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available from sources of mechanical energy inclu- impedance of the PZT and the load maximises the
ding blood pressure, walking, and upper limb power flow from the PZT. Their model was experi-
motion of a human being. The author claims that mentally verified using a 1-D beam structure with
8.4 W of useable power can be achieved from a PZT peak power efficiencies of c. 20%.
mounted in a shoe. Kymissis et al. [4] examined Most of the previous studies found out that the
using a piezofilm in addition to a Thunder actuator energy generated by the PZT material must be
[5, 6], to charge a capacitor and power a radio fre- accumulated before it can be used to power other
quency identification (RFID) transmitter from the electronic devices. Rather than use the traditional
energy lost to the shoe during walking. The poly- capacitor that most other studies used, Sodano et al.
vinylidene fluoride (PVDF) stave was located in the [12] investigated the use of rechargeable batteries to
sole to absorb the bending energy of the shoe, and accumulate the generated energy. The goal of this
the piezoceramic thunder actuator was located in study was to show that the small amounts of
the heel to harvest the impact energy. Their work ambient vibration found on a typical system could
showed that the power generated by the PZT devices be used to charge the battery from its discharged
was sufficient for powering functional wireless de- state and demonstrated the compatibility of
vices and were able to transmit a 12-bit signal five to rechargeable batteries and the power generated by
six times every few seconds. Following the work of PZT materials. To do this, the vibration of the air
Kymssis et al. [4], the research involving wireless compressor of a typical automobile was measured
sensors began to grow, and in 1998, Kimura [7] and a similar signal was applied to an aluminum
received a US Patent that centered on the use of plate with a PZT patch attached. It was found that
a vibrating PZT plate to generate energy sufficient to the random signal from the engine compartment of
run a small transmitter fixed to migratory birds for a car could charge the battery in only a couple of
the purpose of transmitting their identification code hours and that a resonant signal could charge the
and location. The effectiveness of the power har- battery in under an hour. Ottman et al. [13] found
vesting system is also compared with existing bat- out that if circuitry was used to maximise the energy
tery technology. Goldfarb and Jones [8] presented a generated then these storage devices could be
linearised model of a PZT stack and analysed its charged with greater efficiency. Therefore, they
efficiency as a power generation device. It was investigated the effects of utilising a DC–DC step-
shown that the maximum efficiency occurs in a low down converter with an adaptive control algorithm
frequency region, much lower than the structural to maximise the power output of the PZT material.
resonance of the stack. It is also stated that the They found out that when using the adaptive cir-
efficiency is also related to the amplitude of the cuit, energy was harvested at over four times the
input force due to hysteresis of the PZT. In addition rate of direct charging without a converter.
to the force applied in the poling direction (d33 This study concentrates on developing an analytic
mode), Clark and Ramsay [9] have investigated and model of a beam with attached PZT elements that will
compared it with the transverse force (d31 mode) for provide an accurate estimate of the power generated
a PZT generator. Their work showed that the d31 through the PZT effect. It has been found in previous
mode has a mechanical advantage in converting studies that PZT material attached to a beam with
applied pressure to working stress for power gen- cantilever boundary conditions provides an effective
eration. They concluded that a 1-cm2 piezoceramic configuration for capturing transverse vibrations and
wafer can power a MEMS device in the microwatt converting them into useful electrical power. This
range. Elvin et al. [10] theoretically and experi- configuration has proven to be effective in several
mentally investigated a self-powered wireless sensors experiments carried out by Sodano et al. [12, 14]. The
using PVDF. The power harvesting system used the model detailed in this paper is based on a more gen-
energy generated by the PVDF to charge a capacitor eral one developed by Hagood et al. [15] to estimate
and power a transmitter that could send informa- the performance of PZT shunt damping circuits for
tion regarding the strain of the beam, a distance of passive vibration control. In addition, the model
2 m. Kasyap et al. [11] formulated a lumped element developed by Crawley et al. [16] was used to develop
model to represent the dynamic behaviour of PZT in the actuation equations for PZT devices and the
multiple energy domains using an equivalent cir- constitutive equations of bimorph actuators were
cuit. Additionally, this work dealt with the con- obtained from Smits et al. [17]. However, an import-
struction of a flyback converter which allows the ant addition is made to the combination of these
circuit’s impedance to be adjusted to match that of models to accommodate power harvesting, which was
the PZT material. This concept of matching the neglected in the previous models, was to add material
damping; if excluded, the model can predict signifi- where c is the modulus of elasticity, e is the dielectric
cantly more energy generation that actually devel- constant and the superscript, ()S, signifies that the
oped in the real system. The following sections parameter was measured at constant strain and the
describe the development of a model of the PZT power superscript, ()E, indicates that the parameter was
harvesting device. This model would simplify the measured at constant electric field (short circuit).
design necessary for determining the appropriate size These constitutive equations relate the electrical and
and extent of vibration needed for sufficient energy to mechanical properties of the PZT element. The spe-
be produced and supplied to the desired electronic cification of these relationships allow electrome-
devices. An experimental verification of the model is chanical interaction to be included in the model. The
also performed to ensure its accuracy. Following the term e is the PZT coupling coefficient and relates the
verification of the model, the effects of power har- stress to the applied electric field. The PZT coupling
vesting on the dynamics of a structure are compared coefficient can be written as shown in Equation 6 in
with those brought on from shunt damping. terms of the more commonly specified coupling
coefficient d by:
e ¼ dij cE (6)
Model of Piezoelectric Power
Harvesting Beam where c is the modulus of elasticity and dij is the PZT
coupling coefficient with the subscripts ‘i’ and ‘j’
The following derivation uses energy methods to referring to the direction of the applied field and the
develop the constitutive equations of a bimorph PZT poling, respectively. Now we can incorporate the
cantilever beam for power harvesting. To begin the PZT properties in the potential energy function:
deviation we will start with the general form of Z Z Z
1
Hamilton’s principle. This states that the variational U¼ ST cs S dVs þ ST cE S dVp: ST eT E dVp
2 Vs Vp Vp
indicator (VI) must be zero all the time, as shown
below in Equation (1): Z Z
Z t2 ET eS dVp ET eS E dVp (7)
Vp Vp
VI ¼ ½dT dU þ f dxdt ¼ 0 (1)
t1
Taking the variation of the kinetic energy from
where T, U and fdx terms are defined by: Equation 3, and the potential energy term containing
Z Z Z
1 1 the PZT properties of Equation 7, yields:
U¼ ST T dVs þ ST T dVp ET D dVp (2)
2 Vs 2 Vp Vp Z Z Z
T T E
Z Z dU ¼ dS cs S dVs þ dS c S dVp dST eT E dVp
1 1
T¼ qs u_ T u_ dVs þ qs u_ T u_ dVp (3) Vs Vp Vp
2 Vs 2 Vp
Z Z
T
nf
X nq
X dE eS dVp dET eS E dVp (8)
f dx ¼ duðxi Þ fi ðxi Þ dv qj (4) Vp Vp
i¼1 j¼1 Z Z
dT ¼ qs du_ T u_ dVs þ qp du_ T u_ dVp (9)
where U is the potential energy, T is the kinetic Vs Vp
energy, fdx is the external work applied to the system,
and superscripts S, T and E representing the strain, The variations found in Equations 4, 8 and 9 can be
stress, and electric field, respectively, D the electric substituted into Equation 1 to obtain the variational
displacement, V the volume, u the displacement, x indicator:
the position along the beam, v the applied voltage, q Z t 2 Z Z
the charge, q the density, f the applied force and the VI ¼ qs du_ T u_ dVs þ qp du_ T u_ dVp :
t1 Vs Vp
subscripts ‘p’ and ‘s’, represent the PZT material and Z Z
the substrate, respectively. Before the variational dST cs S dVs dST cE S dVp
Vs Vp
indicator can be used to solve for the equations of Z Z Z
motion, the PZT constitutive equations need to be þ dST eT E dVp þ dET eS dVp þ dET eS E dVp
Vp Vp Vp
introduced into the potential energy term and the
nf
X nq
X
variation of both the potential and kinetic energy
þ duðxi Þ f ðxi Þ dv qj (10)
must be found. First the PZT constitutive equations i¼1 j¼1
will be introduced, which are:
E This equation can now be used to solve for the
T c eT S equations of motion of any mechanical system
¼ (5)
D e eS E containing PZT elements. In order to solve
defined in this way Equation 11 can be used define The electromechanical coupling matrix, Q, and the
the strain as follows: capacitance matrix, Cp, are defined by:
Z
@ 2 uðu; t Þ
S ¼ y ¼ y/ðxÞ00 ðt Þ (12) H¼ y/T ðxÞ00 eT wðyÞdVp
@x2 Vp
Z (16)
The third and last assumption is that the electric Cp ¼ wT ðy ÞeS wðy ÞdVp
potential across the PZT element is constant. This Vp
assumption also indicates that no field is applied to The parameters defined in Equations 14, 15 and 16
the beam, which in latter equations designates the can be substituted into variational indicator of
beam to be inactive material: Equation 10. This substitution allows the variational
8 indicator to be written as:
< v=tp t=2 < y < t=2 þ tp
E ¼ wðy Þvðt Þ ¼ 0 t=2 < y < t=2 Z t2 h
(13)
: VI ¼ dr_ T ðt Þ Ms þ Mp r_ ðt Þ dr T ðt Þ Ks þ Kp r ðt Þ
v=tp t=2 tp < y < t=2
t1
where w(y) defines the field over the thickness of the þ dr T ðt Þhvðt Þ þ dv ðt ÞHT r ðt Þ þ dv ðt ÞCp vðt Þ
PZT, which is assumed to be constant. The previous nf
X nq
X i
þ dr ðt Þ/ðxi ÞT fi ðt Þ dvqj ðt Þ dt ¼ 0 (17)
assumption is for a beam with bimorph PZT elements i¼1 j¼1
on the top and bottom of the beam as shown
in Figure 1. The beam in Figure 1 also shows the where d(Æ) indicates the variation of the correspond-
notation for the geometry of the beam that is used ing variable. Taking the integral of the variational
throughout the derivation. indicator leaves two coupled equations. The two
Using the previous assumptions we can simplify equations shown below are coupled by the previously
the variational indicator to include terms that defined electromechanical coupling matrix Q. The
represent physical parameters. By doing this, the first equation defines the mechanical motion and the
equations describing the system become more second equation defines the electrical properties of
recognisable when compared with those of a typical the system:
system and help give physical meaning to the nf
X
parameters in the equations of motion. The mass Ms þMp €r ðt Þþ Ks þKp r ðt ÞHvðt Þ¼ /ðxi ÞT fi ðt Þ
i¼1 (18)
matrices for the system can be written as:
HT r ðt ÞþCp vðt Þ¼qðt Þ
Z
Ms ¼ qs /T ðxÞ/ðxÞdVs These equations now represent the electro-mechan-
Vs
Z (14) ical system and can be used to determine the motion
Mp ¼ qp /T ðxÞ/ðxÞdVp of the beam, however this system of equations does
Vp
not contain any energy dissipation. Because the
The stiffness matrices can be written as: model is intended to represent a power harvesting
system that must be removing energy, this form is through its own inertia. The standard boundary
not suitable for our needs, as it does not account for conditions of the clamped end of the beam say that
energy lost through the structure. In addition, the the slope and displacement are zero at all time. For
energy removed from the system through energy the condition of base motion, the zero displacement
harvesting must be accounted for. To incorporate condition would not be held and a new set of mode
energy dissipation into the equation one can use shapes would need to be generated. Rather than do-
Ohm’s law and add a resistive element between the ing this, it was decided that a force corresponding to
positive and negative electrodes of the PZT. The the inertia of the beam when subjected to the base
resistive element will provide a means of removing motion could be used and the clamped-free mode
energy from the system. Then electrical boundary shapes would still be valid. The forcing function used
condition becomes: to model the inertia of the beam is:
Z Z Z
vi ðt Þ ¼ Rq_ ðt Þ (19) L b t
f ðt Þ ¼ qAx2 sinðxt Þ dz dy dx (23)
0 0 0
In addition, the system should have some type of
additional mechanical damping that needs to be With the forcing function defined, everything
accounted for. If only the electrical damping is necessary to simulate the power harvesting system
accounted for, the model will over predict the actual has been included in the model. The following sec-
amount of power generated. The amount of tions of this paper will describe the experimental
mechanical damping added to the model was procedures and results, in order to demonstrate the
determined from experimental results. This is done accuracy of this model.
using proportional damping methods and the
damping ratio that is predicted from the measured
frequency response function. With the damping Experimental Setup for Model Verification
ratio known, proportional damping can be found
from [18]: The accuracy of the model will be tested on a Quick
Pack model QP40N (Midé Technology Corporation,
C ¼ a Ms þ Mp þ b Ks þ Kp (20)
Medford, MA, USA), although it could be used to
where a and b are determined from: model any beam with attached PZT. The QP40N is a
bimorph actuator with dimensions and properties
a bxi shown in Figure 2. The Quick Pack actuator is con-
fi ¼ þ i ¼ 1; 2; . . . ; n (21)
2xi 2 structed from four piezoceramic wafers embedding in
where fi is the damping ratio found from the fre- a Kapton and epoxy matrix. Experiments were per-
quency response of the structure. Incorporating formed to verify the accuracy of the models ability to
Equations 19 and 20 into Equation 18, results in the predict the amount of power generated from this
final model of the power harvesting system: device when subjected to transverse vibrations of
varying frequency and amplitude. As mentioned
Ms þ Mp €r ðt Þ þ Cr_ ðt Þ þ Ks þ Kp r ðt Þ HC1
p qð t Þ
nf
X
¼ / ð xi Þ T f i ð t Þ (22)
i¼1
T
Rq_ ðt Þ C1 1
p H r ðt Þ þ Cp qðt Þ ¼ 0:
Model Verification
The accuracy of the model was compared against
experimental results to demonstrate the ability of the
model to accurately predict the amount of power
produced by the Quick Pack when subjected to
transverse vibration. To ensure that the model and
experimental tests were subjected to the same exci-
tation force an accelerometer was used to calculate
the amplitude of the sinusoidal force applied to the
beam through:
a
a ¼ Ax2 sinðxt Þ ) Amax ¼ (24)
x2
where a is the acceleration of the clamped end of the
Figure 4: Experimental setup used to find the elastic modulus beam. The beam was excited by a sinusoidal input and
of the Kapton–epoxy matrix the steady state power output was measured across
–20 0.05
Predicted Model
Measured 0.04 Experimental
–40
0.03
–60 0.02
Current (mA)
Mode shapes
0.01
–80
0
–100
–0.01
–120 –0.02
–0.03
–140
–0.04
–160 –0.05
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Frequency (Hz) Time (s)
Figure 5: Frequency response of the model and the Figure 7: Output current predicted by model and measured
experimental data across a 100-kX resistor at 25 Hz
several different resistors. The frequency response of The measured current generated by the Quick
the model and the experimentally tested Quick Pack Pack was compared to the predicted current from
are shown in Figure 5. The differences in the two the model for various frequencies and load resi-
responses are attributed to the Quick Pack’s compos- stances. The output current across a 100 kX resistor
ite structure resulting in coupled modes and the for an excitation frequency of 25 Hz of the model
nonlinear properties of the Kapton material, especi- and the measured current obtained through experi-
ally its modulus of elasticity that varies nonlinearly ments are shown in Figure 7. The predicted response
with frequency. Additionally, looking at the mode shown in these figures shows a transient response
shapes of a cantilever beam shown in Figure 6, it can for a small period of time while the experimental
be seen that in the second mode a large amount of results do not because they were recorded at steady
bending occurs at the beam’s midsection. However state vibration. Table 2 provides an approximate list
the Quick Pack has an area of low stiffness at the of the measured and predicted currents generated
midsection but because of the use of a uniform for numerous values of frequency and load resist-
modulus of elasticity and density in the model, the ance. The values in this table demonstrate that the
stiffness is increased at this location and the predicted model provides a very accurate measurement of the
frequency of the second mode is higher than meas- power generated at various frequencies and resistive
ured. It is expected that a beam constructed of a loads. This shows that the model would be effective
homogeneous material with a PZT mounted to is as a design tool for determining the ideal size and
surface would produce a more accurate frequency excitation level necessary to provide the desired
response. power.
Amplitude
0.02
layout and a non-homogeneous material composi-
tion, the model also demonstrates that power 0
gained an increasing attention due to the recent 5. Dausch, D. and White, S. (1998) Composition Effects on
Electromechanical Degradation of RAINBOW Actuators. Nati-
advances in wireless and MEMS technology, allowing
onal Aeronautics and Space Administration, Hampton, VA.
sensors to be placed in remote locations and operate
6. Face International Corporation (2001) Product Information,
at very low power. The need for power harvesting
Thunder Actuators and Sensors. Face International
devices is caused by the use batteries as power sup- Corporation, Norfolk, VA. http://www.face-int.com/
plies for these wireless electronics. As the battery has thunder/tech/ttech.htm.
a finite lifespan, once extinguished of its energy, the 7. Kimura, M. (1998) Piezoelectric Generation Device, US
sensor must be recovered and the battery replaced for Patent Number 5801475.
the continued operation of the sensor. This practice 8. Goldfarb, M. and Jones, L. D. (1999) On the efficiency of
of obtaining sensors solely to replace the battery can electric power generation with piezoelectric ceramic.
become and expensive task, because their wireless ASME Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement, and
Control, 121, 566–571.
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Therefore, methods of harvesting the energy around 9. Clark, W. and Ramsay, M. J. (2001) Smart material trans-
ducers as power sources for MEMS devices. In: Proceedings
these sensors must be implemented to expand the life
of SPIE’s 8th Annual International Symposium on Smart
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We have developed a model to predict the amount 10. Elvin, N. G., Elvin, A. A. and Spector, M. (2001) A self-
of power capable of being generated through the powered mechanical strain energy sensor. Smart Materials
vibration of a cantilever beam with attached PZT and Structures 10, 293–299.
elements. The derivation of the model has been 11. Kasyap, A., Lim, J., Johnson, D., Horowitz, S., Nishida, T.,
provided, allowing it to be applied to a beam with Ngo, K., Sheplak, M. and Cattafesta, L. (2002) Energy
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excitation frequency and load resistance. In addition, (2002) Electric power generation from piezoelectric
the verification of the model was performed on a materials. In: The 13th International Conference on Adaptive
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in the model and to follow that of a resistive shunt
14. Sodano, H. A., Park, G., Leo, D. J. and Inman, D. J.
damping circuit. This model provides a design tool
(2003) Use of piezoelectric energy harvesting devices
for developing power harvesting systems by assisting for charging batteries. In: SPIE’s 10th Annual International
in determining the size and extent of vibration Symposium on Smart Structures and Materials, 2–6 March,
needed to produce the desired level of power San Diego, CA.
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