Construction[edit]

Continental engine marine crankshafts, 1942

Crankshafts can be monolithic (made in a single piece) or assembled from several pieces.
Monolithic crankshafts are most common, but some smaller and larger engines use assembled
crankshafts.

Forging and casting[edit]

Forged crankshaft
Crankshafts can be forged from a steel bar usually through roll forging or cast in ductile steel.
Today more and more manufacturers tend to favor the use of forged crankshafts due to their
lighter weight, more compact dimensions and better inherent damping. With forged crankshafts,
vanadium microalloyed steels are mostly used as these steels can be air cooled after reaching
high strengths without additional heat treatment, with exception to the surface hardening of the
bearing surfaces. The low alloy content also makes the material cheaper than high alloy steels.
Carbon steels are also used, but these require additional heat treatment to reach the desired
properties. Iron crankshafts are today mostly found in cheaper production engines (such as those
found in the Ford Focus diesel engines) where the loads are lower. Some engines also use cast
iron crankshafts for low output versions while the more expensive high output version use forged
steel.

Machining[edit]

Crankshafts can also be machined out of a billet, often a bar of high quality vacuum remelted
steel. Though the fiber flow (local inhomogeneities of the material's chemical composition
generated during casting) doesn’t follow the shape of the crankshaft (which is undesirable), this
is usually not a problem since higher quality steels, which normally are difficult to forge, can be
used. These crankshafts tend to be very expensive due to the large amount of material that must
be removed with lathes and milling machines, the high material cost, and the additional heat
treatment required. However, since no expensive tooling is needed, this production method
allows small production runs without high costs.

In an effort to reduce costs, used crankshafts may also be machined. A good core may often be
easily reconditioned by a crankshaft grinding [22] process. Severely damaged crankshafts may also
be repaired with a welding operation, prior to grinding, that utilizes a submerged arc welding
machine. To accommodate the smaller journal diameters a ground crankshaft has, and possibly
an over-sized thrust dimension, undersize engine bearings are used to allow for precise
clearances during operation.

Machining or remanufacturing crankshafts are precision machined to exact tolerances with no

odd size crankshaft bearings or journals. Thrust surfaces are micro-polished to provide precise
surface finishes for smooth engine operation and reduced thrust bearing wear. Every journal is
inspected and measured with critical accuracy. After machining, oil holes are chamfered to
improve lubrication and every journal polished to a smooth finish for long bearing life.
Remanufactured crankshafts are thoroughly cleaned with special emphasis to flushing and
brushing out oil passages to remove any contaminants. Typically there are 23 steps to re-
manufacturing a crankshaft which are as follows:[23]

Step 1: Industrial cleaning[edit]

The first step in the industrial crankshaft remanufacturing process is cleaning the entire
crankshaft. Machine shops soak the rebuilt crankshafts in a hot tank and use a power washing
station on the overall shaft as needed. Next machinists then wire brush all oil holes to remove
caked on residue and other substances.
Step 2: Magnetic particle inspection[edit]

The second step in the crankshaft remanufacturing process is using a magnetic particle
inspection method to check for cracks. The crankshaft is maganitized and sprayed with a iron
oxide powder which, under blacklight conditions, makes any cracks or imperfections visible. All
remanufactured crankshafts are checked for imperfections before proceeding forward in the
manufacturing process.

Step 3: Check counterweights[edit]

The machine shop then removes and cleans the counterweights. The production facility then
checks the counterweights to make sure they are tight. If the counterweights are loose a
technician then replaces all of the counterweight bolts. Counterweights are inspected for cracks
before being replaced or retightened. In step sixteen the machinist re-installs the counterweights
back into the rebuilt crankshafts.

Step 4: Check crankshaft bearings and straightness[edit]

The machinist then inspects the entire incoming remanufactured crankshaft for damage and
determines the size of the journals and mains. Next the machinist checks the hardness of the
mains and journals. It is crucial to also inspect the crankshaft bearings and check the straightness
of the overall crankshaft. Re-straightening the industrial crankshaft if not up to OEM standards
occurs in step seven. Veteran machine shops typically do not re-straighten the rebuilt crankshafts
until a quality control technician checks the bolt holes and seals the surface for divots.

Step 5: Check bolt holes[edit]

The technician checks the keyway, nose, bolt holes and seals the surface for non-conformities.
Usually machine shops will tap bolt holes up to but not more than ½” on all remanufactured
crankshafts.

Step 6: Stamp counterweight webbing[edit]

The rebuild team next stamps the counterweights & webbing in proper firing order (alpha if
numeric & vice versa). Technicians then stamp the employee ID#, Work Order # and date on #1
rod webbing. Stamping this information on the rod webbing helps keep the quality control
process order in case of future issues during the manufacturing process.

Step 7: Re-straightening for rebuilt crankshafts[edit]

The seventh step is industrial crankshaft re-straightening. If the remanufactured crankshaft is

deemed un-straight than technicians use an industrial straightening machine on the crankshaft.
The straightening machine determines how many dials are out of line. To re-straighten the shaft
technicians heat up the crankshaft to 500-600 degrees. Any more than 700 degrees takes the
hardness out of the shaft. The straightener process corrects the bent crankshaft to the proper
OEM specifications for rebuilt crankshafts.
Step 8: Repeat magnetic particle inspection process[edit]

The eight step in the process is repeating the magnetic particle inspection process if straightening
was performed. Anytime metal is being stressed it is imperative to re-inspect for cracks and
structural imperfections on the reman crankshaft.

Step 9: Undercutting[edit]

The ninth step in the industrial crankshaft re-manufacturing process is undercutting. Technicians
undercut the rod or journals to eliminate wear before buildup.

Step 10: Thermal spraying[edit]

The tenth step is the prevention of further buildup via metalizing often called thermal spraying.
Thermal spraying has been around for well over 100 years but is still widely known as the best
preventative corrosion fighting technique in the world. Thermal spraying is also known for
changing the surface of the metallic component and is common with rebuilt crankshafts. Thermal
spraying involves protrusion of molten particles onto the heated metallic surface where is bonds
and forms a smooth coating interwoven into the structure. There are many different types of
thermal spray alloys that can be employed for re-manufactured crankshafts. Typically, boron
alloys are used as they very dense, hard and are oxide free. They also prevent against abrasive
materials that cause divots, scratches and cracks in addition to preventing surface erosion and
corrosion. Thermal spray is an important step some machine shops employ, but not always
performed in the industry.

Step 11: Industrial crankshaft welding[edit]

The welding process for re-manufactured crankshafts is called submerged arc welding. It is a
powdered flux plus a weld which combines to produce a more precise weld. The most common
flux powder used is called #1 Flux 2245 HD. This powder eliminates the need for technicians to
wear weld masking and reduces the amount of dust by-product.

Step 12: Relieve structural stress[edit]

The twelfth step is to relieve stress upon the entire rebuilt crankshaft structure by heating it up
again to 500-600 degrees.

Step 13: Recheck for straightness[edit]

Next step is to check for overall straightness of the re-manufactured crankshaft once again. If the
re-manufactured crankshaft is out of alignment then the technician repeats step 7 and re-
straighten the structure. Each of the re-manufactured crankshafts is checked multiple times
throughout the re-manufacturing process to ensure quality control. If the straightness is not
compromised the rebuilt crankshafts can proceed to step thirteen which is crankshaft grinding.

Step 14: Rough crankshaft grinding[edit]

This is one of the most important steps in the re-manufacturing process of industrial crankshafts.
This step involves rough grinding the excess material from the rod or journals and is known as
crankshaft grinding. On the rod there are various mains that need to be reground to proper OEM
specifications. These rods are spun grind to the next under-size using the pultrusion crankshaft
grinding machine. Rod mains are ground inside and outside. Machine shops have the ability to
“crankshaft grind” to any size to bring back the crankshaft to standard OEM specifications.

Step 15: Finished crankshaft grinding[edit]

Next the technician performs a finished crankshaft grinding procedure. The finished crankshaft
grinding is a more precise grind which reaches the correct OEM specifications. Before the
technician starts the crankshaft grinding they should see what crankshaft bearings are available
and start from there. For example, the OEM specification for a Caterpillar 3306 Rod is 2.9987” –
3.0003”. Top industrial crankshaft grinding technicians always stop at the high end of the
tolerance level. Lastly the technician further refines the crankshaft grinding process in during the
micro-polishing process at step eighteen.

Step 16: Shot peening[edit]

The next step is to process the industrial crankshaft in using shot peen machinery. Shot peening
adds an additional layer of hardness to the re-manufactured crankshaft.

Step 17: Replace or re-tighten counterweights[edit]

Step 17 involves replacing the counterweights in proper firing order. Either the new
counterweights are installed or the old counterweight bolts are re-tightened and tested.

Step 18: Determine proper balance[edit]

The machine shop then determines if the proper rotational balance of the re-manufactured
crankshafts is achieved. In the engine the crankshaft, pistons and rods all in a constant rotation.
The counterweights are designed to offset the weight of the rod and the pistons in the engine.
When in motion the kinetic energy and the sum of all forces should be equal to zero on all
moving parts. If the re-manufactured crankshaft counterweights are imbalanced it adds additional
stress on other components of the engine. The technician should then make sure the internal
balance and the external balance of the crankshaft counterweights are properly aligned.

Step 19: Micro-polishing[edit]

Then the technician micro-polishes each of the rebuilt crankshafts by hand. To further refine the
crankshaft grinding process the machinist makes the most precise fit by micro-polishing the
component with a 600 grit emery cloth. Through micro-polishing and industrial crankshaft
grinding, the machine shop achieves the recommended Rockwell hardness and Ra finish
(Roughness Parameter).

Step 20: Test reman crankshaft Rockwell hardness[edit]

Next the technician checks the industry standard hardness. Industry standards crankshaft
hardness is 40 on the Rockwell hardness scale. A 45-50 rating is what most reputable machine
shops try to employ for all remanufactured crankshafts. When possible it is wise to go beyond
industry standards to prevent any future weaknesses within the unit. Typically, hardness can be
reduced if the engine is out of oil or the journal is spun incorrectly.

Step 21: Final quality control inspection[edit]

Quality control inspects all of the finished reman crankshafts for internal and external mistakes.
A typical quality control department uses separate testing and analytical measurement tools from
the technicians to ensure accuracy. If the rebuilt crankshaft passes the quality control inspection
it goes onto the rust proofing stage.

Step 22: Rustproof remanufactured crankshaft[edit]

The vast majority of machine shops apply rust proofing to all remanufactured crankshafts using
Cosmoline, which is standard rust-proofing for engine parts.

Step 23: Packaging[edit]

Lastly the machine shop packs the finished rebuilt crankshaft correctly making sure to using
proper boxing and damage proof coverings. It is important to cover the rod journals (varies per
crankshaft) with paper & tape in place.

Microfinishing[edit]

Microfinishing is a method of finishing the surface of the crankshaft in such a manner that
microscopic roughness, pitting or cracking is reduced to a smooth, integral surface. Crankshafts
fail by fatigue cracking and cracks start at the most highly stressed point in the material, which is
the surface. Once a crack has developed, it increases the local stress in the area at its 'V' point,
which slowly increases the size of the crack. The objective of microfinishing is to reduce to the
smallest number and size any deviation in the surface and thus minimise the opportunity for
cracks to develop.

Fatigue strength[edit]

The fatigue strength of crankshafts is usually increased by using a radius at the ends of each
main and crankpin bearing. The radius itself reduces the stress in these critical areas, but since
the radius in most cases is rolled, this also leaves some compressive residual stress in the surface,
which prevents cracks from forming.

Hardening[edit]

Most production crankshafts use induction hardened bearing surfaces, since that method gives
good results with low costs. It also allows the crankshaft to be reground without re-hardening.
But high performance crankshafts, billet crankshafts in particular, tend to use nitridization
instead. Nitridization is slower and thereby more costly, and in addition it puts certain demands
on the alloying metals in the steel to be able to create stable nitrides. The advantage of
nitridization is that it can be done at low temperatures, it produces a very hard surface, and the
process leaves some compressive residual stress in the surface, which is good for fatigue
properties. The low temperature during treatment is advantageous in that it doesn’t have any
negative effects on the steel, such as annealing. With crankshafts that operate on roller bearings,
the use of carburization tends to be favored due to the high Hertzian contact stresses in such an
application. Like nitriding, carburization also leaves some compressive residual stresses in the
surface.

Counterweights[edit]

Some expensive, high performance crankshafts also use heavy-metal counterweights to make the
crankshaft more compact. The heavy-metal used is most often a tungsten alloy but depleted
uranium has also been used. A cheaper option is to use lead, but compared with tungsten its
density is much lower.

Stress on crankshafts[edit]
The shaft is subjected to various forces but generally needs to be analysed in two positions.
Firstly, failure may occur at the position of maximum bending; this may be at the centre of the
crank or at either end. In such a condition the failure is due to bending and the pressure in the
cylinder is maximal. Second, the crank may fail due to twisting, so the conrod needs to be
checked for shear at the position of maximal twisting. The pressure at this position is the
maximal pressure, but only a fraction of maximal pressure.[clarification needed]