent heat remaining in the hotter portion of the refractory.
The faster a vessel is cooled the steeper the thermal gradient through the refractory when the
vessel temperature reached 60°C, as shown in Figure 7 for Cases 2, 3, and 4. This accounts
for the largest peak stress for Case 4. The slope of the thermal gradient through the refractory
and stresses are reduced over time as the refractory reaches steady state.
The effect of cooling the vessel interior from 60°C to 20°C using convection can be seen
looking at Case 1 and 5 in Figure 5. These two cases do not have a stress peak because the
vessel is cooled to 60°C using a slow enough rate that the convective air passing though the
vessel has a larger influence on the tensile stress development. The tensile stress is caused by
the 40°C temperature difference between the convective air and the hot face of the process
brick. Case 5 has a larger tensile stress because forced convection has a larger effect on the
thermal gradient through the brick because it removes more heat than natural convection. The
forced convection rapidly decreased the hot face temperature of the process brick causing the
generation of the larger tensile stress on the hot face.

Figure 5. Hot face stress of the process brick

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Figure 6. Process brick thermal gradient for Case 4

Figure 7. Process brick thermal gradient

Conclusions
The rate of temperature change has a noteworthy effect on the stresses that are developed in a
refractory lining. The stress observed, during heating or cooling, is significantly higher than
steady state stress, which demonstrates the need for transient thermal and stress analysis when
designing a lining system. The stresses are highly dependent on geometry considerations,
material properties, and thermal boundary conditions. So there are many variables that can be
changed to reduce the stresses within the refractory. Performing a transient thermal and stress
analysis during the design phase will result in a better engineered refractory lining with an
improved life expectancy.

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Al Koning
Mechanical Engineer, Hatch, Ontario, Canada
Mechanical engineer for the design and construction of chemical and
metallurgical processing plants, encompassing detailed mechanical
design and project engineering for the extraction of non-ferrous metals
such as gold, nickel, cobalt and copper. Extensive experience using
finite element analysis (FEA) and other analytical methods in the
design, diagnoses and retrofitting of pressure vessels and piping
components.

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