International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 130 (2017) 111–118

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International Journal of Mechanical Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijmecsci

An improved study on Gardiner’s work based on elastoplastic analysis

considering deformation history
C. Huang a,b,∗, Z.Q. Xiang a,b, Y.S. Mao a,b, S.X. Zhang a,b
a
Key Laboratory of High Performance Ship Technology of Ministry of Education, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
b
School of Transportation, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: The springback phenomenon plays a significant role in precision sheet metal bending. In an early attempt,
Springback prediction Gardiner proposed an analytical solution for springback under pure bending with perfect elastoplasticity. Sev-
Elastoplastic analysis eral studies expanded on Gardiner’s research to provide improved solutions of springback. However, the fore-
Deformation history
mentioned studies did not account for mechanical analysis considering deformation history in their improved so-
lutions. Thus, the present study divides the deformation history of metal material bend-forming into three stages,
namely a loading stage, a free unloading stage, and a non-free unloading stage. An elastoplastic analysis was
performed by considering deformation history based on uniaxial stress state and plane section assumptions. The
study also investigated the springback rule of bilinear kinematic hardening elastoplastic metal materials with uni-
form rectangular cross-section under pure bending. With respect to common metal materials, the study obtained
an improved springback prediction solution in which the hardening component was considered, and its predic-
tion results indicated a degree of agreement with the experimental data that exceeded those of the prediction
results obtained by Gardiner’s approximate solution when applied to the springback prediction of sheet metals.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Following the work by Gardiner, several studies proposed improved

Springback is defined as the elastic deformation of sheet metal parts
after unloading due to the action of internal stresses. The elastic recov-
ery constitutes a main source of geometrical inaccuracies in products
of sheet metal forming processes [1,2]. In an early attempt, Gardiner
[1] proposed an analytical solution for the springback of elastic and
ideal-plastic metal materials under pure bending. Based on the uniaxial
stress state and plane section assumptions, the study considered spring-
back as a type of elastic recovery and derived a generic and simplified
mathematical expression for springback prediction under pure bending,
which is expressed in Eq. (1) as follows:
(𝜎 𝜌 ) ( 𝜎 𝜌 )3
𝜌𝑏
=1−3 𝑠 𝑏 +4 𝑠 𝑏
𝜌𝑎 𝐸𝑡 𝐸𝑡 , history and material model used [12,13]; and (2) in the pure bending
where 𝜌b denotes radius before unloading springback, 𝜌a denotes ra-
dius after unloading springback, t denotes thickness, 𝜎 s denotes yielding
stress, and E denotes Young’s modulus. Eq. (1) constitutes an approxi-
mate reference expression for the cold bending springback computation
of sheet metals [3,4]. The springback increases with increases in the
𝜌b /t ratio and yield stress 𝜎 s of the material and decreases in the elastic
modulus E [5].
analytical solutions that extended from the pure bending of a beam to
the pure bending of a plate [6], from non-work-hardening materials to
work-hardening materials [2,7,8], from uniaxial pure bending to biaxial
pure bending [9,10], and from a rectangular cross-section to an asym-
metric cross-section [11]. However, the fore-mentioned improved ana-
lytical solutions were still based on classical springback theory and did
not consider mechanical analysis accounting for deformation history in
their improved solutions. Based on rigid plastic and elastoplastic solu-
tions, extant studies also investigated the bend-forming mechanism of
metal materials, which essentially displays the following two aspects:
(1) the stress distribution in a curved part prior to unloading determines
the magnitude and direction of the springback of the part after unload-
(1) ing, and the stress is determined by the strain as well as by deformation
process, elastic strain rates are not negligible when compared to plas-
tic strain rates, and most elastoplastic solutions for the pure bending
process are based on an assumption of small strains [14].
Recently, two main analytical approaches were used to describe
springback behaviour: one based on the classical springback theory
and the other considering deformation history. Multiple analytic mod-
els were developed to predict springback based on classical springback

∗
Corresponding author at: School of Transportation, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, China.
E-mail address: huangcan0429@163.com (C. Huang).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2017.05.053
Received 27 February 2017; Received in revised form 17 May 2017; Accepted 24 May 2017
Available online 9 June 2017
0020-7403/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
C. Huang et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 130 (2017) 111–118

theory in which springback corresponds to a strain recovery phe-

nomenon caused by the relief of residual stress [1,2]. Additionally,
springback bending moment and the bending moment are assumed as
equal in quantity and opposite in direction. For example, Zhang et al.
[15] used a model to predict springback in U-shaped channels bent un-
der plane-strain conditions. They assumed that deformation in spring-
back is equivalent to deformation by adding a reverse bending moment.
Yi et al. [16] developed an analytical model for six different deforma-
tion patterns. They estimated springback after elastic recovery by us- Fig. 1. Springback in pure bending.
ing residual differential strains between outer and inner surfaces. Li et
al. [17] proposed a two level springback compensating methodology to
consider both angular springback and radius springback to achieve pre-
cision bending deformation of the HSTT. However, it is necessary to ac-
curately predict internal stress distribution throughout the work piece,
and this requires an accurate constitutive representation of the material
mechanical response. The constitutive model must reproduce material
response during pure bending stage as well as during the subsequent
unloading springback stage. Hence, it is important to perform a com-
prehensive study on the stress distribution that considers deformation
history. Quach et al. [18] presented an analytical solution for residual
stresses from a coiling–uncoiling process in which coiling, uncoiling, and Fig. 2. The kinematic hardening material model.
flattening are considered in a plane strain pure elastic–plastic bending
model. Quach et al. [19] presented an analytical solution for residual
(2) The plane section assumption: Given that the Euler–Bernoulli as-
stresses and equivalent plastic strains due to the coiling–uncoiling stage
sumption is valid in the deformation process, the shape and area
in which coiling, uncoiling, and flattening are considered in a plane
of the cross-section are constant and no aberrance occurs. The ef-
strain pure inelastic bending model. Amouzegar et al. [20] proposed an
fective strain in the cross-section corresponds to the small strain
incremental numerical algorithm to calculate the distribution of residual
framework, which is expressed as follows:
stresses and strains through the thicknesses of plates, channels, or lipped
channels subject to a cold-working process under elastoplastic bending 𝜀 = 𝜅𝑧, (3)
and plane strain conditions. Moen et al. [21] developed and presented
a general mechanics-based prediction method for steel members. The where 𝜀 denotes strain in cross-section, 𝜅 denotes curvature of the
study considered through-thickness residual stress and strain distribu- geometric neutral layer (𝜅 = 1∕𝜌), 𝜌 denotes radius of the geomet-
tions caused by coiling, uncoiling, and flattening of steel sheet and cross- ric neutral layer in cross-section, and z denotes distance from the
section cold-forming. In a comprehensive study on the stress distribution geometric neutral layer.
considering deformation history, it is necessary to strictly investigate (3) The bilinear kinematic hardening material model assumption:
loading behaviour during the bending stage and unloading and reverse The metal material with a uniform rectangular cross-section cor-
loading behaviours during the subsequent unloading springback stage. responds to a homogeneous isotropic elastoplastic body. Under
Based on the uniaxial stress state and plane section assumptions, the unidirectional loading, the stress–strain relationship is described
present study involved performing an elastoplastic analysis accounting as follows:
for the deformation history of springback prediction of bilinear kine- {
𝐸𝜀 𝜀 ≤ 𝜀𝑠
matic hardening elastoplastic metal materials with uniform rectangular 𝜎= (4)
𝜎s + 𝐷(𝜀 − 𝜀𝑠 ) 𝜀 > 𝜀𝑠
cross-section under pure bending. An improved mathematical expres-
sion for common metal materials (E > D) was derived as expressed in where 𝜎 denotes stress, E and D denote modulus of elasticity and
Eq. (2) as follows: modulus of plasticity, respectively, 𝜀s and 𝜎 s denote elastic limit
𝜌𝑏 ( )[ (𝜎 𝜌 ) ( 𝜎 𝜌 )3 ] strain and elastic limit stress, respectively, and 𝜎 s = E𝜀s . The elas-
𝐷
= 1− 1−3 𝑠 𝑏 +4 𝑠 𝑏 (2) tic modulus E of common metal materials exceeds the plastic
𝜌𝑎 𝐸 𝐸𝑡 𝐸𝑡 ,
modulus D. The Bauschinger effect is not considered while un-
where D denotes the modulus of plasticity. Based on an estimated loading and reverse loading, and this is studied in previous stud-
method used in previous studies [3,4], Eqs. (1) and (2) were used to ies [22,23]. Within the small strain framework, the kinematic
calculate the approximate springback of sheet metals under pure bend- hardening material model is in accordance with classical elasto-
ing. The numerical predictions by Eqs. (1) and (2) were compared with plastic theory as shown in Fig. 2.
experimental data to validate the improved analytical solution.
3. Description of deformation history
2. Objective of study and basic assumptions
It is necessary to track deformation history to accurately calculate
A piece of metal material with a uniform rectangular cross-section
the stress distribution in bending [12]. This study involved investigating
of thickness h is considered as shown in Fig. 1. A Cartesian coordinate
the deformation history of fibre layers in a cross-section. The internal
system is introduced such that the origin of coordinates is seated at the
stresses for both elastic and plastic deformation processes of each fibre
centroid of the rectangular cross-section. The X-axis and Z-axis are par-
are expressed as a function of curvature.
allel to the longitudinal direction and normal upward, respectively. The
With respect to the basic assumptions, the strain neutral layer, stress
springback process under pure bending is shown in Fig. 1, and the objec-
neutral layer, and geometric neutral layer in a cross-section always co-
tive of the study involved establishing a relationship between 𝜌b and 𝜌a .
incide during the deformation process. The uniaxial stress direction of
The basic assumptions of this study are formulated as follows:
each fibre layer in a cross-section is circumferential tangential. In the
(1) The uniaxial stress state assumption: Any point in the cross- whole deformation process, stress and strain in the neutral layer are al-
section is uniaxially stretched or compressed when a deformation ways equivalent to zero, and the distributions of stress and strain in the
occurs. cross-section are symmetrical to the origin of coordinates.

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C. Huang et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 130 (2017) 111–118

4. Elastoplastic analysis considering deformation history

4.1. Analysis of loading process

Based on Eqs. (3) and (4), the stress-curvature relationship at state

Si (𝜎 i ,𝜀i ,𝜅 i ), as shown in Fig. 3, is obtained as follows:
( )
⎧𝜎 + 𝐷 𝜅 ( 𝑧 − 𝑧 ) 𝑡
𝑧𝑒⋅𝑖 < 𝑧 ≤
⎪ 𝑠 𝑖 𝑒⋅𝑖
2
⎪
𝜎 𝑖 = ⎨ 𝐸 𝜅𝑖 𝑧 (−𝑧𝑒⋅𝑖 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 𝑧𝑒⋅𝑖 ) (7)
⎪ ( )
⎪−𝜎𝑠 + 𝐷𝜅𝑖 (𝑧 + 𝑧𝑒⋅𝑖 ) 𝑡
− ≤ 𝑧 < −𝑧𝑒⋅𝑖
⎩ 2

where z denotes distance from an arbitrary layer in cross-section to the

neutral layer, ze · i denotes distance from the demarcation layer of the
elastic region and plastic region in cross-section to the neutral layer, and
𝑧𝑒⋅𝑖 = 𝜀𝑠 ∕𝜅𝑖 .
At state Si (𝜎 i ,𝜀i ,𝜅 i ), the loading strain 𝜀i in the cross-section includes
elastic loading strain 𝜀ie and plastic loading strain 𝜀ip , and this is ex-
pressed as follows:
𝜀𝑖 = 𝜅𝑖 𝑧 = 𝜀𝑖𝑒 + 𝜀𝑖𝑝 . (8)
Based on the assumption (3), the elastic strain of an arbitrary layer
Fig. 3. The relationship between 𝜀i and 𝜎 i at state Si .
in the cross-section is consistent with Hooke’s law and classical elasto-
plastic unloading law as shown in Fig. 3, and this is expressed as follows:
𝜎𝑖
With respect to assumption (2), the maximum loading strain 𝜀max 𝜀𝑖𝑒 = . (9)
𝐸
in the cross-section occurs in the outer surface, and this is expressed as
Eqs. (7) and (9) are combined, and the relationship between 𝜀ie in
follows:
the cross-section and 𝜅 i at state Si (𝜎 i ,𝜀i ,𝜅 i ) is obtained as follows:
( )
𝜅⋅𝑡 ⎧ 1 − 𝐷 𝜀 + 𝐷𝜅 𝑧 (𝑧𝑒⋅𝑖 < 𝑧 ≤
𝑡
𝜀max = (5) )
2 . ⎪ 𝐸 𝑠 𝐸 𝑖 2
⎪
𝜀𝑖𝑒 = ⎨𝜅𝑖 ⋅ 𝑧 (−𝑧𝑒⋅𝑖 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 𝑧𝑒⋅𝑖 ) (10)
⎪ ( ) ( )
When |𝜀max | ≤ 𝜀s , all fibre layers in the cross-section experience ⎪ − 1 − 𝐷 𝜀 𝑠 + 𝐷 𝜅𝑖 𝑧 𝑡
− ≤ 𝑧 < −𝑧𝑒⋅𝑖
elastic bending deformation, and the limit loading curvature 𝜅lim𝑒 that ⎩ 𝐸 𝐸 2
induces the elastic limit of bending deformation is obtained as follows: Eqs. (8) and (10) are combined, the relationship between 𝜀ip in the
cross-section and 𝜅 i at state Si (𝜎 i ,𝜀i ,𝜅 i ) is obtained as follows:
( ) ( )
2𝜀𝑠 ⎧ 1− 𝐷 𝑡
𝑒
𝜅lim = (6) ( 𝜅𝑖 𝑧 − 𝜀 𝑠 ) 𝑧𝑒⋅𝑖 < 𝑧 ≤
𝑡 . ⎪ 𝐸 2
⎪
𝜀𝑖𝑝 = ⎨0 (−𝑧𝑒⋅𝑖 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 𝑧𝑒⋅𝑖 ) (11)
⎪( ) ( )
⎪ 1− 𝐷 𝑡
When 1∕𝜌𝑏 > 𝜅lim𝑒 , the fibre layers in the cross-section experience ( 𝜅𝑖 𝑧 + 𝜀 𝑠 ) − ≤ 𝑧 < −𝑧𝑒⋅𝑖
⎩ 𝐸 2
elastoplastic bending deformation. The deformation history of fibre lay-
ers in the cross-section is divided into the following three stages: 4.2. Analysis of free unloading process

Based on assumption (2), the residual strain 𝜀u in the cross-section

(1) Loading stage: Under the action of an outer pure bending
during unloading springback is calculated as follows:
moment, the fibre layers deform to the pure bending state
Si (𝜎 i ,𝜀i ,𝜅 i ), and 𝜅𝑖 = 1∕𝜌𝑏 . As shown in Fig. 3, the fibre layers 𝜀 𝑢 = 𝜅𝑢 𝑧 (12)
(|z| > 𝜎 s /E𝜅 i ) in the outer zones experience plastic loading defor-
where 𝜅 u denotes an arbitrary residual curvature of the neutral layer
mation and those in inner zone (|z| ≤ 𝜎 s /E𝜅 i ) experience elastic
during unloading springback, and the springback deformation history is
loading deformation.
expressed by 𝜅 u .
(2) Free unloading stage: After removing the outer pure bend-
It is possible to superimpose the strain based on small deforma-
ing moment, the fibre layers deform from state Si (𝜎 i ,𝜀i ,𝜅 i ) to
tion theory [24]. The springback strain increment Δ𝜀 during unload-
state Sii (𝜎 ii ,𝜀ii ,𝜅 ii ). Reverse loading behaviour does not occur in
ing springback is equivalent to the superposition of the loading strain
the cross-section. Residual stress reversal also does not occur. At
𝜀i and the residual strain 𝜅 u . Eqs. (8) and (12) are combined to express
state Sii (𝜎 ii ,𝜀ii ,𝜅 ii ), a few fibre layers in the cross-section experi-
the springback strain increment Δ𝜀 of an arbitrary fibre layer in the
ence the whole process of elastic unloading deformation in which
cross-section as a monotonic function of 𝜅 u as follows:
the residual stress is equivalent to zero.
(3) Non-free unloading stage: The fibre layers deform from state Δ𝜀 = (𝜅𝑢 − 𝜅𝑖 ) ⋅ 𝑧. (13)
Sii (𝜎 ii ,𝜀ii ,𝜅 ii ) to state Siii (𝜎 iii ,𝜀iii ,𝜅 iii ), and 𝜅𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 1∕𝜌𝑎 . Reverse load-
The springback from state Si (𝜎 i ,𝜀i ,𝜅 i ) to state Sii (𝜎 ii ,𝜀ii ,𝜅 ii ) corre-
ing behaviour occurs in the cross-section. Additionally, residual
sponds to an elastic unloading process as shown in Fig. 4. The residual
stress reversal occurs, and this prevents further unloading spring-
stress 𝜎 ii in the cross-section is determined as follows:
back. The inner moment balance in the cross-section is attained
at state Siii (𝜎 iii ,𝜀iii ,𝜅 iii ). 𝜎𝑖𝑖 = 𝜎𝑖 + 𝐸Δ𝜀. (14)

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C. Huang et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 130 (2017) 111–118

Fig. 4. The relationship between 𝜀ii and 𝜎 ii at state Sii . Fig. 5. The relationship between 𝜀iii and 𝜎 iii at state Siii (Case 1).

Eqs. (7), (13), and (14) are combined and 𝜅 u = 𝜅 ii is substituted to

obtain 𝜎 ii as follows:
( )
⎧𝜎 + 𝐷𝜅 (𝑧 − 𝑧 ) + 𝐸(𝜅 − 𝜅 )𝑧 𝑡
𝑧e⋅i < 𝑧 ≤
⎪ 𝑠 𝑖 e⋅i 𝑖𝑖 𝑖
2
⎪
𝐸 𝜅
𝜎𝑖𝑖 = ⎨ 𝑖𝑖 𝑧 (−𝑧e⋅i ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 𝑧e⋅i ) (15)
⎪ ( )
⎪−𝜎𝑠 + 𝐷𝜅𝑖 (𝑧 + 𝑧e⋅i ) + 𝐸(𝜅𝑖𝑖 − 𝜅𝑖 )𝑧 𝑡
− ≤ 𝑧 < −𝑧e⋅i
⎩ 2

With respect to Eq. (15), the fibre layers in the outer surface (|𝑧| =
𝑡∕2) of the cross-section experience the complete process of elastic un-
loading deformation. As shown in Fig. 4, the residual stress in the outer
surface (|𝑧| = 𝑡∕2) of the cross-section is calculated as follows:
( )
𝑡 𝑡
𝜎 𝑠 + 𝐷 𝜅𝑖 − 𝑧e⋅i + 𝐸(𝜅𝑖𝑖 − 𝜅𝑖 ) = 0. (16)
2 2
Accordingly, the relationship between 𝜅 i and 𝜅 ii is derived as follows:
( )( 2𝜀
)
𝐷
𝜅𝑖𝑖 = 1 − 𝑘𝑖 − 𝑠 . (17)
𝐸 𝑡

4.3. Analysis of non-free unloading process

As shown in Figs. 5 and 6, the reverse loading strain 𝜀r during un-

loading springback is equivalent to the superposition of the plastic load- Fig. 6. The relationship between 𝜀iii and 𝜎 iii at state Siii (Case 2).

ing strain 𝜀ip and the residual strain 𝜀u . With respect to Eqs. (11) and
(12), when the cross-section deforms from state Sii (𝜎 ii ,𝜀ii ,𝜅 ii ) to state with the elastic recovery assumption [1,2]. At state Siii (𝜎 iii ,𝜀iii ,𝜅 iii ), elas-
Siii (𝜎 iii ,𝜀iii ,𝜅 iii ), the maximum strain 𝜀max
𝑟 of the reverse loading occurs tic unloading and elastic reverse loading behaviours occur in various
in the outer surface, and this is expressed as follows: fibre layers of the cross-section. In a manner similar to the analysis pro-
|𝜀max | = (𝜅 − 𝜅 ) 𝑡 . (18) cedure in Section 4.2, the residual stress 𝜎 iii in the cross-section is ob-
| 𝑟 | 𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑖
2 tained as follows:
With respect to assumption (3), when 𝜅𝑖𝑖 − 𝜅𝑖𝑖𝑖 ≤ 2𝜀𝑠 ∕𝑡 (|𝜀max ( )
𝑟 |
≤ 𝜀𝑠 ),
⎧𝜎 + 𝐷𝜅 (𝑧 − 𝑧 ) + 𝐸(𝜅 − 𝜅 )𝑧 𝑡
𝑧e⋅i < 𝑧 ≤
then the cross-section does not experience reverse yielding, and the ⎪ 𝑠 𝑖 e⋅i 𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖
2
inner moment balance after unloading springback occurs at the elas- ⎪
𝜎𝑖𝑖𝑖 = ⎨𝐸 𝜅𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑧 (−𝑧e⋅i ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 𝑧e⋅i ) (19)
tic stage of reverse loading as shown in Fig. 5. Additionally, when ⎪ ( )
⎪−𝜎𝑠 + 𝐷𝜅𝑖 (𝑧 + 𝑧e⋅i ) + 𝐸(𝜅𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝜅𝑖 )𝑧 𝑡
𝜅𝑖𝑖 − 𝜅𝑖𝑖𝑖 > 2𝜀𝑠 ∕𝑡 (|𝜀max 𝑟 | > 𝜀𝑠 ), then the cross-section experiences reverse − ≤ 𝑧 < −𝑧e⋅i
⎩ 2
yielding, and the inner moment balance after unloading springback oc-
curs at the elastoplastic stage of reverse loading as shown in Fig. 6. At state Siii (𝜎 iii ,𝜀iii ,𝜅 iii ), the inner moment is quantificationally given
Case 1. 𝜅𝑖𝑖 − 𝜅𝑖𝑖𝑖 ≤ 2𝜀𝑠 ∕𝑡: by integrating the residual stress in the cross-section. The residual stress
As shown in Fig. 5, the springback from state Si (𝜎 i ,𝜀i ,𝜅 i ) to state distribution in the cross-section is symmetrical to the origin of coordi-
Siii (𝜎 iii ,𝜀iii ,𝜅 iii ) corresponds to an elastic recovery that is in agreement nates, and the inner moment balance in cross-section is calculated as

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C. Huang et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 130 (2017) 111–118

follows:
𝑡
𝑧𝑒⋅𝑖 2 [ ]
𝐸 𝜅𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑧2 𝑑𝑧+ 𝜎𝑠 + 𝐷𝜅𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝑧𝑒⋅𝑖 ) + 𝐸(𝜅𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝜅𝑖 )𝑧 𝑧dz = 0. (20)
∫0 ∫𝑧𝑒⋅𝑖
Accordingly, the relationship between 𝜅 i and 𝜅 iii is derived as fol-
lows:
( )
( ) 𝜀 𝜀3
𝐷
𝑘𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 1 − 𝑘𝑖 − 3 𝑠 + 4 𝑠 . (21)
𝐸 𝑡 𝑘2𝑖 𝑡3
Case 2. 𝜅𝑖𝑖 − 𝜅𝑖𝑖𝑖 > 2𝜀𝑠 ∕𝑡:
As shown in Fig. 6, the springback from state Si (𝜎 i ,𝜀i ,𝜅 i ) to
state Siii (𝜎 iii ,𝜀iii ,𝜅 iii ) corresponds to an elastoplastic recovery. At state Fig. 7. Geometrical model of air bending of sheet metal [25].

Siii (𝜎 iii ,𝜀iii ,𝜅 iii ), elastic unloading, elastic reverse loading and plastic re-
verse loading behaviours occur in various fibre layers of the cross-
the elastic stage of reverse bending. Evidently, the inner moment in the
section. In a manner similar to the analysis procedure in Section 4.2,
cross-section theoretically corresponds to a monotonically continuous
the residual stress 𝜎 iii in the cross-section is determined as follows:
function of springback curvature. Thus, the inner moment balance in the
⎧𝜎𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝜎𝑖 − 𝐸(𝜀𝑠 + 𝜀𝑖𝑒 ) + 𝐷[Δ𝜀 + 𝜀𝑠 + 𝜀𝑖𝑒 ] (𝑧 > 𝑧𝑟𝑒⋅𝑖𝑖𝑖 ) cross-section only occurs at the elastic stage of reverse bending, and the
⎪ springback of common metal materials with uniform rectangular cross-
⎨𝜎𝑖𝑖 = 𝜎𝑖 + 𝐸Δ𝜀 (−𝑧𝑟𝑒⋅𝑖𝑖𝑖 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 𝑧𝑟𝑒⋅𝑖𝑖𝑖 ) (22)
⎪ section under pure bending corresponds to an elastic recovery. This is
⎩𝜎𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝜎𝑖 + 𝐸(𝜀𝑠 − 𝜀𝑖𝑒 ) + 𝐷[Δ𝜀 − 𝜀𝑠 + 𝜀𝑖𝑒 ] (𝑧 < −𝑧𝑟𝑒⋅𝑖𝑖𝑖 ) in agreement with the elastic recovery assumption [1,2].
With respect to common metal materials(E > D), the relationship
where zre · iii denotes distance from the demarcation layer of the elastic
between 𝜅 i and 𝜅 iii only conforms to Eq. (21). By substituting 𝜅𝑖 = 1∕𝜌𝑏
region of reverse bending and plastic region of reverse bending in the
and 𝜅𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 1∕𝜌𝑎 in Eq. (21), the relationship between𝜌b and 𝜌a is obtained
cross-section to the neutral layer. As shown in Fig. 6, zre · iii is expressed
as follows:
by Eq. (25), which is calculated as follows:
𝜌𝑏 ( )[ (𝜎 𝜌 ) ( 𝜎 𝜌 )3 ]
𝐷
(𝜅𝑖𝑖 − 𝜅𝑖𝑖𝑖 )𝑧𝑟𝑒⋅𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝜀𝑠 . (23) = 1− 1−3 𝑠 𝑏 +4 𝑠 𝑏 (2)
𝜌𝑎 𝐸 𝐸𝑡 𝐸𝑡 .
Eqs. (7), (13), and (22) are combined, and 𝜅 u = 𝜅 iii is substituted to
The hardening component w(D) in Eq. (2) is defined as follows:
obtain 𝜎 iii as follows:
( )
𝐷
⎧𝜎 + 𝐷𝜅 (𝑧 − 𝑧 ) − 𝐸(𝜀 + 𝜀 ) (𝑧 > 𝑧𝑟𝑒⋅𝑖𝑖𝑖 ) 𝑤(𝐷) = 1 − (27)
⎪ 𝑠 𝑖 e⋅i 𝑠 𝑖𝑒 𝐸 .
⎪ + 𝐷[(𝜅𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝜅𝑖 )𝑧 + 𝜀𝑠 + 𝜀𝑖𝑒 ]
⎪ When D = 0 and w(D) = 1, the objective of the study and basic as-
⎪𝜎𝑠 + 𝐷𝜅𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝑧e⋅i ) + 𝐸(𝜅𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝜅𝑖 )𝑧 (𝑧e⋅i < 𝑧 ≤ 𝑧𝑟𝑒⋅𝑖𝑖𝑖 ) sumptions of the study are in accordance with those in an extant study
⎪
𝜎𝑖𝑖𝑖 = ⎨𝐸 𝜅𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑧 (−𝑧e⋅i ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 𝑧e⋅i ) (24) [1], and Eqs. (1) and (2) definitely correspond to the same equation.
⎪ A comparison of Eq. (1) and (2) and a reference to a previous study
⎪−𝜎𝑠 + 𝐷𝜅𝑖 (𝑧 + 𝑧e⋅i ) + 𝐸(𝜅𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝜅𝑖 )𝑧 (−𝑧𝑟𝑒⋅𝑖𝑖𝑖 ≤ 𝑧 < −𝑧e⋅i )
[5] evidently indicate that the springback shown in Eq. (2) increases
⎪−𝜎 + 𝐷𝜅 (𝑧 + 𝑧 ) + 𝐸(𝜀 − 𝜀 ) (𝑧 < −𝑧𝑟𝑒⋅𝑖𝑖𝑖 )
⎪ 𝑠 𝑖 e⋅i 𝑠 𝑖𝑒 with increases in the 𝜌b /t ratio and yield stress 𝜎 s of the material and
⎪ + 𝐷[(𝜅 − 𝜅 )𝑧 − 𝜀 + 𝜀 ] decreases in the elastic modulus E and the D/E ratio.
⎩ 𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖 𝑠 𝑖𝑒

In a manner similar to the analysis procedure in Case 1, the relation- 6. Application of the improved Eq. (2)
ship between 𝜅 i and 𝜅 iii is derived in an implicit function as follows:
Eq. (1) corresponds to a simplified reference expression for comput-
⎧[(𝐸 − 𝐷)𝑧3𝑟𝑒⋅𝑖𝑖𝑖 ∕3 + 𝐷𝑡3 ∕24]𝜅𝑖𝑖𝑖 − [(𝐸 − 𝐷)(𝑧3𝑟𝑒⋅𝑖𝑖𝑖 ∕3 − 𝑧3𝑒⋅𝑖 ∕3)
⎪ ing the springback of sheet metals [3,4]. In order to evaluate the ability
⎪ + (𝐷 − 𝐷 ∕𝐸 )(𝑡 ∕24 − 𝑧𝑟𝑒⋅𝑖𝑖𝑖 ∕3)]𝜅𝑖 + 𝜀𝑠 (𝐸 − 𝐷)[𝑧𝑟𝑒⋅𝑖𝑖𝑖 ∕2 − 𝑧𝑒⋅𝑖 ∕2
2 3 3 2 2
of Eq. (2) to predict springback, Eqs. (1) and (2) were applied to pre-
⎪
⎨ − (1 − 𝐷∕𝐸 )(𝑡 ∕8 − 𝑧𝑟𝑒⋅𝑖𝑖𝑖 ∕2)] = 0
2 2
(25) dict the springback of five sheet metals. The numerical predictions by
⎪ ( ) Eqs. (1) and (2) were compared with the experimental data shown in a
⎪ 𝜀𝑠 2− 𝐷
𝐸
𝜀𝑠
𝑧
⎪ e⋅i 𝜅
= z 𝑟𝑒⋅𝑖𝑖𝑖 = (
𝐷
) previous study [25].
⎩ 𝑖 1− 𝐸 𝜅𝑖 −𝜅𝑖𝑖𝑖
As shown in Fig. 7, the springback phenomenon at small strains
was investigated experimentally by using an air bending test as pro-
5. Discussion of analysis results posed in a previous study [25]. The utilized sheet metal properties are
shown in Table 1. The air bending test results (r and R) are shown in
According to the above analysis, the relationship between 𝜅 i and 𝜅 iii Table 2. Based on the estimated method used in previous studies [3,4],
is summarized as shown in the following two cases: the springback prediction radii (R1 ) with respect to Eq. (1) and the
(1) When 𝜅𝑖𝑖 − 𝜅𝑖𝑖𝑖 ≤ 2𝜀𝑠 ∕𝑡, the inner moment balance after unloading springback prediction radii (R2 ) with respect to Eq. (2) were obtained
springback occurs in Case 1, and the relationship between 𝜅 i and and are shown in Table 2. When compared with the air bending test re-
𝜅 iii conforms to Eq. (21). sults, the springback prediction deviations with respect to Eqs. (1) and
(2) When 𝜅𝑖𝑖 − 𝜅𝑖𝑖𝑖 > 2𝜀𝑠 ∕𝑡, the inner moment balance after unloading (2) are displayed in Fig. 8.
springback occurs in Case 2, and the relationship between 𝜅 i and Table 2 shows that the numerical predictions with respect to Eqs.
𝜅 iii conforms to Eq. (25). (1) and (2) are both in good agreement with the test results. The errors
are mainly caused by the following factors:
With respect to Eqs. (17) and (21), 𝜅𝑖𝑖 − 𝜅𝑖𝑖𝑖 ≤ 2𝜀𝑠 ∕𝑡 only if:
( ) (1) The basic assumptions result in small errors of theoretical analy-
2𝜀𝑠 2
(𝐷 − 𝐸 ) ≤ 𝐷 + 𝐸. (26) sis. Both Eqs. (1) and (2) are approximate solutions for the spring-
𝑡 𝜅𝑖 back prediction.
Eq. (26) corresponds to an identity for common metal materials (E > (2) The Bauschinger effect [22,23] and Poisson’s ratio effect [6] are
D). The inner moment balance in the cross-section is bound to occur at not considered in the analysis process.

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C. Huang et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 130 (2017) 111–118

Fig. 8. A comparison of the prediction accuracy of Gardiner’s approximate solution (Eq. (1)) and the improved solution (Eq. (2)). (a)WELDOX700-1, (b)WELDOX700-2, (c)WELDOX900-1,
(d)WELDOX900-2, and (e)OPTIM 960.

116
C. Huang et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 130 (2017) 111–118

Table 1
Material properties [25].

Materials Modulus of Modulus of Yield stress, Elastic limit

elasticity, E/(MPa) plasticity, D/(MPa) 𝜎 s/ (MPa) strain, 𝜀s

WELDOX700-1 217069.7 956.964 776.287 0.00441

WELDOX700-2 178846.6 833.955 699.842 0.00466
WELDOX900-1 205856.3 982.346 950.812 0.00477
WELDOX900-2 200405.4 986.105 956.009 0.00492
OPTIM 960 204620 786.517 1257.59 0.00384

Table 2
Results of the air bending test [25] and the prediction results with respect to Eqs. (1) and (2).

Materials r(mm) R(mm) R1 (mm) R1 − R(mm) R2 (mm) R2 − R(mm)

WELDOX700-1 50 56.05 56.0046 −0.0454 56.2526 0.2026

WELDOX700-2 70 76.45 76.3731 −0.0769 76.7113 0.2613
WELDOX700-3 100 115.62 115.4590 −0.1610 115.9702 0.3502
WELDOX700-4 142 181.85 181.2002 −0.6498 182.0026 0.1526
WELDOX700-5 193 295.56 292.1417 −3.4183 293.4353 −2.1247
WELDOX700-2 50 55.43 55.4085 −0.0215 55.6681 0.2381
WELDOX700-3 70 83.81 83.6884 −0.1216 84.0805 0.2705
WELDOX700-4 100 115.12 114.9432 −0.1768 115.4817 0.3617
WELDOX700-5 142 179.53 179.0376 −0.4924 179.8763 0.3463
WELDOX700-6 193 286.15 283.1578 −2.9922 284.4844 −1.6656
WELDOX900-1 50 55.61 55.5376 −0.0724 55.8039 0.1939
WELDOX900-2 70 83.75 83.5778 −0.1722 83.9786 0.2286
WELDOX900-3 100 139.15 138.1906 −0.9594 138.8532 −0.2968
WELDOX900-4 142 182.53 181.8143 −0.7157 182.6861 0.1561
WELDOX900-5 193 291.85 288.7423 −3.1077 290.1268 −1.7232
WELDOX900-2 50 54.96 54.9047 −0.0553 55.1762 0.2162
WELDOX900-3 70 81.71 81.6484 −0.0616 82.0522 0.3422
WELDOX900-4 100 131.53 130.9741 −0.5559 131.6217 0.0917
WELDOX900-5 142 240.26 235.2784 −4.9816 236.4419 −3.8181
WELDOX900-6 193 278.87 276.7378 −2.1322 278.1062 −0.7638
OPTIM 960 50 55.73 55.7004 −0.0296 55.9153 0.1853
OPTIM 961 70 83.58 83.4142 −0.1658 83.7360 0.1560
OPTIM 962 100 136.11 135.2921 −0.8179 135.8142 −0.2958
OPTIM 963 142 253.45 246.6632 −6.7868 247.6150 −5.8350
OPTIM 964 193 656.38 565.4161 −90.9639 567.5979 −88.7821

(3) The precision of the measurement equipment and operation in-
fluence the experimental results [25] to a certain extent.
The plastic modulus D in Eq. (1) is not considered when compared
to Eq. (2). As shown in Fig. 8, all the springback prediction radii with
respect to Eq. (1) are smaller than those in the test results. Furthermore,
the error variances of numerical prediction of five sheet metals with
respect to Eq. (1) exceed those with respect to Eq. (2).
7. Conclusions
This study involved extending the work by Gardiner to perform an
analysis based on elastoplastic analysis considering deformation history.
The study was based on reasonable basic assumptions. Eqs. (1) and (2)
were applied for springback prediction, and the numerical predictions
by Eqs. (1) and (2) were compared with experimental data to validate
the improved analytical solution. The main conclusions are as follows:
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