(Animiredy Ramesh) - WELL - LOGGING - PRINCIPLES - INTERPRETATION - A PDF

WELL LOGGING PRINCIPLES,
INTERPRETATION AND APPLICATIONS
Submitted by
ANIMIREDDY RAMESH
ROLL .NO. 1459932001
M.Sc. GEOPHYSICS
Dr BR AMBEDKAR UNIVERSITY
SRIKAKULAM
2014-2016
Well logging Principles, Interpretation and
Applications
A
Dissertation Submitted To
Dept. OF GEOSCIENCE
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
Post Graduate Degree in
M.Sc. GEOPHYSICS
Under the supervision of
Submitted by
ANIMIREDDY RAMESH
ROLL .NO. 1459932001
M.Sc. GEOPHYSICS
Dr BR AMBEDKAR UNIVERSITY
SRIKAKULAM
2016
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this project report entitled “Well logging

Principles, Interpretation and Applications ” submitted to “Dept. Of
Geosciences, Dr. BR Ambedkar University, Srikaklam.” is a bonafide record
of work done by “ANIMIREDDY RAMESH” under my supervision from
“01-JANUARY-2016” to “28-JANUARY-2016”
Signature of the supervisor
Signature of the
head of the department
Place :
Date :
CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Ι
ABSTRACT ΙΙ
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. PETROPHYSICAL PARAMETERS 2
2.1 Porosity 2
2.2 Permeability 2
2.3 Thickness 3
2.4 Water Saturation 3
2.5 Resistivity 4
2.6 Formation Resistivity Factor 4
2.7 Cementation Factor 5
2.8 Resistivity Index (I) 6
2.9 Formation Temperature (Tf) 6
3. WELLBORE ENVIRONMENT 7
3.1 Introduction 7
4. OPEN HOLE LOGGING TOOLS 9
4.1 Spontaneous Potential Tool 9
4.2 Gamma Ray And Spectral Gamma Ray Logs 12
4.3 Resistivity Logs 15
4.4Porosity Logs 20
4.4.1 Neutron log 20
4.4.2 Density log 25
4.4.3 Sonic tool 27
5. CASED HOLE LOGGING TOOLS 30
5.1 Cement Bond Log – Variable Density Log 30
5.2 Casing Collar Locator 31
6. PRODUCTION LOGGING 32
6.1 Introduction 32
6.2 Production Logging Measurement Tools 32
CONTENTS
6.3 Production Problems 34
7. DATA ACQUISITION 36
7.1 Procedure For Logging Operations 36
7.2 Logging Equipment 37
7.3 The Logging Tool 38
7.4 Recording Equipment 39
7.5 Digital Log Preparation 39
8. DATA PROCESSING 40
8.1 Data Processing Overview 40
8.2 Data Media 41
8.3 Data Transmission 41
9. AN OVER VIEW OF KRISHNA-GODAVARI BASIN 42
9.1 Basin Introduction 42
9.2 Tectonic History 42
9.3 Generalized Stratigraphy 42
9.4 Depositional Environment 43
10. INTERPRETATION 44
10.1 Pre Interpretation 44
10.2 Cross Plots 50
10.3 Exercises 53
Conclusion 64
References 65
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am highly indebted to ONGC Rajahmundry for giving me an opportunity to

do my internship which is a part of curriculum of M.Sc. 2yr. Geophysics at Well
Logging Services, Rajahmundry Asset, Andhra Pradesh.
It’s my pleasure for granting me the permission to undergo this Dissertation

work on “Well logging Principles, Interpretation and Applications ” in Well
Logging Services- Rajahmundry Asset of ONGC & Sri J.V ANJANEYULU,
DGM(WELLS) Head Well Logging Services for providing all facilities and for
nominating the mentors in Well Logging section for this dissertation work.
I would like to express my profound thanks and gratitude to my advisor and my

mentor, Sri ARUN KUMAR, Sr. Geophysicist (WELLS) for giving his precious time,
guidance, encouragement & valuable suggestions throughout the dissertation program.
I express my gratitude to all officers of WELL LOGGING Services for their

indispensable help and co-operation to know the pragmatic aspects of log data,
acquisition and interpretation for successful completion of my internship.
Lastly I am also very thankful to Sri G.S Reddy , Office of Head STI, ONGC
Rajahmundry for providing me a opportunity to be a part of ONGC Rajahmundry.
Well logging Principles, Interpretation and Applications Page Ι

ABSTRACT
Hydrocarbons are one of the important non-renewable resources of energy.

They have natural origin and are confined to some locations beneath the surface of the
earth. Exploration and exploitation of hydrocarbons is a challenging aspect, to
overcome it several geophysical and geo-engineering methods are carried out.
In the exploration process, most probable hydrocarbon bearing rock structure is

defined. Based on gravity, magnetic, seismic surveys and other geophysical methods
drilling location is released as an exploratory wild cat well. It is necessary to ascertain
the hydrocarbon potential of the well vis-à-vis to the reservoir. Sub-surface lithological
data are obtained from extensive coring and drill cuttings. Coring is an expensive and
difficult process having certain geological limitations pertaining to that area. In E&P
industry accurate data acquisition is needed with respect to depth. Well logging plays a
vital role to overcome this problem by determination of physical properties of sub-
surface lithology with respect to depth.
Well logging provides a cheaper, quicker method of obtaining accurate sub-

surface petro-physical data like porosity, saturation, shaliness and pay thickness. These
parameters are used for hydrocarbon identification and quantification of potential pay
zones and hydrocarbon reserves. The objective is to identify, define, and produce from
a given reservoir, also known as “Formation Evaluation”.
Well Log data plays a pivotal role in Hydrocarbon Exploration & Production
industry and is used in all the phases of exploration process (Open hole, Cased hole). It
is also useful for identification of sick zones in depleting reservoirs by analyzing
Production Logs. Rapid and sophisticated developments in Well Logging technology
has revolutionized the Hydrocarbon E &P industry.
Well logging Principles, Interpretation and Applications Page ΙΙ

1. INTRODUCTION
Well logging is a way of recording the petro physical properties of a rock by taking
continuous measurements in a well against depth. The properties may be resistivity, radioactivity,
travel time etc. Depending upon measuring physical property the tools are termed as resistivity
tools, radio activity tools sonic tools etc.
The data collected from geological and geophysical surveys are used to formulate probable
definitions and realizations of geological structure that may contain hydrocarbons. However, we
still have to determine whether hydrocarbons exist in these geological traps, and if it does exist,
would it be available in such a quantity that makes the hydrocarbon field economical? The only
way to provide a definite answers is to drill and test exploratory well(s). As this exploratory well is
drilled, samples of the rock cuttings are collected and examined for their composition, fluid content.
The data are used to identify the type of formation versus depth and to check on the presence of
hydrocarbon material within the rock. Cores of the formations are also obtained, preserved, and sent
to specialized laboratories for analysis. Whenever a hydrocarbon formation is drilled, the well is
tested and while placed on controlled production. After the well has been drilled, and sometimes at
various intervals during drilling various logs are taken. Logging plays a vital role from drilling to
abandonment of a well. It is needed at all phases of the well. Depending upon the phase of well
logging may described as follows:
1. Open hole logging: Logging in a well after drilling but before casing.
2. Cased hole logging: Logging in a well after casing.
3. Production logging: Logging well during production.
4. Logging while drilling (LWD): Logging a well of while during.
5. Measuring while drilling (MWD): Measuring of parameters during drilling.
Open hole logging plays a very important role in petroleum industry. It is the scientific eye
looking into the rocks exposed in the well and is one of the most important tools used in oil
exploration. To explore and produce hydrocarbon a well is drilled to a desired depth. Rocks present
in the sub surface of the earth accumulate fluids (oil, water or gas) in their pores. These rocks and
fluids can be identified with the help of electrical, atomic, nuclear and mechanical properties of the
rocks. Recording and presenting of these parameters is known as Open hole logging operations. The
main object of these operations is to know depth wise type of rocks and fluids present. The recorded
data is present in the graphical form with depth on X axis and recorded parameters on Y axis. These
operations are carried out with the help of mobile electronic laboratory mounted on a truck and
associated tools which are lowered in a well with the help of electromechanical 7 conductor cable.
The first log (open hole) was recorded on 5th September, 1927 by Schlumberger brothers, Conrad
and Marcell in a Patchelbronn oil well in north eastern France. They recorded a resistivity log with
a 3 electrode device. In India first log was recorded on 21st October 1933 in well No Digboi-269 by
Raymond Sauvage of Schlumberger. It was a resistivity-SP log. ONGC was formed in 1956 and for
carrying out logging operations Russian unit AKC, L-3 having 3 core cable was imported in 1958
and departmental logging took birth. Later two units of OKC-56 having single core cable were
imported and Logging bases were established in Cambay and Sibsagar. ONGC kept on importing
units from Russia and by 60’s departmental logging became essential part of ONGC.
Well logging Principles, Interpretation and Applications Page 1

2. PETROPHYSICAL PARAMETERS
2.1 Porosity
Porosity is defined as a measure of the capacity of reservoir rocks to contain or store
fluids.The fluids stored in the pore spaces within the reservoir rocks could be gas, oil, and
water. High porosity values indicate high capacities of the reservoir rocks to contain these
fluids, while low porosity values indicate the opposite. Porosity is calculated as the pore
volume of the rock divided by its bulk volume.
Expressed in terms of symbols, is represented as:
Eq…. 2.1
Where
Ø =porosity. VP Pore volume. VB= Bulk volume.
Pore volume is the total volume of pore spaces in the rock, and bulk volume is physical
volume of the rock, which includes the pore spaces and matrix materials (sand and shale,
etc.) that compose the rock.
Two types of porosities can exist in a rock. These are termed as;
 Primary porosity.

 Secondary porosity.
Primary porosity: is described as the porosity of the rock that formed at the time of its
deposition.
Secondary porosity: develops after deposition of the rock. Secondary porosity includes
vugular spaces in carbonate rocks created by the chemical process of leaching, or fracture
spaces formed in fractured reservoirs.
Porosity is further classified as;
 Total porosity.
 Effective porosity.
Total porosity is defined as the ratio of the entire pore space in a rock to its bulk volume
Effective porosity is the ratio of interconnected pore space to the bulk volume of the rock.
Rock porosity data are obtained by direct or indirect measurements. Laboratory
measurements of porosity data on core samples are examples of direct methods.
Determinations of porosity data from well log data are considered indirect methods.
Factors effecting porosity
 Grain Size
 Grain Shape
 Grain Packing
 Distribution Of Grains

2.1 Permeability
Permeability is a measure of the ability of a porous medium, such as reservoir rock,
to transmit fluids through its system of interconnected pore spaces. If the porous medium is
completely permeability is an intrinsic property of the porous medium, and the magnitude of
absolute permeability is independent of the type of fluid in the pore spaces.
When the pore spaces in the porous medium are occupied by more than one fluid, the
permeability measured is the Effective permeability of the porous medium to that particular

fluid. For instance, the effective permeability of a porous medium to oil is the permeability to
oil when other fluids, including oil, occupy the pore spaces. Relative permeability is defined
as the ratio of effective permeability to absolute permeability of a porous medium. The
relationship for relative permeability is represented as
Eq…. 2.2
Where;
Relative permeability of the porous medium to fluid
Effective permeability of the porous medium for fluid
Absolute permeability of the porous medium.
2.3 Thickness
The total volume of reservoir rock is product of it thickness and the area it occupies
.Hence, it is very important that the thickness of rock be known accurately data from well
logs is sufficient for accurate determination of reservoir thickness.
The term gross thickness is used to define the total thickness of porous rock with top
and bottom bounded by impervious beds, the term net thickness indicate the total thickness
from which the thin and impervious sub-layers, not likely to produced, are removed.
The terms like effective thickness and pay thickness (which is hydrocarbon bearing
are) also of great important while deterring reservoir thickness. Thickness is denoted by the
symbol ―h‖ it can be derived practically from any log, like SP, Gamma or Resistivity logs .
2.4 Water Saturation
The pore spaces in reservoir rocks are occupied by fluids. In petroleum reservoirs, the
fluids are usually water and hydrocarbons. The relative volumes of water and hydrocarbons
in the pore volume of the reservoir rock are designated as saturations.
Water saturation in the reservoir rock is the fraction of the pore volume occupied by water.
Hydrocarbon saturation in the reservoir rock is the fraction of the pore volume occupied by
hydrocarbons.
The sum of the water and hydrocarbon saturations in the reservoir rock is equal to
unity. This relationship can be expressed simply as:
Eq…. 2.4
Where;
Sh=Hydrocarbon saturation, fraction.
Sw=Water saturation, fraction.
If the hydrocarbon in the reservoir exists in oil and gas phases, Eq. (2.4) can be written as:
Eq…. 2.5
Where;
So=Oil saturation, fraction.
Sg= Gas saturation, fraction.
The importance of determining accurate data for water saturations in the reservoir,
especially at discovery, is evident from either Eq. (2.5). The presence of low water
saturations in the reservoir indicates the presence of high hydrocarbon saturations.
Conversely, high water saturations are interpreted as representing the presence of low
hydrocarbon saturations. This rule-of-thumb is routinely applied qualitatively to assess the
potential hydrocarbon contents of a reservoir after it has been penetrated with a well,

especially at discovery. For calculation of the volume of hydrocarbons in a reservoir, a
general equation that applies is expressed as:
HCPV = Area * Thickness * Ø* (1 - Sw)…….. Eq., 2.6
Where;
HCPV= Hydrocarbon pore volume.
Area = Hydrocarbon-bearing area of the reservoir.
Thickness = Net productive thickness or pay of the reservoir.
Ø= Porosity (fraction).
(1 - Sw)= Hydrocarbon saturation, fraction.
Water saturation is one of the key data required in. If the water saturation data are
incorrect, it could result in the over- or under-estimation of the volume of hydrocarbon
present in the reservoir. The economic impact of erroneous calculation of in-place-
hydrocarbon volume cannot be overstated. It could lead to execution of uneconomic projects
with erroneously high estimated in-place-hydrocarbon volumes or lead to the abandonment of
projects with erroneously low estimates of in-place-hydrocarbon volumes.
Archie determined experimentally that the water saturation of a clean formation can
be expressed in terms of its true resistivity as;
Eq…. 2.7
Where;
F- Formation resistivity factor.
Rw- Resistivity of formation water
Rt- True resistivity.
n- Saturation exponent.
2.5 Resistivity
It is the rock property on which the entire science of logging first developed.
Resistance is the inherent property of all materials, regardless of their shape and size, to resist
the flow of an electric current. “Resistivity” is the measurement of resistance; the reciprocal
of resistivity is “Conductivity”. In log interpretation, hydrocarbons, the rock, and freshwater
all act as insulators andare therefore, non-conductive and highly resistive to electric flow. The
unit of measure used for the conductor is a cube of the formation one meter on each edge.
2
The measured units are ohm-meter /meter, and are called ohm-meter.
Eq…. 2.8
Where;
R = Resistivity (ohm-meter).
r = Resistance (ohms).
2
A = Cross sectional area of substance being measured(meters ).
L = Length of substance being measured (meters).
Resistivity is a basic measurement of a reservoir‘s fluid saturation and is a function of
porosity, type of fluid (i.e. hydrocarbons, salt or fresh water), and type of rock.
2.6 Formation Resistivity Factor

It is the ratio of porous medium that is completely saturated with an ionic brine
solution to the resistivity of the brine. The resistivity of a clean, water-bearing formation (i.e.,
one containing no appreciable amount of clay and no hydrocarbons) is proportional to the
resistivity of the brine with which it is fully saturated. The constant of proportionality is
called the formation resistivity factor, F. Thus, if R 0 is the resistivity of a non-shaly formation
rock 100% saturated with brine of resistivity R, then;

Eq., 2.9
Where;
F is the formation factor.
R0 is the resistivity of non-shaly formation (ohm-m).
Rw is the resistivity of 100% saturated formation rock (ohm-m).
It is always greater than one, is a function of the porosity of the rock, pore structure&
pore size distribution.
Archie proposed an empirical formula that indicated a power-law dependence of
formation resistivity factor on porosity as;
Eq…. 2.10
Where;
= Porosity.
m= Cementation factor.
2.7 Cementation Factor
To calculate the hydrocarbon saturation of the reservoir rock from Archie‘s law which
contains two exponents m and n ,which Archie called the cementation exponent and the
saturation exponent respectively. The cementation exponent commonly take values from just
over 1 to around 5.The conductivity of hydrocarbon saturated rock is highly sensitive to
change in either exponents. Fortunately, the saturation exponent does not vary much
(n=2+0.5).water and oil saturation calculated with Archie‘s equation.
Eq…. 2.11
This equation may be used to calculate the cementation factor exponent for any
sample where the resistivity formation factor and porosity have been measured. But it is more
common and more acceptable to calculate the cementation exponent for a suite of sample of
the same facies by calculating the negative gradient of the graph of the log (F) as a function
of log (ϕ).
Table 2.1 Range of cementation factor.
Cementation factor
Type of formation.
Range
A porous medium composed of a bundle of capillary
m=1
tubes.
Analytical solution for the case where the rock is
m=1.5
composed of perfect spheres.
m=1.5 to2.5 Sedimentary rocks.
Generally found in carbonates rocks where the pore
m=2.5 to 5
space is less well connected.

2.10 Resistivity Index (I)
Since crude oil & natural gas are non-conductors of electricity, their presence in the
reservoir rock increases resistivity. Resistivity index is used to characterize reservoir rock,
that are partially saturated with water and also contain oil or gas or both.
Eq…. 2.12
Where;
Ro= Resistivity of rock at some partial water saturation.
Rw= Resistivity of rock when completely saturated with water.
2.11 Formation Temperature (Tf)

Formation temperature is important in log analysis because the resistivities of
drilling mud (Rm), mud filtrate (Rmf) and the formation water (Rw) varies with temperature.
Eq…. 2.13
Where;
S= Surface temperature.
d = Formation depth.
T= Bottom hole temperature.
D= Depth of the bore hole.

3. WELLBORE ENVIRONMENT
3.1 Introduction
The drilling mud is at a pressure greater than the fluid pressure in the formation.
When the drilling mud encounters a porous and permeable formation, the drilling mud will
flow into the formation under the influence of this difference in fluid pressures. This is called
Invasion. However, the particulates in the mud will be left at the surface, with the rock acting
as an efficient filter. Thus, there is a build-up of mud particles on the inner wall of the
borehole, and this is called the mud cake. The remaining liquid part of the drilling mud
enters the formation, pushing back the reservoir fluids. This part of the drilling mud is called
the mud filtrate. The zone where the mud filtrate has replaced the reservoir fluids is called
the flushed zone and there is a zone further into the rock where the replacement of reservoir
fluids with mud filtrate is incomplete, which is called the transition zone. The Virgin
reservoir fluids occupy the uninvaded zone further into the formation.
Figure 3.1 Bore hole Environment

Where,
 dh–hole diameter
 di – diameter of invaded zone(inner boundary; flushed zone)
 dj – diameter of invaded zone(outer boundary; invaded zone)
 ∆rj – radius of invaded zone(outer boundary)
 hmc – thickness of mud cake
 Rm – resistivity of the drilling mud
 Rmc – resistivity of the mud cake
 Rmf – resistivity of mud filtrate
 Rs – resistivity of shale
 Rt – resistivity of uninvaded zone(true resistivity)
 Rw – resistivity of formation water
 Rxo – resistivity of flushed zone
 Sw – water saturation of uninvaded zone
 Sxo – water saturation flushed zone

4.OPEN HOLE LOGGING TOOLS
4.1 SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL TOOL
4.1.1 Introduction
The SP log is a measurement of the natural potential differences or self-potentials
between an electrode in the borehole and a reference electrode at the surface (no artificial
currents are applied). This potential varies from formation to formation, usually within the
range of a few tens or hundreds of mill volts (mV). The primary purpose of this log is to
differentiate shale formation from non -shale formation.
4.1.2 Principle uses
The principal uses of the SP log are to calculate formation-water resistivity and to
indicate permeability. It can also be used to estimate shale volume, facies in some cases and
for correlation.
4.1.3 Principles of measurement
Three factors are necessary to provoke an SP current:
 A conductive fluid in the borehole. 
 A porous and permeable bed surrounded by an impermeable formation. 
 A difference in salinity between the borehole fluid (mud filtrate) and the formation
fluid. 
The SP currents are caused by electromotive force in the formation, which are caused by
electrochemical and electro kinetic origins.
4.1.4 Electrochemical potentials

SP currents are created, when two solutions of different salinity concentrations are in
contact, by two principal electrochemical effects;
  Diffusion or liquid junction potential (E j). 
 Shale or membrane potential (Em). 
4.1.4.1 Diffusion potential
The diffusion potential arises when solutions of differing salinity are in contact through a
porous medium. Sodium chloride (Nacl) is the most common cause of oilfield salinity, so that
it is effectively two solutions of sodium chloride of different salinities that come into contact.
In the porous medium mixing of the two solutions takes place by ionic diffusion. The Cl ion
is small and more mobile, than Na ion which is larger &slower. Therefore, the ions mix at
unequal rates, creating a charge separation. A potential is created between the negatively
charged dilute Solutions with excess Cl and positively charged concentrated solution with
excess Na.
Figure 4.1.1 Diffusion potential.

4.1.4.2Shale potential
The shale potential arises when the same two solutions are in contact across a semi-
permeable membrane. In the borehole, this is name as shale. Clay minerals of shale layers
consists large number of negative surface charge. Because of charge similarity, the negative
chloride ions effectively cannot pass through the negatively charged shale layers, while the
positive sodium ions pass easily. The shale acts as selective barrier. Therefore Na ions diffuse
across a shale membrane, an overbalance of Na ions of positive charge is created in the dilute
solution. A corresponding negative charge is produced in the concentrated solution.
Figure 4.1.2 Shale potential across a semi permeable membrane.

4.1.5 The SP curve
The SP curve is a recording of electrical potential difference between movable
electrode in the borehole d and a fixed surface electrode with respect to depth. Opposite to
the shale the SP curve usually defines a more or less straight line on the log, called the shale
baseline. Opposite to permeable formations, the curve shows deflections from the shale
baseline, in thick beds these deflections tend to reach an essentially constant deflection
defining a sand line.
Figure 4.1.3 The effect of shale potential and diffusion potential

together at bed boundaries causing an SP log deflection.
The deflection may be either to the left (negative) or to the right (positive),
depending primarily on the relative salinities-of the formation water and of the mud
filtrate. If the formation water salinity is greater than the mud filtrate salinity, the
deflection is to the left. For the reversed salinity contrast, the deflection is to the right.
4.1.6 The SP tool

The SP tool consists of an electrode (lead) mounted on an electrically isolated bridle
on the down hole tool. A 1.5 volt battery is included in the circuit to give a bucking current to
bring the SP to the scale. The tool's galvanometer records only change in potential.
4.1.7 Factors influencing amplitude and shape of SP curve
 Bed thickness: In thick and permeable beds with high Rmf/Rw contrasts, the SP curve
will display a deflection with a large slope where the amplitude will remain steady at
a Static Self Potential value (SSP). In thin beds the full SP deflection may not be
 developed. 
 Rmf/Rw contrast: 
1. Rmf>>Rw - The amplitude of the SP curve will be large and negative.
2. Rmf>Rw - The amplitude of the SP curve will be negative but the
amplitude will not be as large as the case above.
3. Rmf=Rw- There will be no SP deflection.
4. Rmf<Rw- The amplitude of the SP curve will be positive.
5. Rmf<<Rw- The amplitude of the SP curve will be large and positive.
 Bed resistivity: As Rt increases, the amplitude of the SP curve decreases and
boundary deflection become more rounded and spread marking it difficult to
determine bed boundaries. 
 Permeability: Weighted drilling mud creates a differential pressure between the
borehole and reservoir rock. 
a) High permeability zones and differential pressure will cause a mud cake to
build rapidly effectively sealing the zone. Very little invasion will be
present. If the bed is thick and free of shale the measured SP will be equal
to SSP.
b) Low permeability zone and pressure differential conditions will also build
mud cake, but at a must slower rate. Invasion can become quite deep in
low permeability zones. Deep invasion will reduce the effect of Ej since it
will occur within the invaded zone far from the borehole where SP
measurements are taken. The measured SP across a low permeability zone
will be less than the SSP.
 Hole diameter: As hole size increases, the SP amplitude will decrease and boundary
slope will decrease. 
4.1.8 Applications
Permeability recognition
All deflections on the SP indicate a permeable bed. The amount of deflection does not
indicate the amount of permeability a very slightly permeable bed will give the same value as
a permeable bed.
Facies
The SP is one of the first logs to permit correlation in sand-shale sequences because of
its typical log shapes. This shape is related to shale abundance. As shaliness is related to grain
size, the SP is a good facies indicator.
Correlation
The SP log is useful for correlation in areas of varied salinities. If wells are quit close
correlation should made between sand with similar salinity values.

4.2 GAMMA RAY AND SPECTRAL GAMMA RAY LOGS
4.2.1 Introduction
Natural gamma radiation comes from radioactive isotopes of uranium, thorium, and
potassium. To record these radiations, presently there are two types of gamma ray tools in
use:
a) The simple gamma tool that is usually referred as a natural gamma tool. This tool
records the total gamma activity in the formation without regard to the source.
b) The spectral gamma ray tool is a spectral analyzer that identifies the source and the
gives the contribution of each element (potassium, uranium and thorium) to the
overall spectrum.
4.2.2 Principal uses

The gamma ray log is used to derive shale volume. It can be used to correlate, to
suggest facies, sequence, and to identify lithology. The spectral gamma ray can be used
additionally to derive a radioactive mineral volume and a more accurate shale volume. It can
indicate dominant clay mineral type, give indications of depositional environment, indicate
fractures and help to localize source rock.
4.2.3 Natural gamma radiation

Natural radiations in rocks essentially from only three elemental sources: the
radioactive elements of the thorium family, the uranium-radium family and radioactive
40
isotopes of potassium K. Each of the three sources emits gamma rays spontaneously emit
photon with no mass and no charge but great energy. The energy of uranium, thorium and
potassium emissions occur in the spectrum from0-3Mev (million electron volts)
40
The radiation from K is distinct, with a single energy value of 1.46 MeV. Both
thorium and uranium emit radiation with a whole range of energies but with certain
characteristic peak frequencies of uranium at 1.76 MeV and thorium at 2.62 MeV.
Figure 4.2.1 Gamma ray emission spectra of radioactive minerals.
One of the characteristics of gamma ray is that when they pass through any material
their energy is progressively absorbed. This effect is known as Compton scattering. Natural
gamma rays are gradually absorbed and their energies reduced as they pass through the
formation. The rate of absorption depends on the density of the formation; more energy loss
in high dense formation. In borehole logging, Compton scattering is due to the collision
between gamma ray and electrons in the formation.
4.2.4 Natural gamma ray tools
4.2.4.1 Simple gamma ray tool

The simple gamma ray tool is a sensitive gamma ray detector consists of scintillation
counter and a photo multiplier. The scintillation counter is typically a sodium chloride crystal,
2 cm in diameter and 5 cm long with minor impurity of Thallium. When gamma rays pass
through the crystal, they cause flash. The photon energy (light) strikes a photo-sensitive
surface or cathode causing electron emission. The electrons so produced are accelerated to
anode which impact, release additional electrons that are directed to another anode. Those
anodes are supplied with higher voltages by an internal or external resistor chain. The high
flow of electrons to be measured and recorded is an indication of the incident gamma ray
radiation. The electronic signal results a voltage signal which is directly proportional to the
photon energy.
Figure 4.2.2 Gamma ray tool-scintillation detector.
4.2.4.2 Spectral gamma ray tool

The basic construction of a spectral gamma ray tool is essentially the same as the
simple gamma tool. Although, the detector must be the scintillation type and the voltage
pulses proportional to gamma energy. A large scintillation crystal is used to identify the
gamma radiations in several, predefined energy bins or windows. These windows are
designed to separate the distinctive energy peaks of the individual radioactive elements
namely the energies of 2.62 MeV for thorium, 1.76 MeV for uranium and 1.46 MeV for
potassium. The relative contributions of the three radioisotopes are therefore measured by the
tool. The log results from the spectral tool are the elemental abundances of thorium, uranium
and potassium.
4.2.5 Log characteristics, Calibration, presentation, units and scale

4.2.5.1 Simple gamma ray log
The accepted unit for radioactive logging is the API (American Petroleum institute)
unit. The API unit is defined in a reference well in the grounds of the University Of Houston,
Texas. They use a pit, with a bed of radioactive concrete situated between two zones of low
radioactivity (concrete without radioactive elements), and to define the API Gamma Ray unit
as 1/200 of the difference in log reading between the high radioactive and low radioactive
zone. The pit serve as a standard for the API unit, it also serves to calibrate a tool. The simple
gamma ray log is usually recorded in track 1 along with the caliper. Scales are chosen locally,
but 0-100 or 0-150 API are common.

4.2.5.2 Spectral gamma ray log
Spectral gamma ray log is the measurement of individual radioactive contribution of
the three radioisotopes. The calibration facility for the spectral tools is the same pit in the
University of Houston that is used for the simple gamma ray tool. This is because the high
activity cement of this pit has known quantities of uranium (13.1ppm), thorium (24.4 ppm)
and potassium (4.07 %) which contribute to the overall radioactivity. The individual channels
of the spectral tool can be empirically calibrated.
The log usually recorded in track 2 and 3 on arithmetic scales. Thorium and uranium
are given in ppm while potassium is given in percent.
4.2.5.3 Depth of Investigation
The maximum depth of investigation for the tool depends upon formation and mud
density.For average values of drilling mud and formation density, we can say that
approximately 50% of the gamma ray signal comes from within 18 cm (7 inches) of the
borehole wall, increasing to 75% from within 30 cm (1 feet). Hence, the depth of
investigation is defined at 75% of the signal, which is 30 cm. However; this will decrease for
denser formations of the same radioactivity and increase for less dense formations of the
same radioactivity. The zone of sensitivity is almost hemispherical, so the 30 cm depth of
investigation applies both horizontally (perpendicular to the borehole wall) and sub-vertically
(sub-parallel with the borehole wall).
4.2.6 Uses of the Natural Gamma Ray Log

The gamma ray log is an extremely simple and useful log for all petrophysical
interpretations. The main uses of the gamma ray log are outlined in the following sections.
4.2.6.1 Determination of Lithology

The gamma ray log is an extremely useful tool for discrimination of different
lithologies. Its main use is the discrimination of shales by their high radioactivity. Note that
shales, organic rich shales and volcanic ash show the highest gamma ray values. Halite,
anhydrite, coal, clean sandstones, dolomite and limestone have low gamma ray values.
Care must be taken when a clean sandstone may contain feldspars (arkose
sandstones), micas (micaceous sandstones) or both (greywacke), or glauconite, or heavy
minerals, any of which will give the sandstone higher gamma ray values than would be
expected from a clean sandstone.
4.2.6.2 Determination of Shale Content

The gamma ray log values can be used to calculate the shaliness or shale volume V sh
of the rock. The value of shale volume is often used to help discriminate between reservoir
and non-reservoir rock.
4.2.6.3 Correlation
The gamma ray log is one of the most frequently used logs for correlation. The
gamma ray tool is run as part of almost every tool combination. The GR log has traditionally
been used for correlating zones from well to shale (sometimes denoted as V cl) present in the
formation. Continuous shale beds can be readily identified well, for crude identification of
lithology, and for rough estimation of the volume of in wells separated by large distances
from their characteristic gamma ray “signature”.
4.2.7 Uses of the spectral Gamma Ray Log

The Spectral gamma ray log, like the simple gamma ray, is used to calculate shale
volume. It can also be used to calculate the volume of radioactive minerals.

4.3 RESISTIVITY LOGS
Resistivity logging is the measurement of resistivity of the formations with respect to the
depth in a bore hole.
4.3.1 Resistivity and Resistance

The Resistivity (⍴) of a substance is the resistance measured between
opposite faces of a unit cube of that substance at specified temperature. Units:
ohm-m
Resistance (R) is the opposition offered by a substance to the flow of electrical
current through it. Units: ohm.
4.3.2 Principle
The basic principle of a conventional electric log is that a current is passed through a
formation via some electrodes and the voltage between other electrodes is measured. From
this reading, resistivity is determined. The conventional electric log can only be run in a
conductive mud (i.e. not in oil or air-filled holes).
But usually resistivity is not directly measured; voltage is measured with the current
held constant. From measured voltage and constant current, resistance is computed by ohms
law. Then that resistance is converted into resistivity of the formation using following
equations.
4.3.3 Resistivity logging tools

4.3.3.1 Baker Hughes Rt eXplorer
The Baker Hughes Rt eXplorer (RTeX™) instrument provides accurate resistivity
value of the undisturbed formation (Rt). This resistivity value is critical for calculating water
saturation and in determining hydrocarbons-in-place. Galvanic tools with current-injecting
and voltage-measuring arrays such as RTeX are preferred in highly conductive mud systems
and high-resistivity formations. The RTeX tool acquires a comprehensive dataset that
increases the confidence and accuracy of Rt , Rxo and Lxo . The four independent RTeX
curves are balanced around the center electrode and provide measurements with a 1-ft (30.3
cm) vertical resolution at distances up to 74 in. (188 cm).
4.3.3.2 Micro spherically focussed log (MSFL)

The Micro Spherically Focused Log is a miniaturized version of the SFL. The MSFL
reads shallower than the SFL, but does not require the depth of invasion that the proximity
log does. Also, due to the type of focusing, the response is not greatly affected by the mud
cake thickness.
Figure 4.3.10 Schematic diagram of MSFL

It can tolerate a mud cake thickness of 3/4 inch with little effect. An advantage over
all contact logs is that a separate logging run is not required. This tool, the MSFL, can be
attached to the Compensated Formation Density Log or the Dual Latero log.
4.3.4 Factors influencing resistivity

 Matrix material - High resistivity 
 Formation water – Low/High resistivity 
 Oil - High resistivity 
 Gas - High resistivity 
 Water-based mud filtrate - Low resistivity 
 Oil-based mud filtrate - High resistivity 
 Salinity is more - resistivity low 
 Water content is more - resistivity low 
 Temperature is more - low resistivity 
 Clay content is more - resistivity is low 
 Metallic content is more - resistivity is low 

4.3.5 Induction Logging
In the early years of electric logging, an electrically conductive fluid in the borehole
was needed to transmit the electrical currents to and from the formation. As the use of non-
conductive drilling fluid (oil-based mud, air, etc.) increased, a new logging technique to
measure resistivity was required. In 1946, induction logging was introduced. As stated, it was
developed to measure formation resistivity. A conductive fluid is not required in the borehole
because the current is induced, not forced to flow from the tool. The current is also focused
which minimises the effects that the borehole, the invaded zone, and surrounding formation
may have on the log‘s response.
4.3.5.1 Conductivity (C)
Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity.
Eq., 4.3.8
Units: usually conductivity is measured in mho/m.
The measured conductivity is converted into resistivity.
Figure 4.3.11 Schematic representation of induction principle.

4.3.5.2 Induction log principles
The induction tool has several transmitters and receiver coils which are wound
coaxially on a supporting insulated sonde. The distance between coils (the spacing) is
typically from 28-40 inches. The transmitter coil, with an alternating current passing through
it, sets up an alternating magnetic field. ―Faraday‘s law predicts that this time –varying field
will establish an emf in the formation. The emf causes eddy currents to flow in circular paths
around the tool (coaxial with the bore hole) in areas of formation known as ―ground loops‖
The eddy currents are 90o degrees out of phase with the transmitter current. Their magnitude
depends on the surrounding formation‘s conductivity. ―Ampere‘s law predicts these eddy
currents will produce their own magnetic field. These field cuts through the receiver coil and
induce an alternating voltage at the receiver that is proportional to the strength of the
secondary magnetic field and therefore related to formation conductivity.This measured
voltage is the R-signal. There is also a much stronger current caused by a direct coupling of
the emitter receiver coils which is 90o out of phase with the emitting current.
The tool performs well in oil-base mud or air-filled holes; i.e., non-conductive fluids.
It will work in moderately conductive mud, as long as the fluid does not become too salty, the
formation too resistive, or the borehole too large.
4.3.5.3 HDIL, High Definition Induction Log Tool

The HDIL instrument is the next generation induction logging instrument. It is a direct
competitor to the Schlumberger Array Induction Tool (AIT), and uses multi-spacing and
multi frequency measurements to acquire a complete set of data from the formation
surrounding the borehole. The multi-spacing measurements allow improved conductivity
measurements in complex environments. The short-spacing measurements (as short as 6-inch
spacing) allow improved correction for borehole, rugosity and invasion effects.The long-
spacing measurement (up to 94-inch spacing) are useful in deep invasion situations. The
multiple-frequency measurements (10, 30, 50, 70, 90, 110, 130 and 150 kHz) allow for an
improved skin-effect correction and data quality checking. The tool measures six depths of
investigation; 10, 20, 30, 60, 90, and 120 inch. The measurement range is 0.1 to 2,000 ohm-
m. HDIL allows the characterisation of invasion profiles, even in oil-based muds. It is a WTS
tool and it also contains feedthroughs, hence it can be positioned almost anywhere in the tool
string (some restrictions apply). As resistivity data is most important, this tool is at the
bottom. The tool relies heavily on a wide range of software processing to provide extremely
accurate resistivity measurements.
4.3.5.4 Environmental factors affecting log response

The induction log, if calibrated correctly, can accurately read the formation
conductivity in resistive beds from two to five feet or more in thickness and in two to
three, or more, feet thick conductive beds. The resistivity is automatically reciprocated from
the conductivity curve. On the linear scale, the reciprocation should be checked for accuracy.
When values become less than two ohm–m, the resistivity value used should be calculated
from the conductivity curve. Under certain conditions, the log requires other corrections due
to environmental factors which affect its response. These factors are skin effect, borehole
size, adjacent bed boundary (shoulders), geometrical factor and depth of invasion. Each
correction must be made in a sequence that preserves precision. The order of correction is:
Borehole, then bed-thickness, then invasion. The following is a brief highlight of each of
these factors.
In conductive formations, the induction log induces strong secondary currents. The
magnetic field generated by these induces additional emf‘s which interfere and reduce the

conductivity reading recorded at the receiver. This is known as skin effect; however, modern
logs automatically correct for this. In resistive beds, the effect is negligible.
Skin Effect
In conductive formations, the induction log induces strong secondary currents. The
magnetic field generated by these induces additional emf‘s which interfere and reduce the
conductivity reading recorded at the receiver. This is known as skin effect; however, modern
logs automatically correct for this. In resistive beds, the effect is negligible.
Borehole Size
The size of the borehole can affect the induction log‘s response. The bore hole effect
increases as the hole diameter increases. This is typically corrected through use of the
geometric factor. There still may be some uncertainty in this factor, which may cause a
significant error in highly resistive zones.
Adjacent Beds
The resistivity of adjacent beds affects the measured value in beds thinner than the
vertical tool resolution. The vertical resolution of the ID is about 8 feet and the IM about 6
feet. In resistive beds thicker than five feet, the shoulder effect is minimal; however, the
thinner they become (for the ID less than five feet) the greater the effect. For the ILD the
same effect applies to conductive beds less than three feet thick. More modern tools have less
problems, but the IDVR still exhibits some minor bed shoulder effects below the 2 foot
vertical resolution. Phasordeconvolution processing of ID and IM data reduces the shoulder
effect to minimal and it is corrected automatically, by the acquisition software.
Geometrical Factor
This is a concept which implies that different zones, moving horizontally away from
the borehole, contribute differently to the overall resistivity measurement. So a fractional
geometric factor is assigned to each zone and, thus, will indicate what portion of the total.
4.3.8 Applications
A.Recognition of Hydrocarbon Zones
 If all three curves are low resistivity, and overlie each other, the formation is
impermeable Shale, or, rarely, the formation is permeable and water-bearing but the
mud filtrate has the same resistivity as the formation water. 
 If all three curves are higher resistivity than the surrounding shale, and overlie each
other, the formation is an impermeable cleaner formation (sandstone, limestone). 
 If the shallow curve has low resistivity, but the medium and deep penetrating tools
have a higher resistivity that is the same (they overlie each other), the formation is
permeable and contains only formation water. 
 If the shallow curve has low resistivity, the medium as a higher resistivity, and the
deep one has an even higher resistivity (i.e., there is separation of the medium and
deep tool responses), the formation is permeable and contains hydrocarbons. 

B. Calculation of Water Saturation
The resistivity log values for the deep tools R t in reservoir intervals can be used with a
reliable porosity φ, the formation water resistivity Rw, and m and n values that are derived from
laboratory measurements on core, to calculate the water saturation in the zone. This is combined with
information about the reservoir thickness, its area and porosity used to calculate the amount of oil in
the reservoir.

C. Textures Recognition
The texture of a rock has a great effect upon its electrical response, all other factors being
equal. This is because the electrical flow through the rock depends upon the tortuosity of the current
flow paths, which is described by the formation factor F.
D. Correlation
Electrical logs are often used for correlation. The deep logs (IES-40, ILD, LLD etc.) are the
best to use, as they are sensitive to gross changes in the formations at a scale that is likely to be
continuous with other wells. However, it must be noted that the resistivity of a formation also depends
upon formation fluid pressure and formation water resistivity, which are non-stratigraphic variables,
and changes in them from well to well may confuse correlations.

4.4 POROSTY LOGS
4.4.1 NEUTRON LOG
4.4.1.1 Introduction
The neutron is a fundamental particle found in the nucleus of all atoms except
hydrogen, which contains only a proton. The neutron has approximately the same mass as
the proton but carries no electrical charge. These two properties, smallness of size and
especially electrical neutrality, make it an ideal projectile for penetrating matter. Neutrons
can pass through steel casing and penetrate rocks. The neutron log is sensitive mainly to the
amount of hydrogen atoms in a formation. Its main use is in the determination of the
porosity of a formation. The neutron log provides a continuous record of formation‘s
reaction to fast neutron bombardment. It is quoted in terms of neutron porosity units, which
are related to a formation‘s hydrogen index, an indication of its richness in hydrogen.
This hydrogen richness is called the hydrogen index (HI) which is defined as the
weight percent hydrogen in the formation to weight percent hydrogen in water, where HI of
water is 1.Neutron porosity is real porosity in clean limestones, but other lithologies require
conversion factors.
4.4.1.2 Principles of Measurement

Neutrons are subatomic particles whose mass is essentially equivalent to that of a
hydrogen nucleus. The lifetime of a free neutron is one of losing energy and can therefore be
usually described in terms of energy state, namely fast, epithermal and thermal in order of
decreasing energy as shown in the following table 4.4.1.1.
Table 4.4.1.1 Different energy levels of neutrons.
Near chemical sources, neutrons may be found with substantially all of their initial
energy of several MeV; these are called fast neutrons. Neutrons interact with other atoms in
several ways and they lose energy with each collision and move further from the source.
After passing through an intermediate stage, the neutron energy level drops to only a few
eV; these neutrons are called epithermal neutrons.
After yet more interactions, a neutron will be slowed down to a point where it has the
same energy as the surrounding matter; such neutrons are called thermal neutrons. They
have energies of approximately 0.025ev. It is at this stage the neutron is ripe for capture. The
capturing nucleus will usually emit one or more gamma rays. These gamma rays are called

capture gamma rays. Neutrons interact with matter in two principle ways, by collision and
absorption. Collisions are mainly at higher energy states, absorption occurs at lower energy.
The two main types of collision that a neutron may undergo are:
A. Inelastic collisions.
B. Elastic collisions.
A. Inelastic collision
Inelastic collisions can only take place while the neutron is highly energetic (figure
4.4.1.1). In this type of collision, the kinetic energy of the system is not conserved. The
neutron collides with a nucleus, leaving the nucleus in a higher energy ―excited state‖. The
excited nucleus will return almost instantaneously to its ground state by emitting gamma rays,
which are called inelastic gamma rays. A large amount of energy is required to excite a
nucleus out of its ground state. This is why only neutrons at high energies can undergo
inelastic collisions with each inelastic collision, the neutron loses the same amount of energy
that the nucleus gains. Large amount of energy is lost at each inelastic collision.
Figure 4.4.1.1 Inelastic collision.
B. Elastic collision
The second type of collision by which a neutron loses energy is an elastic collision
(figure 4.4.1.2). Kinetic energy is conserved in this type of collisions. In this, the neutron
collides with the nucleus of an atom but does not excite the nucleus. The only energy
transferred to the nucleus is kinetic energy. During an elastic collision, the neutron will lose
a certain amount of energy and the struck nucleus will gain the same amount of kinetic
energy.
Figure 4.4.1.2 Elastic collision.
The neutron and proton have a mass of 1AMU. The smaller the atom, fewer
collisions are needed .In formations with a small amount of hydrogen atoms, the neutrons
are slowed down and absorbed more slowly and travel further through the rock before being
absorbed. The count rate of slow neutrons or capture gamma rays in the tool is therefore
higher. Hence, the count rate will be higher in low porosity rocks.

4.4.1.3 Tool operation
The neutron tool consists of a fast neutron source and two detectors. The source
bombards the formation with neutrons and the detectors measure their loss of energy as they
pass through it. Two categories of neutron sources are in the logging industry:
1. Chemical sources are composed of two elements, which are in intimate contact
with each other and react together to emit neutrons continuously.
The chemical source presently used is americium-beryllium. Chemical sources need
to be heavily shielded when not in use.
2. Pulsed sources incorporate an ion accelerator and a target and can be activated by
electronic means. Presently, pulsed neutron sources are used for pulsed neutron
logging. The nuclear reaction involves the americium producing alpha particles that
combine with beryllium in the reaction below:
5.71Mev is the reaction energy and is imparted to the neutron as kinetic energy that
sends it into flight.
The most common tool detectors are based on the 3He n, p (i.e. neutron, proton)
reaction in which 3He is used as both a target and proportional gas counter. The efficiency
of these counters varies inversely with the square root of the neutron energy. They respond
primarily to thermal neutrons. If epithermal neutrons are to be sensed the same detectors can
be used but covered by a thermal neutrons leaving only the epithermal neutrons to pass. The
most commonly used tools now use thermal- epithermal neutron detection.
The tool results are given by a ratio of the near detector to far detector counts,
thereby eliminating borehole effects as much as possible. This is because the far detector
readings, which contain both hole and formation effects, are corrected by the near detector
readings which have mainly hole effects, leaving only the effects of the formation. The ratio
results are presented on the log as neutron porosity units after empirical calibration.
4.4.1.4 Compensated neutron tool (CNL)
Figure 4.4.1.3 CNL tool.

This tool is sensitive to thermal neutrons, and is therefore affected by the chlorine
effect. It has two detectors situated 15inches and 25inches from the source. The detector
further from the source is larger to ensure that adequate count rates are observed. The tool
readings are presented in limestone porosity units in the same way as the sidewall neutron
porosity tool. The CNL tool has very strong source of neutrons to ensure that the measured
count rates are sufficiently high. The stronger source permits a deeper depth of investigation
as well as allowing the tool to operate in cased holes. The CNL tool is run eccentered in the
hole by an arm which presses the tool against the side of the borehole as shown in figure
4.4.1.3. This means that the tool is insensitive to the type of mud in the hole, but implies that
the readings are only for one portion of the borehole wall.
4.4.1.6 Log Characteristics

Depth of investigation
The depth of investigation of the neutron tool is generally small. In most normal logging it is
of the order of 15-25 cm (6‖-10‖). It varies with each tool but also as a function of the hydrogen index
and therefore porosity. Maximum investigation is in low porosity materials. The maximum
penetration in a tight formation with a low hydrogen index is 50-60cm (20‖-24‖).
Borehole quality
The GNT tool is run centered in the borehole, and is therefore sensitive to the effect of
caving and wash-out due to the attenuation of gamma rays and neutrons by the larger
annulus of drilling mud around the tool. As the diameter of the borehole increases, more of
the signal that the tool measure represents the borehole and less comes from the formation.
The SNP and CNL tools are run pressed against the borehole wall. In this case, the
roughness of the borehole wall due to caving or washout can result in the detectors or source
not being pressed directly up against the borehole wall. This will cause erroneous porosity
readings.
Mud type
The tools can be used in most types of muds. The GNT tool is sensitive to chloride- rich
muds, and its results must then be corrected for the drilling mud, mud cake and mud filtrate.
The SNP tool is not sensitive to the chloride effect and is run pressed against the borehole
wall. The detectors of the CNL tool are sensitive to the chloride effect. However, the tool is
run pressed against the borehole wall so the effect of the drilling mud is not included in the
measurement. Furthermore, the use of two detectors automatically compensates for the
effect of chloride- rich mud cake and mud filtrate. The density of the mud also affects the
readings, because high density muds attenuate the radiation to a greater extent. This is
usually only a problem for the GNT tool, where the effect can be compensated for by using
correction charts.
4.4.1.7 Environmental Effects on Porosity

Although formation porosity is the most important determinant of any neutron tool,
there are several other variables which influence porosity determinations. These variations
can significantly affect the count rate in a neutron tool and their ratio- porosity values.
Lithology effects
If a neutron tool moves from a limestone to a similar sandstone and the log analyst
is not aware of the change in lithology, he would incorrectly attribute the increase in count
rate to a decrease in porosity. By contrast, in going from limestone to a similar dolomite a
lower count rate would result because of the shorter slowing down length, thus indicating a
higher porosity. Lithology correction graphs can be used to correct porosity for lithology
effects.
Gas effect
Replacement of liquid by gas in the pore space of a rock lowers the hydrogen density of
the pore fluid. As a result the neutron tool, that is calibrated for liquid- filled porosity,
indicates abnormally low porosity (i.e., it sees gas as water occupying a smaller volume).
Shale effect
Shale contains clay that has a significant amount of surface adsorbed water. Hence,
shale can contain a significant proportion of hydrogen despite being low porosity. The
apparent porosity read from the neutron tool in shale formations is therefore always
significantly higher than it really is.
Chlorine effect
The amount of hydrogen in water decreases as the salinity of the water increases since
the water molecules, and hydrogen atoms, are being displaced by the salt. In the case of
neutron tools measuring the thermal phase, the detector count rates are affected by the
presence of strong neutron absorbers, such as chlorine, because of their influence on the
thermal neutron population and can lead to overestimations of porosity if present either as
formation fluid or mud filtrate. Corrections are made to the measured porosity. Epithermal
neutron measurements are less sensitive to the presence of these absorbers.
4.4.1.8 Applications
Determination of porosity
The neutron log is used to derive porosity. The tool, as indicated above, measures
hydrogen abundance or hydrogen index. In clean, water bearing formations, the only
hydrogen present is in the formation water. The neutron tool therefore responds to the
volume of water filled pore space, and gives a measure of the porosity.
Lithology identification
The use of the neutron log to identify lithologies depends on an understanding of the
distribution of the hydrogen index in natural materials. The hydrogen detected by the
neutron tool occurs in two principal chemical combinations, one between hydrogen and
carbon (the hydrocarbons), and one between hydrogen and oxygen (water). Hydrocarbons
occur as gases (methane, etc.), as liquids (oil, bitumen, etc.) or as solids (coal, organic
matter). Water occurs as free water (in pores), as adsorbed ions (as in clay inter layer zones),
as water of crystallization (as in evaporates), or as combined water (as in igneous rocks).
The lithologies in which these various forms of combined hydrogen are found have
hydrogen indexes which cover almost the entire scale between 1 and 0. Only pure water can
be recognized categorically by its hydrogen index, which is 1.

4.4.2 DENSITY LOG
The density log is a continuous record of formation‘s bulk density. This is the overall
density of a rock including solid matrix and the fluid enclosed in the pores. The formation
density tools are induced radiation tools. They bombard the formation with radiation and
measure how much radiation returns to a sensor.
4.4.2.2 Principle of Density Logging

In density logging we commonly use radioactive caesium as source which decays by the
reaction:
Caesium emits β particles and gamma rays. These gamma rays have an initial energy
of662Kev and due to they have zero charge; they can penetrate deeply into the formation.
Principle of density logging is based on Compton scattering. The logging technique of the
density tool is to subject formation to a bombardment of medium-high energy (0.2-2Mev)
gamma rays. These gamma rays pass through the mud cake and enter the formation, where
they lose energy until they are either completely absorbed by the rock matrix or return to the
detectors in the tool. These backscattered gamma rays are related to electron density of the
formation. In dense formations, Compton scattering attenuation is extreme and few
detectable gamma rays reach the tool‘s detectors, while in a lesser density the number is
much higher. The density of electrons in a formation is described by a parameter called the
electron density. This is related to the bulk density by the following:
Eq…. 4.4.2.2
Where,
z – atomic number,
A –atomic mass,
23
N – Avogadro‘s number (6.023× 10 )
Thus the gamma ray count depends upon the electron density, which is related to the
bulk density of a substance. Hence, the formation density tool is useful in the determination
of porosity and detection of fluids in the pores.
4.4.2.3 Density logging tool

A radiation emitter and one detector are necessary for a simple measurement. The
early tools had only one detector, which was pressed against the borehole wall by a spring-
loaded arm. This type of tool was extremely inaccurate because it was unable to compensate
for mud cake. All the newer tools have two detectors to help for the mud cake problem. The
newer two detector tools are called compensated formation density logs (figure 4.4.2.4).
Compensated formation density tools have one focused radiation source, one short
spacing detector at 7 inches from the source, and one long spacing detector 16 inches from
the source. The source and both detectors are heavily shielded to ensure that the radiation
only goes into the mud cake and formation, and that detected gamma rays only come from
the mud cake or formation. The leading edge of the shield is fashioned into a plough which
removes part of the mud cake as the tool is pulled up the well.

Figure 4.4.2.4 Compensated formation density.
The tool is pressed against the borehole wall during logging. Density log readings
therefore refer to only one sector on the borehole wall. The near detector response is
essentially due to borehole influences which, when removed from the far detector response
enhance the formation effects. The most recent density tools use more efficient scintillation
detectors which separate high and low gamma ray energy levels and a better evaluation of
borehole effects.
4.4.2.7 Calibration
The initial calibrations are made in pure limestone saturated with fresh water, where the
density is known exactly. Secondary calibrations are made in blocks of aluminium,
magnesium or sulphur blocks into which the sonde is inserted. Within these blocks, two
different thicknesses of artificial mud cake are used to check the automatic mud cake
correction. At the well site, a radioactive test is used to produce a signal of known intensity
to verify the detector system.
4.4.2.8 Log Characteristics

Depth of investigation
The depth of investigation of density tool is very shallow almost 4-5 inches from the
borehole wall. For the short spacing detector, 80% of its signal comes from within 5cm of
the borehole wall, which is commonly mainly mud cake. About 80% of the long spacing
signal comes from within 10cm of the borehole wall. Therefore the tool has a shallow depth
of investigation.
Bed resolution
While the depth of investigation of the density tool is small, the bed resolution is good.
At average logging speeds, true densities can be read in beds down to about 2ft. even higher
bed resolutions can be achieved with a lower logging speed.
4.4.2.9Applications
A. Porosity determination
The density log is used to calculate porosity and it may also, with difficulty, be used to
calculate hydrocarbon density
B. Identification of lithology
When used alone, the density log is not a good tool for identifying most lithologies. This
is because most rocks have wide range of densities resulting from their varied mineralogical
composition and their variable porosities. For example, shale has bulk densities changing
from 1.8 – 2.8g/cc and has variable clay densities. Sandstones, limestones and dolomite all
have bulk density ranges that overlap each other .However when used with neutron log; the
combination is a very good lithological indicator.
C. Identification of minerals
Thin bands of anomalously high or low density within a single lithology, or a change in
the character of the density log within a single lithology indicates that there are additional
mineral present. Minerals that lower the density locally if present in thin bands include
lignite, coal, and anthracite or increased organic matter in shale. Minerals that increase the
density locally if present in thin bands include pyrite, siderite, basalt and gneisses.
D. Fracture recognition
The density tool records the bulk density of the formation. The porosity derived from
this will include all pores and fractures whether they are connected or not. The sonic tool
can be used to measure the porosity of the formation. However, the sonic tool is not
sensitive to fracture porosity. Hence, the difference between the porosities derived from
these two measurements can be used as an indicator of the extent of fracturing in a reservoir
interval.
E. Recognition of gas bearing zones
If gas is present in the formation, porosities can be overestimated. The density of gas is
very low compared to the aqueous fluids. If the formation is gas bearing, a significant
amount of gas is always left in the invaded zone. This gas will reduce the mean fluid density
of the invaded zone, and will cause over estimations of the porosity.
4.4.3 SONIC (ACOUSTIC) TOOL
Sonic tools are comprised of transmitter which converts electrical energy into
acoustic energy and a receiver that do the reverse. The transmitter emits sound wave that
travels to the receiver through borehole fluid, and surrounding formation. The compressional
wave that travels through the formation usually arrives first at the receiver and are the ones
of interest in sonic logging.
The sonic log is a porosity log that measures interval transit time (Δt) of a
compressional sound wave travelling through one foot of formation. Interval transit time (Δt)
in microseconds per foot is the reciprocal of the velocity of a compressional sound wave in
feet per second. Acoustic tools measure the speed of sound wave in subsurface formations.
The sonic tool works by sending a sound pulse into the formation and measuring interval
transit time (sound wave to traverse 1ft of formation).
4.4.3.3 Principle of Measurement
The sound emanated from transmitter on the borehole wall. This establishes
compression and shear waves with in the formation, surface waves along the borehole wall.
The sonic tools measure the time it takes for a sound pulse to travel between a transmitter-
receiver, mounted set a distance away along the logging tool.
 First arrival or compressional wave has travelled within formation at compressional
wave velocity of formation and has travelled back to receiver as a fluid pressure
wave. 
 Shear wave has travelled with information at shear wave velocity of formation and
has travelled back to receiver as a fluid pressure wave. 

Figure 4.4.3.1 Separation of Shear and compressional waves
 Mud wave (not strongly evident in these wave trains) has travelled directly from
transmitter to receiver in column at compressional wave velocity of borehole fluid. 
 Stoneley wave is large amplitude and less than that compressional waves in borehole
fluid, velocity of these waves is depends on frequency of sound pulse, hole diameter,
formation shear velocity, density of formation and fluid, and fluid compressional
wave velocity. 

4.4.3.4 Transmitters and Receivers
Sonic tool transmitters (transducers) are either magnetostrictive or piezoelectric and
translate an electric signal into ultrasonic vibration. A sonic tool transmitter produces source
frequencies of between 10-40 kHz (kilohertz) or 10,000-40,000 cycles per second. Receivers
are usually piezoelectric, and convert pressure waves into electromagnetic signals which can
be amplified to provide a logging signal. A common piezoelectric material used is Lead
ZirconateTitanate (PZT).
4.4.3.5 Tools
Array-Sonic tool
The Array-Sonic tool (Figure. 2.4.3.4) also contains an array of eight wideband piezoelectric
receivers. The receivers are spaced 6 in. apart with the closest receiver 8 ft from the upper
transmitter. Two of these receivers, Receivers 1 and 5, spaced 2 ft. apart, can be used for
making standard long- spaced 8-ft-l0-ft and l0-ft-12ft depth derived borehole-ompensated
logs. The eight-array receiver outputs and the two from the sonic sonde are multiplexed with
the receiver out- put and transmitted to the surface in either analog or digital form.
4.4.3.6 Log characteristics

4.4.3.6.1 Depth of Investigation
The path of the compressional waves detected by sonic tools is essentially along the
borehole wall with very little penetration, generally between about 2.5cm-25cm (1‖-10‖) from
the borehole wall. The penetration is independent of receiver separation and depends on the
signal wavelength; the greater the wavelength the greater the penetration. For example, with
borehole damage, while the standard sonde has a depth of investigation of15cm-25cm (6‖-
10‖), the long spaced sonic tool has an investigation of 38cm-50cm (15‖-20‖).
4.4.3.6.2 Bed Resolution

The vertical resolution of the sonic is the span between the receivers for the
borehole compensated tools and should be similar for the long-spacing tools. This is
frequently 2feet (61cm).Beds less than 60cm thickness will be registered on the sonic log, but
a true velocity will not be recorded. Specialist tools now exist with much higher resolutions
(i.e. the array sonic tools).
4.4.3.7 Applications
Acoustic tools measure the speed of sound waves in subsurface formations. While the
acoustic log can be used to determine porosity in consolidated formations, it is also valuable
in other applications, such as:
 Indicating lithology (using the ratio of compressional velocity over shear velocity). 
 Detecting fractures and evaluating secondary porosity. 
 Detecting the formations filled with gas. 
 Evaluating cement bonds between casing and formation. 
 Detecting over-pressure. 
 Determining mechanical properties (in combination with the density log). 
 Determining acoustic impedance (in combination with the density log). 
4.4.3.7.1 Secondary Porosity
Neutron & Density logs respond to total porosity regardless of its form of
distribution. Sonic logs tend to ignore irregular porosity (such as vugs) and fracture porosity.
Compressional waves passing through the formation, find a path through the rock matrix
around the water-filled vugs&fractures that is faster than the path through the water in them.
Since the sonic tool registers the first arrival time of the compressional wave, it follows that
ØS will represent the primary porosity. A comparison of Ø D& ØS should indicate when
secondary porosity is present. If ØD> ØS, vugs and/or fractures are likely to be present in the
formation.
4.4.3.7.2 Gas Bearing Formations
The presence of gas in the pore space of a rock will increase the sonic transit time
over its value in the same liquid saturated rock. Gas is very compressible. When it replaces
pore liquid it lowers the rock rigidity more than its density and decreases sonic velocity.
Because of the increase in ∆tlog , the sonic porosity is optimistic if gas is present in the
flushed zone (using the Wyllie equation, the input value for ∆t f will be too low).
4.4.3.7.3 Abnormal formation pressures
Formation fluid pressure in sedimentary rocks is equal to hydrostatic pressure, the
pressure due to column of water extending from surface to the depths of formations. Rapid
sedimentation may not allow water escape, resulting compaction and high fluid pressures.
This zones (Shale) containing a high amount of water, decreases acoustic velocity or
increasing t.
4.4.3.7.4 Fracture detection
Both compressional and shear waves are reduced in amplitude while travelling across
fractures, the latter being more sensitive because the fluids with in the open fractures are
incapable of conducting shear waves. Attenuation depends upon the angle which a fracture
plan makes with the vertical travelling acoustic signals. While shear waves are highly
attenuated by horizontal fractures. The compressional waves effect by high angle fractures.

5. CASED HOLE LOGGING TOOLS
5.1 CEMENT BOND LOG – VARIABLE DENSITY LOG
5.1.1 Introduction
Cement evaluation is meant that, the determination of bond quality between casing &
cement and cement & formation. The cement should be well bonded to both the casing pipe
and the formation so that fluids cannot migrate easily from one formation to another.
The purpose of running Cement evaluation tools are:
 Determining the presence or absence of annular cement (Pipe to cement and cement to
formation) against the depth intervals. 
 To determine the cement Top, cement coverage & compressive strength for fracturing and
future work over jobs during the life of the well. 
 To evaluate the hydraulic seal for avoiding the vertical migration of formation fluids and
also to prevent blowouts from high pressure zones behind the casing. 
 To analyze the problems during production like cement sheath cracking, water influx or
pressure build up in the annulus. 
 The casing collar locator (CCL) recorded along with the cement evaluation tools are used
for control perforation of zones. 
 To determine the internal and external damage or deformation of casing, corrosion
detection, monitoring and accurate measurements of casing ID & thickness even in heavy
mud.
Now a days, along with basic CBL-VDL tool several other advanced imagery tools
namely RBT (Radial Bond Tool: Sondex), USIT (Ultra Sonic Imager Tool: SASL), CAST-V
(Circumferential acoustic scanning tool: HLS), SBT (Segmented Bond Tool: BHI) CBIL
(Circumferential borehole imaging tool: BHI) etc. were also used for cement bond
evaluation.
5.1.2 Cement Bond Log Tool (CBL)

The CBL measurement is based on the sound wave propagation through casing. The
transmitter emits sound waves that travel in all possible directions and the below diagram
illustrates the different components of the received signal. The receivers record the composite
signal comprised of casing, formation, cement and fluid arrivals. In general the casing has the
highest sonic velocity so this signal arrives first followed by the formation signals. In very
hard formations with high sonic velocity (called ‗fast‘ formations) the formation signals can
arrive first and interfere with the casing returns.
5.1.3 Variable Density log (VDL)

The waves of interest in VDL measurement are the ones that travel through the
cement-formation interface with formation speed and get recorded at another receiver placed
at 5 feet distance from the transmitter to improve their separation from the casing arrivals.
Unlike CBL, full waves are recorded in either wiggle -trace mode or variable density mode.
Generally the variable density mode (VDL) is used where positive and negative peaks
of the waves are represented by dark and light colors respectively and the log appears as a
succession ofdark and light bands, which is easier to comprehend and analyze. Thus variable
density is a particular mode of wave presentation.

5.2 CASING COLLAR LOCATOR
A Casing Collar Locator (CCL) is based on the principle that a changing magnetic
flux within a coil generates a voltage across the terminals of that coil. The magnetic field of a
CCL magnet is affected by any magnetically susceptible material close to it such as casing in
the borehole. A collar or joint in the casing changes the magnetic flux field including the flux
passing through the coil ends adjacent to the magnet or magnets. Thus an electric voltage is
generated in the CCL by the discontinuity (collar or joint) in the casing.
Figure 5.2.1 principle of casing collar locator.
It is customary to run Collar Locator (CCL or TCL) and Gamma Ray along with
CBL tool, as this combination is very useful for depth control during perforation job.
Figure 5.2.2 The log appears as a straight line except kicks caused by addition of material in the collars.

6. PRODUCTION LOGGING
6.1 Introduction
Production logging is the measurement of fluid parameters on a zone-by-zone basis
to yield information about the type and movement of fluids within and near the wellbore.
Production logging is intended primarily for measuring the performance of producing wells.
It provides diagnostic information, pin-points where fluids such as water, oil and gas are
entering a well and gives an indication about the efficiency of the perforations.
Production logging involves four measurements – flow, density, temperature and
pressure. However, only the flow and density readings are used in quantitative production
logging analysis. Temperature and pressure data have normally been used in a qualitative
way to compute in-situ flow properties and locate zones of entry of fluid into a well.
6.2 Production logging measurement tools

Production logging tools consists of a number of sensors which make the measurements
inside the well. The main types are:
1. Flow rate (fluid velocity) measurement.
2. Wellbore temperature.
3. Fluid density measurement (gradiomanometer).
4. Radioactive tracer tool.
6.2.1 Flow rate measurement (Spinner tools)
Spinner flow meter is a device for measuring in-situ the velocity of fluid flow in a
production or injection well, based on the speed of rotation of a spinner. Down hole flow
velocity surveys are usually made with spinner devices. The spinner can be helical, that is,
longer than it is wide, which is similar to a fan blade turned by the flowing fluid. The speed
of rotation of the spinner is measured and related to the effective velocity of the fluid. The
spinner revolutions generate electrical currents or pulses that are measured by the surface
equipment and converted into spinner revolutions per second (rps). Knowledge of a particular
spinner performance allows the conversion of the rps into fluid flow velocity.
There are several types of spinner flow meter. The most common device uses a
small vane-like spinner, about 1.5 in. [3.8 cm] in diameter, allowing the logging tool to pass
through the tubing and other restrictions before reaching the reservoir interval. The small
spinner captures only part of the fluid flow in the casing, too little to make it turn in some low
flow-rate wells and possibly unrepresentative in multiphase flow settings. Other devices have
been designed to capture more of the flow, for example the full-bore spinner and various
types of flow-concentrating or diverter spinners, such as the packer flow meter and the basket
flow meter.
6.2.2 Temperature log

It is well known that the temperature of the earth increases with depth. A thermal
equilibrium exists and the rate of increase is called geothermal gradient. The geothermal
gradient varies from place to place and depends on the thermal conductivity of the rocks. The
measurement of geothermal gradients may be sometimes used for correlation purposes. The
natural geothermal gradient in a drilling well is disturbed by the circulating mud. The
temperature measurement in a well is used for the following purposes:
1. Locating cement top behind the casing.

2. Locating the depth of lost circulation.
3. Locating gas producing horizons during production.
4. Correlation with electrical logs for depth control, perforation.
Temperature measurements were earlier made with a thermometer (figure 6.4)
whose sensing element was temperature sensitive resistance. If a constant current is passed
through this resistance the voltage drop will be proportional to the resistance and may be
recorded as temperature.
Nowadays for greater sensitivity and linearity in response the sensing element is made
of a semi-conductor. The temperature survey is always recorded slowly while going down in
the hole. The logging speed is kept low to allow the thermometer to attain sufficient time to
reach the temperature of the surrounding medium.
6.2.3 The Gradiomanometer (fluid density tool)
The gradiomanometer tool uses the pressure differential between two pressure
sensors spaced a known distance apart; e.g., two feet; to infer the density of the fluid between
the sensors. There are several types of pressure sensors that can be used in the
gradiomanometer application.
The gradiomanometer device uses a bellows system (figure 6.5).The bellows will
compress with pressure. The lower set of bellows will be slightly more compressed than the
upper set. The mechanical linkage between the bellows is constructed such that a rod moves
in proportion to the difference in compression between the two sets of bellows. A magnetic
plunger on the end of the rod generates a signal in the transducer coil proportional to the rod
movement. This allows the coil to be calibrated in terms of fluid density.
6.2.4 Radioactive tracer log

The radioactive tracer ejector tool (figure 6.6) carries a small quantity of radioactive
solution into the well where it may be selectively released into the flow stream. Fluid
movements in the well are then traced by means of one or more gamma ray detectors
mounted above and or below the surface- controlled ejector or ―squirt gun‖. Radioactive
tracer methods are sometimes used to establish flow profiles in water injection wells.
One advantage of the technique is that the tool is small in diameter relative to the
hole, and the well flow pattern is not generally disturbed. The obvious advantage of tracer
tools over the continuous flowmeter is that they can measure low fluid velocities.
In multiphase flow, tracer methods are not frequently used for establishing
production profiles, primarily due to the problem of radioactive contamination at the surface.
The tracer solution must be density balanced with and soluble in the well fluid to prevent
erroneous results.
Radioactive tracer log is a record of the presence of tracer material placed in or
around the borehole to measure fluid movement in injection wells. There are two traditional
techniques for recording radioactive-tracer logs: the tracer-loss measurement, in which a
tracer material is added to the completion fluid and its progress monitored with a gamma ray
tool; and the velocity-shot measurement, in which the tracer is ejected from one part of a
production logging tool and its progress monitored by one or more gamma ray detectors
farther down the tool.

6.3 Production problems
6.3.1 Cross flow
Thief zones can be defined as those zones that are considered open to the wellbore
either by perforations or open hole completion which due to zone pressure differences
remove fluids from the wellbore. The pressure differences are caused by zones depleting
faster due to higher permeability. Hence in the illustration above, the middle zone may
become a thief zone as it produces.
In case of production well the thief zones are generally most noticeable when the well
is in a shunting surface condition. In this condition, the higher pressure zones will tend to
feed fluid into the low pressure zones.
In some cases this could be a hydrocarbon, in other cases water, but in all cases,
generally makes the surface production rates unusual in predicting individual zone balance of
material equations. It also reduces the potential production of the well and the reservoir.
6.3.2 Channelling
Channelling is generally defined as the ability of fluid to move in the region of the
production casing annulus because of a lack of hydraulic isolation between the casing and the
cement or the cement and the formation. Channelling producers can lead to the production of
unwanted fluids that is water from the wet zones or gas from the gas cap or gas zone.
Channelling may occur in three conditions.
1. Oil or gas well with water channelling up from a lower zone.
2. Oil or gas well with water channelling down from a higher zone.
3. Oil well with gas channelling down from a higher zone.
Figure 6.7 Channeling. Figure 6.8 Crossflow.
6.3.3 Cementing
Cementing of the casing in place is one of the most vital operations in the drilling
phase. It is necessary to have a perfect seal between zones to avoid unwanted fluid
production or reservoir contamination. The cement quality has to be evaluated before the
completion and any repairs made at that time. One of the major difficulties in the cementing
is the presence of gas zones. This will cause problems if precautions are not taken during the
cement job.
6.3.4 Corrosion
Corrosion encountered in the oil industry involves several mechanisms. Main categories are:
1. Electrochemical corrosion
2. Chemical corrosion

Electrochemical corrosion is caused by phenomenon that involves passage of current
between one or several metals and an electrolyte, with transfer of ions and electrons.
Electrochemical corrosion accounts for the majority of the observed down hole casing
corrosion and is mainly detected on the outer casing walls.
Chemical corrosion involves chemical reaction which may not produce appreciable
voltages. Five different mechanisms are known to contribute to chemical corrosion:
a. Direct chemical attack
b. attack
c. attack
d. Hydrogen attack
e. Bacterial attack
There are many potential problems caused by the numerous corrosion mechanisms. Any
of the components of the completion string can leak- packers, tubing etc., this will cause
mixed production which could lead to further problems such as cross flow.
The casing string could leak allowing fluid to escape into another layer. This is not only
causes a loss in production but could contaminate water zones.

7. DATA ACQUISITION
7.1 Procedure for logging operations
Type of Logging operations to be carried out at various rigs is decided based on the
requirement of the well. These jobs are carried out by truck mounted logging unit these units
are placed in front of catwalk of the rig. The logging tools are lowered in to the well with the
help of logging cable. For lowering the tools with logging cable two sheaves are used. The
bottom sheave is tied with derrick floor and placed near the well mouth and the top sheave is
hung to the traveling block so that the tools are lowered into the well. The tools are
assembled and connected to logging cable through a rope socket on the catwalk and
tested/calibrated prior to lowering into the well. The tool is lowered to the desired depth and
data is acquired while the tool is pulled up. After completing the survey the Tool is pulled out
and rig down process is initiated.
7.1.1 Field observation

We visited logging operations in two different rig sites, i.e., Open hole and cased hole
operations. For onsite observation & knowing about logging operations at hydrocarbon well
drilling site at KG basin.
The logging procedure covers the following steps;
1. Parking of logging unit in front of cat walk.
2. Rig up (Fixing of top & bottom sheaves).
3. Stacking the tools and testing before lowering the tool.
4. Lowering the tool in to the well at the desired depth.
5. Logging Process.
6. Pulling out the tool in to the surface.
7. Rig Down.
Logs are recorded to measure different physical parameter of a well to ascertain the
capacity of the well to flow hydrocarbon as mentioned above .it is also called as the
electronic eye of a well. There are many physical parameters that can be recorded in Logs
depending upon the need. However there are a very few basic parameters which are essential
to be recorded in every well.
Figure 7.1 Details of wire line logging rig up.

7.2 Logging Equipment
7.2.1 Surface and down hole
Log measurements are using a measuring sonde (with electronic cartridge)
lowered on a cable from a winch, which is mounted on a logging truck or offshore unit. The
truck and unit are laboratories containing the recording equipment (optical and tape), control
panels, and perhaps a computer or micro-processor.
Fig 7.2 Surface and Down hole Equipment.
The main winch (E), which may hold as much as 26,000 ft. (8000 m) of multi-
conductor, steel armoured cable, with a pulling capacity of several tons auxiliary winch (G)
containing thinner mono-conductor cable, generally for use when there is well head pressure
(production or work-over operations). The winch man‘s control panel (C). The surface
logging panels (A), which power and control the down hole tool. The recording equipment:
(a) camera (b) magnetic tape recorder. Depth-measuring system (F).Electrical generator
(H).Dark-room for development of the film (D).
Figure 7.3 A view of the Computers.

7.2.2 Cable
The logging cable fulfils three functions: (a) running-in and pulling out the tool,
and control of tool speed, (b) electrical interface between the down hole logging tool and
the surface processing and recording equipment; and (c) depth measurement.

7.2.2.1 Tool transport
 It can support as much as 8 tons of tension at surface. However, non-elastic
deformation will occur at considerably lower tensions.
 It is able to pass round relatively small pulleys or sheave-wheels, typically 4 ft. in
diameter, mounted in the rig-structure.
 The insulation of the conductor wires must not be able to extrude between armor
windings
 It must resist abrasion by rocks, and corrosion.
7.2.2.2 Mono cable
Control signals and power from surface panels must share the single conductor wire
with perhaps several channels of measured data from down hole, requiring special
transmission modes.
7.2.2.3 Multi conductor cable
The seven copper conductors are each insulated by polypropylene, teflon, rubber, etc.,
jackets. The insulation, better than surface it must remain effective at high temperatures.
7.2.3 Depth measurement

Film and tape movement are governed by cable motion, which is transmitted by a
calibrated Spooler wheel to mechanical or electrical drive systems. The cable has a very low
stretch coefficient in its normal operating range, elastic stretch under logging tensions is
small and is corrected automatically or manually by a hand-crank adjustment.
7.2.4 The “Bridle”

Certain electrode devices require the use of a ―Bridle‖, which is a length of decal-
cable, with two lead electrodes which serve as remote returns. The bridle is connected to the
cable by a quick-connection. (Figure 7.5) shows the bridle head, which connects electrically
and mechanically to the logging tool. The logging head contains the important weak point,
which permits the cable to be pulled off a stuck tool prior to a fishing job.
Figure 7.4 The Bridle electrodes. Figure 7.5The Bridle-head.
7.2.5 The “fish”

This is a remote electrode made out of lead, connected to the logging panel by a long
insulated wire, via a truck installation. The fish is not strictly a common ground return, and is
insulated from the truck chassis and cable armor. This electrode measure SP.
7.3 The Logging Tool

Logging tools vary in complexity from a simple electrode-carrying mandrel, to a
sophisticated system of electronic circuits, enclosed in a pressure-resistant metal housing and
capable of operating at high temperatures. All tools consist at least of a detector, receiver or
sensor. These components are mounted in the logging sonde, which may also contain a
hydraulic or mechanical system. The sonde is generally attached below an electronic

cartridge, which carries in a protective housing the electronic modules or hardware for the
down hole instrument and which has a multiple role.
7.4 Recording Equipment

7.4.1 Photographic recorder
This is usually a nine-galvanometer system, recording on two films. Each
galvanometer mirror deflects a light-beam, assigned to a log measurement, onto both films.
The deflection of the beam varies with the magnitude of the logging signal; up to nine
measurements can be recorded. Cathode-ray and electronic camera systems are gradually
replacing these galvanometer cameras.
7.4.2Magnetic tape recorder

 Magnetic tapes permit many more channels of information to be recorded, and offer
several other advantages:
 Both raw and functioned log data (such as raw count-rates, and computed porosity
from the CNL) are recorded. 
 Playback capabilities permit changes in optical log presentation to be made,
recalibration, functioning of raw data. This can be performed at the well-site with the
computerized logging unit. 
 Computerized interpretation programs can be run on the logs, permitting rapid and
continuous evaluation of data. The computerized logging unit permits well-site
interpretations to be made immediately after the survey. 
 Data can be transmitted by telephone or radio telephone from the well site to a distant
office or computing Centre.
Now a day logs may record digital format and its give digital data on films or images.
7.5 Digital Log Preparation

Traditionally Logs are display on girded papers. Now a day the log may be taken as
films, images, and in digital format
7.5.1 Building Petro physical Model (Elan plus Software)
•Reconstruction of subsurface rock formations along with fluid saturation using log
data.
•Initially Petro physicists make a preliminary assumption of possible rock type &
fluid present from the log response.

8. DATA PROCESSING
The main purpose of shore-based log processing is to provide scientists with a
comprehensive quality controlled down hole log data set. This data set can then be used for
comparison and integration with core and seismic data from each well log. The Sagan in-
house software is used to put cores and logs on the same depth scale; and IESX software is
used to analyse seismic sections and generate synthetic seismograms from the logs.
Shore-based log processing comprises:
 Depth adjustments to remove depth offsets between data from different logging runs. 
 Corrections specific to certain tools and logs. 
 Documentation for the logs, with an assessment of log quality. 
 Conversion of the data to a widely accessible format. 
 Assembling the data for inclusion in the Logging Services on-line and tape
databases. 
Log analysts at Logging Services carry out the processing, mostly using Schlumberger
GeoQuest‘s "GeoFrame" software package.
8.1 Data Processing Overview

8.1.1 Depth adjustments
The main processing task is to remove depth discrepancies between the different
logging runs. Such discrepancies are caused by cable stretch, incomplete heave
compensation, and by tides. The ray log is generally used to match between the logging runs,
as this log is recorded on all tool strings. One gamma log is chosen as the reference, on the
basis of the length of the logged interval and data quality. The other gamma logs are matched
to the reference using an automatic routine; the match of each log is checked to make sure
distinctive peaks and troughs line up, and the match is adjusted, as necessary, by the log
analyst. The resulting depth shifts are then applied to the other logs on the tool strings. The
depth reference is then shifted from the rig floor to sea floor, which is determined from the
step in the natural gamma log seen at the sediment-water interface.
8.1.2 Environmental corrections

Environmental corrections are designed to remove any effect from the borehole (size,
roughness, temperature, tool standoff) or the drilling fluids that may partially mask or disrupt
the log response from the formation. Onshore, only the natural gamma (NGT) logs are
generally corrected.
8.1.3 Sonic log corrections
Sonic slowness logs from the sonic tools are routinely edited to remove noise and
cycle-skips that are often present in the raw log. The travel times are converted into sonic
velocities.
8.1.4 Quality control and documentation
The quality of the data is assessed in terms of reasonable values for the logged
formation, repeatability between different passes of the same tool, and correspondence
between logs affected by the same formation property (e.g., the resistivity log should show
similar features to the sonic velocity log). Invalid data at the top (affected by the bottom hole
assembly) and bottom of the logs are removed. Depth adjustments, corrections, and data
quality are documented in the processing report.

8.1.5 Data delivery
The processed data are saved as ASCII files and transmitted via satellite back to the
ship. They are also put in the on-line database, the Initial Reports CD-ROM, and are archived
to tape in LIS/DLIS format.
8.2 Data Media

The most common data media for small computers today is the 3½" diskette
with 1.4Mb formatted capacity. The older 5¼" data diskettes are rarely used anymore.. Keep
sufficient stock of diskettes with you when you go to the well site. On big computers, such as
the wire line logging unit, big reels of 9-track tape are increasingly replaced by video-8 or
DAT cartridges. Such cartridges are able to hold up to several gigabytes of data. One
complete logging run, often also including the "bulky" data like dip meter or full wave sonic
can fit onto one single cartridge.
8.3 Data Transmission

Data transmission depends on people, software, modems and communication lines.
That's about most of it. You will need somebody on the other end of your communication
link who can operate the receiving computer. It is recommended that you establish personal
contacts with your computer operator on the other end before your go to the well site. Also,
get the home phone number. Modems come in pairs - a sending modem and a receiving
modem. Although the manufacturers claim that their particular modem can communicate
with any other modem - don't rely on it unless you have tested the system personally. Two
modems of the same brand work - usually - better together. Communication lines can be
ordinary phone lines (very often), dedicated data lines, VHF point-to-point systems,
dedicated satellite lines (such as the Inmarsat on many ships or floating rigs), SSB shortwave
radios; also any combination thereof.
If you are preparing to transmit large volumes of data, you should consider
compressing the data file. Data compression programs are readily available and can compress
file to less than a half of its original size. However, as many modems are also using some
kind of compression algorithm, transmission time is not speeded up any more because the
compressed file cannot be further reduced. Data compression is in any case useful to reduce
file size of logging data copied onto diskette to be sent to town or to the office overseas.
Make sure that the receiver has a copy of the decompression software. If not
certain, include one on the first diskette and explain the method of operation in a short
READ.ME file.
It needs to be tested and found out if a data compression gives a time advantage while
using a high-speed modem or not.

9. AN OVER VIEW OF KRISHNA-GODAVARI BASIN
9.1 Basin Introduction

Extensive deltaic plain formed by two large east coast rivers, Krishna and Godavari in
the state of Andhra Pradesh and the adjoining areas of Bay of Bengal in which these rivers
discharge their water is known as Krishna Godavari Basin. The Krishna Godavari Basin is a
proven petroliferous basin of continental margin located on the east coast of India .Its onland
part covers an area of 15000 sq. km and the offshore part covers an area of 25,000 sq. km up
to 1000 m isobaths. The basin contains about 5 km thick sediments with several cycles of
deposition, ranging in age from Late Carboniferous to Pleistocene.
9.2 Tectonic History

Krishna Godavari Basin is a Continental passive margin peri-cratonic basin. The
basin came into existence following rifting along eastern continental margin of Indian Craton
in early Mesozoic. The down to the basement faults which define the series of horst and
grabens cascading down towards the ocean are aligned NE-SW along Precambrian Eastern
Ghats trend.
The five major tectonic elements of the basin are- Krishna Graben, Bapatla Horst,
West Godavari Sub basin, Tanuku Horst and East Godavari sub basin.
Figure 9.1 NW-SE Geological cross section, KRISHNA GODAVARI BASIN.
9.3 Generalized Stratigraphy

In the north-western and western margins of the basin, out crops of Achaean
crystallines and sediments ranging in age from Late Permian to Pliocene are present.
However, major part of the basin is covered by alluvium/sea. The geological map of the basin
shows the details of outcrop belt. The outcrop and sub-crop lithologic information has been
gathered from a large numbers of wells drilled in the shelf area and onland.

Figure 9.2 Litho- Stratigraphic section along a NE-SW profile, KRISHNA GODAVARI BASIN.
9.4 Depositional Environment

Four distinct depositional systems have been recognized in Krishna Godavari basin.
These are - Godavari delta system, Masulipatnam shelf slope system and Nizampatinam shelf
–slope system and Krishna delta system.
Figure 9.3 Generalized stratigraphic sequence of KG-BASIN.

10. INTERPRETATION
10.1 PRE – INTERPRETATION
(1) Estimation of Formation Temperature and Corresponding R m and Rmf
Knowing surface and bottomhole temperature, and thus geothermal gradient, we can
compute temperature of zone of interest with the help of formula given below:
There is a chartin the Schlumberger chart book as shown in below figure, through
which we can convert Resistivity of mud from one temperature to another. Thereby, knowing
Rm at surface temperature we can compute Rmat zone of interest for our interpretation.
Figure Resistivity and Temperature cross plot

(2) GR correction for Hole Size and Mud Weight
GR tool when run with porosity log tool is eccentred. Even then, for bad boreholes
situation we need to correct the log for mud weight and borehole size. A “t” factor which
incorporates hole size and mud weight is computed. The factor is given below;
wmud  2.54d hole  2.54d sonde 

t   
8.345  2 2 
Where, Wmud is in lbs/gal and diameters in inches. Based on this “t” factor,
correction factor for GR log is applied through chart as shown in Figure. Generally, the
natural GR of formation are reduced due to borehole mud. So this correction accounts for that
loss in GR counts.
GR corrected = Correction factor * GR observed
Figure Gamma ray correction plot

(3) Environmental Correction for Formation Density Log
The density tool is an eccentred tool. Thus effect of mud is very less but in bad borehole
situation mud comes into picture and reduces the density recorded in that region. So its
correction is applied using chart, as shown in Figure. Knowing diameter of the borehole,
through caliper, and bulk density recorded at that point correction factor is read from chart
and added in the observed bulk density.
Rhobcorr=Rhob + Correction factor
Figure Environmental correction for Density log

(4)Environmental Correction for Compensated Neutron Log (CNL)
This tool is also eccentred tool and is affected by many factors i.e. Borehole size,
salinity, mud cake thickness, mud weight, Borehole temperature, pressure and limestone bed
salinity. Among all these factors effect of all the factors other than temperature cancel each
other hence only temperature correction has been applied. High temperature tends to reduce
Neutron porosity hence this correction factor is added in observed Neutron Porosity. Chart
used is as shown in Figure.
Nphicorr= Nphi + Correction factor
Figure Environmental correction for Neutron log

(5) Environmental Correction for Resistivity Logs (LLD, LLS and MSFL)
Resistivity tool being centered tool effect of mud is accounted for. Generally, mud
being less resistive than formation it tends to reduce the resistivity hence its correction effect
enhances the observed resistivity value. The charts used are Rxo-3, Rcor-2a respectively as
shown in Figures to get borehole corrected –deep and shallow resistivity of interested zone
i.e. LLDcorrLLScorr and MSFLcorr Here we use the formula for mud cake thickness i.e.;
H mud cake = B.S-Caliper
Figure Correction for MSFL LLD & LLS

(6)Invasion Correction for Resistivity Log
This correction is applied on borehole corrected resistivity values to compute true
resistivity of the un-invaded formation and flushed zone Rt,Rxo. During drilling mud is
usedwhich gets filtered into the porous formation. This is called mud invasion. After certain
depth it stops because mud cake is formed at the wall of the borehole. To account for this
invasion effect three logs in resistivity are recorded, (MSFL, LLS and LLD) covering three
zones of invasion i.e. Invaded, Flushed and un-invaded zone. Based on the invasion model
some charts are prepared to account for the invasion effect. Chart used is as shown in
Figure. Corrected input for Well-X.
Figure Correction for Invasion effect

10.2 CROSS PLOTS
Cross plots of two porosity logs are convenient to display both porosity and
lithology information.
i) Hingle Cross plot
Hingle cross plot can be used to determine water saturation (S w), as in other cross plot
techniques, a significant benefit of Hingle’s technique is that, even if matrix properties (ρma
or Δtma) of a reservoir are unknown, you can still determine a value for water saturation (S w).
This is also true if a reservoir’s water resistivity (R w) is unknown.
Figure Resistivity – Porosity cross-plot for determining Rw

ii) Neutron-Density Cross plot
These charts are constructed for clean, fully liquid saturated formations and holes
filled with water or water based mud. These charts should not be used for air filled or gas
filled holes.
The separation between the quartz, limestone and dolomite lines indicate good resolution.
Figure Example for Neutron - Density Cross plot
Porosity and lithology determination from FDC density and CNL neutron logs in
water filled holes.
iii) M-N* Lithology Plot
The cross plot may be used to help identify mineral mixtures from sonic, density and
neutron logs. Except in the gas-bearing formations, M and N are practically independent of
porosity. They are defined as:
003(for metric)
Points for binary mixtures plot along a line connecting the two mineral points.
Ternary mixtures plot within the triangle defined by the three constituent minerals. The effect
of gas, Shaliness, secondary porosity, etc.is to shift data points in the directions shown by the
arrows.N is calculated using SNP Neutron log. Arrows shows direction of shifts caused by
shale, gas and secondary porosity.

Figure M-N plot shows points for several minerals
*
iv) MID Lithology Plot
The MID* (Matrix Identification) plot, like the M-N* is a cross plot technique which
helps identify lithology and secondary porosity. Also, like M-N* plot, the MID* plot requires
data from neutron, density, and sonic logs.
Figure Matrix Identification plot

10.3 EXERCISES:
SELECT PARAMETERS & MODEL PREPARATION
DATA REQUIRED
 Rt : true resistivity of the formation
 ρb : bulk density of the formation
 Δt : travel time of the formation
 ØN : neutron porosity of the formation
 ØD : porosity obtained from density log
 Øe : effective porosity of the formation
 Rw : resistivity of the formation water
 a : proportionality constant
 m : cementation factor
 n : saturation exponent
DATA GIVEN
a = 0.62, m = 2.15 and n = 2 for sandstone
a = 0.81, m = n = 2 for consolidated sands
a = 1 and m = n = 2 for limestone
MATRIX VALUES
ρma = 2.65gm/cc, Δtma = 55μs/ft for sandstone
ρma = 2.71gm/cc, Δtma = 47μs/ft for limestone
ρfluid = 1.0gm/cc, Δt fluid = 189μs/ft for water
CONTROL PARAMETERS
 Rsh : resistivity of the shale formation
 Rlim : maximum resistivity in the given section except tight peaks
 Rw : resistivity of water from Archie’s formula or cross plot
 ØNsh : average porosity of shale formation
 ØDsh : porosity from density log against shale formation
 ØTsh : porosity from sonic log against shale formation
 ΔTsh : average travel time against shale formation
 Gr min : minimum gamma ray in the given log
 Gr max : maximum gamma ray in the given log

GIVEN RAW DATA:
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF GIVEN RAW DATA
This graph Prepared by using data view software

Evaluate Lithology, Porosity, Hydrocarbon Effect and Clay Parameters by
Cross plots
Identify the hydrocarbon reservoir zone from the given logs. The following are the
steps to identify the hydrocarbon zone.
1. Identify the lithology by using gamma ray log, which shows low value against
sandstone and high value against shale, our zone of interest is sandstone zone.
2. Identify the fluids in the zone by using the resistivity log which shows high value for
hydrocarbons and low value for water.
3. To differentiate the types of water by using SP log;
a. If the SP is positive it represents fresh water in the formation conformed to
mud filtrate.
b. If the SP is negative it represents saline water.
4. Pick up the values of true resistivity R tfrom LLD curve and Δt, ØN, ρb values against
the all zones at various depths.
i) Identification of Lithology and Porosity by using Density–Neutron plot
1. The standard neutron – density plot is prepared by taking Ølog on x-axis and ρb on y-
axis the graph is limestone compatible (figure)
2. The porosity for sandstone measured by using this graph will have 4% more than the
limestone porosity.
3. The porosity for dolomite measured by using this graph will have 4% less than the
limestone porosity.
4. By using these relations individual curves are drawn for sandstone, limestone and
dolomite in the graph.
5. Plot the ØN, ρb values in the standard chart sheet.
6. Measure the exact lithology by observing the distribution of these points among the
three curves.
7. The corresponding Ø values on the estimated lithology curve, we can determine the
exact porosity. i.e., the projection of plotted points on the estimate lithology curve
gives the exact porosity.
Figure Density - Neutron plot

ii) Determination of Resistivity of water (R w) by using Porosity-Resistivity plot (Hingle
plot)
Identify the water bearing zone with given interval depths or by zone from the given
logs.
1) Plot the resistivity values on y-axis and corresponding Δt, ØN, ρb values on x-axis in
the standard Hingle- plot (Fig:)
2) If we take bulk density ρ b values on x-axis, it has to be converted to porosity by using
the formula;
3) If we take travel time Δt values on x-axis, it has to be converted to porosity by using

the formula;
4) Select the North West points in the plot and join these points with matrix values on x-
axis with a straight line.
5) Now select any point on the straight and note down the x, y projections. The y -
coordinate is equal to Ro and x - coordinate is equal to porosity values on x-axis of the
plot.
6) Calculate the formation factor F by using the formula Substitute the F value in the
formula.
Calculation
The values of Rt, ρb, Δt ØN at different depths against the gas zone and water bearing
zone are tabulated in the following table
In case if the water bearing zone is not present in the reservoir, we have to consider
the nearby water zone
Calculate the formation factor F by using the formula;
We take the density values on X axis;
=2.1 F= =6.579
Substitute the F value in the formula;
= 0.9/6.579 = 0.13

Figure Resistivity – Density cross-plot for determining Rw
iii) Evaluate Shaliness and correct ,

1) Identify the shale (minimum caving) using caliper in the given section to select the
control parameters from the given logs.
2) Measure the control parameters from the given logs.
3) Calculate the Rw using Hingle plot or Archie’s equation from the water bearing zone
with the reservoirIn case if the water bearing zone is not present in the reservoir, we
have to consider the nearby water zone.
4) The values for Rt, Gr, ρb, Δt, ØN at various depths in the reservoir zone are tabulated.
5) Estimation of Vsh in the reservoir zone, these are shale indicator logs like R t, N-D,
and GR. From these logs Vsh can be estimated:
Vsh form Gr log:
Vsh from Neutron – Density log:

Vsh from Rt :
Where,
6) The Values will be tabulated and the lowest among them will be taken as V sh min
and the Vsh min is used for all shale correction.

VClay COMPUTED DATA
DEPTH.M VCLGR VCLRT VCLND VCLMIN
2210.105 0.067443 0.41293 0.320606 0.067443
2210.257 0.07462 0.423444 0.325758 0.07462
2210.41 0.078465 0.432649 0.323333 0.078465
2210.562 0.090128 0.445457 0.321879 0.090128
2210.714 0.073082 0.451204 0.313818 0.073082
2210.867 0.079811 0.442806 0.313394 0.079811
2211.019 0.066354 0.44602 0.318545 0.066354
2211.172 0.081605 0.465624 0.315212 0.081605
2211.324 0.089166 0.492682 0.315455 0.089166
2211.476 0.090961 0.533282 0.310182 0.090961
2211.629 0.066162 0.583594 0.314545 0.066162
2211.781 0.07603 0.597758 0.309879 0.07603
2211.934 0.085642 0.607643 0.307576 0.085642
2212.086 0.098779 0.62522 0.304061 0.098779
2212.238 0.069173 0.628754 0.306242 0.069173
2212.391 0.067251 0.632334 0.304727 0.067251
2212.543 0.075325 0.63731 0.307818 0.075325
2212.696 0.078017 0.643005 0.312909 0.078017
2212.848 0.077055 0.654557 0.31897 0.077055
2213 0.086924 0.695538 0.321939 0.086924
2213.153 0.111147 0.72649 0.321818 0.111147
2210.105 0.103457 0.70832 0.320424 0.103457
2210.257 0.111531 0.699702 0.313455 0.111531
2210.41 0.107943 0.714135 0.300848 0.107943
2210.562 0.112492 0.781268 0.280727 0.112492
2210.714 0.103137 0.862951 0.280303 0.103137
2210.867 0.080708 0.928397 0.277576 0.080708
2211.019 0.097305 0.920195 0.278182 0.097305
2211.172 0.120118 0.833919 0.272303 0.120118
2211.324 0.170806 0.760314 0.279818 0.170806
2211.476 0.187403 0.720553 0.298606 0.187403
2211.629 0.067443 0.41293 0.320606 0.067443
2211.781 0.07462 0.423444 0.325758 0.07462
2211.934 0.078465 0.432649 0.323333 0.078465
2212.086 0.090128 0.445457 0.321879 0.090128
2212.238 0.073082 0.451204 0.313818 0.073082
2212.391 0.079811 0.442806 0.313394 0.079811
2212.543 0.066354 0.44602 0.318545 0.066354
2212.696 0.081605 0.465624 0.315212 0.081605
2212.848 0.089166 0.492682 0.315455 0.089166
2213 0.090961 0.533282 0.310182 0.090961
2213.153 0.066162 0.583594 0.314545 0.066162
2213.305 0.07603 0.597758 0.309879 0.07603
2213.458 0.085642 0.607643 0.307576 0.085642
2213.61 0.098779 0.62522 0.304061 0.098779
2213.762 0.069173 0.628754 0.306242 0.069173
2213.915 0.067251 0.632334 0.304727 0.067251
2214.067 0.075325 0.63731 0.307818 0.075325
2214.22 0.078017 0.643005 0.312909 0.078017
2214.372 0.077055 0.654557 0.31897 0.077055

VClay GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION

7) Calculate the effective porosityØe by using the formula, for clean sand;
Where,
= Porosity obtained from Neutron log.
= Porosity obtained from Density log.
8) Effective porosityØe is calculated by the formula, for shaly sand;
Where,
9) The next parameter Sw has to be calculated. Calculation of Sw for clean sand is;
(Archie’s formula)
10) Finally calculate the hydrocarbon saturation by the relation;
The relation is valid if the formation is saturated with only hydrocarbons and water.
11) If Shaly formation, then shale correction is to be applied to data and Indonesian
equation for Sw is used;
Sxo =

The values of Rt, , , Øe,Sw and against the hydrocarbon zone are tabulated in the
following table:
DEPTH.M PHID PHIDC PHINC PHIE SW SXO PHISW PHISXO
2210.105 0.320606 0.294303 0.164246 0.069199 2.300842 1.181347 0.081749 0.159217
2210.257 0.325758 0.296656 0.16199 0.06896 2.298362 1.181092 0.081448 0.158494
2210.41 0.323333 0.292732 0.163068 0.068763 2.316691 1.18297 0.081345 0.159303
2210.562 0.321879 0.286729 0.155953 0.066515 2.325499 1.183868 0.078745 0.15468
2210.714 0.313818 0.285316 0.16966 0.069404 2.453674 1.19664 0.083052 0.170295
2210.867 0.313394 0.282268 0.16997 0.069134 2.348023 1.186152 0.082004 0.162329
2211.019 0.318545 0.292667 0.175349 0.071485 2.44027 1.195329 0.085448 0.174443
2211.172 0.315212 0.283386 0.162506 0.0676 2.485519 1.19973 0.081102 0.168021
2211.324 0.315455 0.28068 0.154908 0.065611 2.585347 1.209216 0.079338 0.169626
2211.476 0.310182 0.274707 0.160744 0.066244 2.727489 1.222229 0.080965 0.18068
2211.629 0.314545 0.288742 0.17732 0.071487 3.121466 1.255659 0.089763 0.223144
2211.781 0.309879 0.280227 0.171369 0.069218 3.1118 1.25488 0.086861 0.215394
2211.934 0.307576 0.274175 0.168212 0.067844 3.056578 1.250395 0.084832 0.207372
2212.086 0.304061 0.265537 0.168852 0.067027 2.966477 1.242934 0.08331 0.198833
2212.238 0.306242 0.279265 0.184206 0.071964 3.256087 1.266308 0.091129 0.234321
2212.391 0.304727 0.278499 0.177117 0.070304 3.359159 1.274225 0.089583 0.236161
2212.543 0.307818 0.278441 0.17593 0.070033 3.259856 1.266601 0.088704 0.228299
2212.696 0.312909 0.282483 0.175634 0.070417 3.228707 1.264171 0.089019 0.227355
2212.848 0.31897 0.288918 0.18519 0.073255 3.198657 1.261809 0.092434 0.234318
2213 0.321939 0.288039 0.172838 0.070413 3.29056 1.268978 0.089352 0.231698
2213.153 0.321818 0.278471 0.169176 0.068536 3.096175 1.253618 0.085918 0.212199
2210.105 0.320424 0.280076 0.165221 0.067835 3.164781 1.259125 0.085413 0.214684
2210.257 0.313455 0.269957 0.151733 0.063714 3.136498 1.256866 0.08008 0.199838
2210.41 0.300848 0.258751 0.150161 0.062119 3.282657 1.268368 0.07879 0.203916
2210.562 0.280727 0.236855 0.144478 0.058423 3.540263 1.287677 0.075231 0.206834
2210.714 0.280303 0.24008 0.154239 0.060951 3.899046 1.312779 0.080015 0.237651
2210.867 0.277576 0.2461 0.164338 0.063864 4.53557 1.353089 0.086414 0.28966
2211.019 0.278182 0.240233 0.173697 0.065292 4.066551 1.32387 0.086438 0.265513
2211.172 0.272303 0.225457 0.167556 0.062286 3.460793 1.281844 0.07984 0.215557
2211.324 0.279818 0.213204 0.160502 0.059356 2.681735 1.218101 0.072302 0.159178
2211.476 0.298606 0.225519 0.151661 0.05876 2.444773 1.19577 0.070264 0.143655
2211.629 0.305758 0.294303 0.154501 0.061034 2.47502 1.198714 0.073162 0.15106
2211.781 0.306303 0.296656 0.168262 0.066443 2.811366 1.229656 0.081702 0.186796
2211.934 0.291879 0.292732 0.171216 0.06678 2.980356 1.244095 0.083081 0.199028
2212.086 0.277879 0.286729 0.149237 0.059898 2.822329 1.230613 0.073711 0.169051
2212.238 0.25903 0.285316 0.12549 0.050799 2.505691 1.201671 0.061044 0.127286
2212.391 0.254242 0.282268 0.164246 0.046481 2.497765 1.20091 0.055819 0.116098
2212.543 0.256303 0.292667 0.16199 0.069199 2.829122 1.181347 0.081749 0.159217
2212.696 0.320606 0.283386 0.163068 0.06896 2.300842 1.181092 0.081448 0.158494
2212.848 0.325758 0.28068 0.155953 0.068763 2.298362 1.18297 0.081345 0.159303
2213 0.323333 0.274707 0.16966 0.066515 2.316691 1.183868 0.078745 0.15468
2213.153 0.321879 0.288742 0.16997 0.069404 2.325499 1.19664 0.083052 0.170295
2213.305 0.313818 0.280227 0.175349 0.069134 2.453674 1.186152 0.082004 0.162329
2213.458 0.313394 0.274175 0.162506 0.071485 2.348023 1.195329 0.085448 0.174443
2213.61 0.318545 0.265537 0.154908 0.0676 2.44027 1.19973 0.081102 0.168021
2213.762 0.315212 0.279265 0.160744 0.065611 2.485519 1.209216 0.079338 0.169626
2213.915 0.315455 0.278499 0.17732 0.066244 2.585347 1.222229 0.080965 0.18068
2214.067 0.310182 0.278441 0.171369 0.071487 2.727489 1.255659 0.089763 0.223144

FINAL LOG PRESENTATION

Conclusions
Well logging plays an essential role in petroleum exploration and

exploitation. It is used to identify the pay zones of gas or oil in the reservoir
formations. It gives continuous downhole record and detailed picture of
both gradual and abrupt changes in physical properties of subsurface
lithology Logging has a central role in the successful development of a
hydrocarbon reservoir. Its measurements occupy a position of central
importance in the life of a well, between two milestones: the surface seismic
survey, which has influenced the decision for the well location, and the
production testing.
Logging is able to adequately reveal the whole of the drilled

sequence and has the added advantage that it measures, in situ, rock
properties which cannot be measured in a laboratory from either core
samples or cuttings. From this data, it is possible to obtain good estimates
of the reservoir size and the hydrocarbons in place.
According to the measurements of well logging there are three kinds

of data: electrical, nuclear and acoustic. Electrical logging is used to
analyze oil saturation and water saturation of the formation. Nuclear
logging is used to analyze the porosity and permeability. Acoustic logging
provides information about porosity and also indicates whether a liquid or
gas phase occupies the pore spaces.
Logging techniques in cased holes can provide much of the data

needed to monitor primary production and also to gauge the applicability
of water flooding and to monitor its progress when activated.
In producing wells, logging can provide measurements of flow rates,

fluid type, pressure, residual oil saturation. From these measurements,
dynamic well behavior can be better understood and remedial work can be
planned and secondary or tertiary recovery proposals can be evaluated and
monitored. Thus no hydrocarbon can be produced without the intervention
of logs.

References
1. MALCOLM RIDER, the geological interpretation of well

logs.
2. SCHLUMBERGER, log interpretation principles &
applications,1989.
3. HALLIBURTON, open hole measurement physics and
applications manual.
4. Dr. PAUL GLOVER, petrophysics.
5. O‘SERRA, Fundamentals of well log interpretation.
6. RICHARD M. BATEMAN, open hole log analysis and
formation evaluation.
7. SCHLUMBERGER, Introduction to production logging.
8. GEORGE ASQUITH, Basic Well Log Analysis For

Geologists.
9. DARWIN V. ELLIS, JULIAN M. SINGER, Well Logging

For Earth Scientists.
10. WELEX, Training system for WELL LOGGING,

(Halliburton Company).

(Animiredy Ramesh) - WELL - LOGGING - PRINCIPLES - INTERPRETATION - A PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

(Animiredy Ramesh) - WELL - LOGGING - PRINCIPLES - INTERPRETATION - A PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

WELL LOGGING PRINCIPLES,

INTERPRETATION AND APPLICATIONS

Under the supervision of

This is to certify that this project report entitled “Well logging

Signature of the supervisor

I am highly indebted to ONGC Rajahmundry for giving me an opportunity to

It’s my pleasure for granting me the permission to undergo this Dissertation

I would like to express my profound thanks and gratitude to my advisor and my

I express my gratitude to all officers of WELL LOGGING Services for their

Well logging Principles, Interpretation and Applications Page Ι

Hydrocarbons are one of the important non-renewable resources of energy.

In the exploration process, most probable hydrocarbon bearing rock structure is

Well logging provides a cheaper, quicker method of obtaining accurate sub-

Well logging Principles, Interpretation and Applications Page ΙΙ

Well logging Principles, Interpretation and Applications Page 1

Well logging Principles, Interpretation and Applications Page 2

Well logging Principles, Interpretation and Applications Page 3

2.6 Formation Resistivity Factor

Well logging Principles, Interpretation and Applications Page 4

Table 2.1 Range of cementation factor.

Well logging Principles, Interpretation and Applications Page 5

2.11 Formation Temperature (Tf)

Well logging Principles, Interpretation and Applications Page 6

Figure 3.1 Bore hole Environment

Well logging Principles, Interpretation and Applications Page 7

Well logging Principles, Interpretation and Applications Page 8

4.1.4 Electrochemical potentials

Figure 4.1.1 Diffusion potential.

Figure 4.1.2 Shale potential across a semi permeable membrane.

Figure 4.1.3 The effect of shale potential and diffusion potential

4.1.6 The SP tool

Well logging Principles, Interpretation and Applications Page 11

4.2.2 Principal uses

4.2.3 Natural gamma radiation

Figure 4.2.1 Gamma ray emission spectra of radioactive minerals.

4.2.4.1 Simple gamma ray tool

Figure 4.2.2 Gamma ray tool-scintillation detector.

4.2.4.2 Spectral gamma ray tool

4.2.5 Log characteristics, Calibration, presentation, units and scale

Well logging Principles, Interpretation and Applications Page 13

4.2.6 Uses of the Natural Gamma Ray Log

4.2.6.1 Determination of Lithology

4.2.6.2 Determination of Shale Content

4.2.7 Uses of the spectral Gamma Ray Log

Well logging Principles, Interpretation and Applications Page 14

4.3.1 Resistivity and Resistance

4.3.3 Resistivity logging tools

4.3.3.2 Micro spherically focussed log (MSFL)

Figure 4.3.10 Schematic diagram of MSFL

Well logging Principles, Interpretation and Applications Page 15

4.3.4 Factors influencing resistivity

Figure 4.3.11 Schematic representation of induction principle.

Well logging Principles, Interpretation and Applications Page 16

4.3.5.3 HDIL, High Definition Induction Log Tool

4.3.5.4 Environmental factors affecting log response

Well logging Principles, Interpretation and Applications Page 17

Well logging Principles, Interpretation and Applications Page 18

Well logging Principles, Interpretation and Applications Page 19

4.4.1.2 Principles of Measurement

Table 4.4.1.1 Different energy levels of neutrons.

Well logging Principles, Interpretation and Applications Page 20

Figure 4.4.1.1 Inelastic collision.

Figure 4.4.1.2 Elastic collision.