1) Στα «Έγγραφα» του μαθήματος θα υπάρχει σχετικό έγγραφο (ανανεούμενο εβδομαδιαίως)

που θα περιέχει τα ακροάματα της κάθε εβδομάδας και τα ζητήματα που αναπτύχθηκαν. Θα
μπορείτε να αρχίσετε άμεσα την ενασχόλησή σας με τα ακροάματα αναζητώντας τα στη
Βιβλιοθήκη και στο διαδίκτυο (κυρίως στο www.youtube.com).

2) Ασχοληθείτε με τον εμπλουτισμό των σημειώσεών σας (αφού πρώτα διαβάσετε και την
περιγραφή του μαθήματος) βασιζόμενοι στα παρακάτω:

α) Οποιαδήποτε έκδοση έχετε σ! τη διάθεσή σας του D.J. Grout, C.V.

Palisca, A History of Western Music

β) E.J. Hobsbawm, «Οι τέχνες», στο H εποχή των Επαναστάσεων: 1789-1848, μτφ Μαριέτα
Οικονομοπούλου (Αθήνα: ΜΙΕΤ, 1992), σελ.356-389

γ) Ulrich Michels, Άτλας της Μουσικής, 2 τόμοι (Αθήνα: Φίλιππος Νάκας, 1995). Ιδιαιτέρως
τα μέρη που αφορούν στον Κλασικισμό, στον 19ο αιώνα και στον 20ό αιώνα θα σας φανούν
ιδιαίτερα χρήσιμα. ΠΡΟΣΟΧΗ σε όσα ειπώθηκαν για τη συγκεκριμένη έκδοση στο πλαίσιο της
Οργάνωσης Επιστημονικής Μελέτης Ι.

δ) Την διαδικτυακή εκδοχή του The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.

ε) Τον διαδικτυακό τόπο του εκπαιδευτικού προγράμματος της Βιβλιοθήκης του Μεγάρου
Μουσικής Αθηνών με τον τίτλο «Μελοδύσσεια» ( http://melodisia.!>mmb.org.gr/ ).

στ) Παρακολουθείτε συστηματικά, διαδικτυακά, το BBC 3 (http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio3) και το

Classicfm.com (http://www.classicfm.com/).

ΙΣΤΟΡΙΚΉ ΜΟΥΣΙΚΉ ΑΝΘΟΛΟΓΊΑ ΙΙ

Β΄ εξ.

Κατάλογος Ακροαμάτων Εξεταστικής Ιουνίου 2017

Κλασικισμός

1) Carl Stamitz, Sinfonia in Re mag. ‘La chasse’, ‘i) ‘Grave-Allegro’

2) W.A. Mozart, Συμφωνία αρ.25, i) ‘Allegro con brio’
3) W.A. Mozart, Συμφωνία αρ. 41, iv) ‘Finale (Molto Allegro)’
4) Johann Christian Bach, Συμφωνία αρ. 6 σε σολ ελ., i) ‘Allegro’
5) Giovanni Battista Sammartini, Sinfonia in Sol Maggiore, i) ‘Allegro ma non tanto’
6) L. van Beethoven, Oktett Es-dur, i) ‘Allegro’
7) L. van Beethoven, Συμφωνία αρ. 3, i) ‘Allegro con brio’
8) L. van Beethoven, Συμφωνία αρ. 6, «Ποιμενική», iii) ‘H καταιγίδα’, Allegro
9) J. Haydn, Trompete-Konzert, i) ‘Allegro’

Μουσική του 19ου αιώνα

1) Franz Schubert, Συμφωνία αρ. 5, iv) ‘Allegro vivace’

2) Franz Schubert, Συμφωνία αρ. 8, «Ημιτελής», i) ‘Allegro Moderato’
3) Hector Berlioz, Symphonie fantastique, iv) ‘Marche au supplice’
4) Franz Liszt, Mazeppa
5) Bedřich Smetana, Má Vlast: II) ‘Vltava’ [Μολδάβας]
6) Giuseppe Verdi, La battaglia di Legnano, «Εισαγωγή»
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xUhvIjEX3aM
7) Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Scheherazade, i)
8) Giacomo Puccini, Turandot: ‘O giovinetto! Grazia!’
9) R.Wagner, Tristan und Isolde, Εισαγωγή
10) Robert Schumann, Συμφωνία αρ. 3 «Rheinisch»: i) ‘Lebhaft’
11) Gustav Mahler, Συμφωνία αρ.1: i) ‘Langsam’

Η μουσική του 20ού αιώνα

1) Anton Webern, Passacaglia, op.1 (1908)

2) Claude Debussy, La mer, I (1905)
3) Giacomo Puccini, Il tabarro, Σκηνή Ι (1918)
4) Ottorino Respighi, Pini di Roma, I (1924)
5) Charles Ives, Central Park in the dark (1906)
6) Igor Stravinsky, Le sacre du printemps, I (1913)
7) Arnold Schoenberg, 5 Orchesterstücke, op.16, iii) Farben (1909)
8) Arnold Schoenberg, Pierrot Lunaire: ‘Mondestrunken’ (1912)
9) Anton Webern, Concerto, op.24 (1934), i) ‘Etwas lebhaft’
10) Alban Berg, Wozzeck, Πράξη Α΄, Σκηνή 3 (1925)
11) Maurice Ravel, Παβάνα για μια νεκρή ινφάντα (1910)
12) Béla Bartók, Rhapsody No2, ‘Lassù’ (1944)
13) Νίκος Σκαλκώτας, «Volktanz» από τα 32 κομμάτια για πιάνο (1940)
14) John Cage, Sonata No.1 for prepared piano (1948)
15) Kurt Weill, Ta επτά θανάσιμα αμαρτήματα (1933), ‘Πρόλογος’
16) George Gershwin, Cuban overture (1932)
17) Sergei Prokofiev, Alexander Nevsky, iii) (1938)
18) Dmitri Shostakovich, Κοντσέρτο για πιάνο, τρομπέτα και έγχορδα, i) Allegro moderato
(1933)
19) Dmitri Shostakovich, Συμφωνία αρ.5, iv) Allegro non troppo (1937)

Ακροάματα Ηλεκτρονικής Μουσικής:

1) Luigi Russolo, Corale per intonarumori e strumenti - Serenata

 2) P. Tchaikovsky, Valse Sentimentale. Clara Rockmore (1911-98.)
The Art of the Theremin (Delos CD 1014)

3) O. Messian (1908-1992), a) Oraison (1937), b) 4° Feuillet

Inédit Radiohead Cymbal Rush
4) John Cage, Imaginary Landscape no 1
5) Pierre Schaeffer, Cinq études de bruits
6) Karlheinz Stockhausen, a) Elektronische Studie II b) Gesang der Junglinge
7) Louis & Bebe Barron. Mουσική τίτλων για την ταινία Forbidden Planet
8) Edgar Varese, Poeme Electronique
9) I. Xenakis, Concret PH
10) Francois Bayle, L'oiseau chanteur
11) John Cage, Williams Mix 1952-1953
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9ql4Ophbt
7k
12) Lejaren Hiller and Leonard Isaacson: Illiac Suite
1956
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pEhAiTenigU
13) Max Mathews, Daisy Bell 1961
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=41U78QP8n
Bk
14) Horacio Vaggione, Consort for Convolved Violins
2011 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F20kvxuXuE0
15) Stephane Roy, Crystal Music

Η διεύρυνση των μουσικών ακουσμάτων των φοιτητών μέσα από τη σχολιασμένη

παρουσίαση αντιπροσωπευτικών μουσικών έργων (κλασικισμός, ρομαντισμός, μοντερνισμός,
τζαζ, ηλεκτρονική μουσική) με έμφαση στην τεχνοτροπία, στη μορφολογία και στην
κοινωνική σημασία τους. Στους σκοπούς του μαθήματος περιλαμβάνονται και η βιωματική
σχέση με το μουσικό έργο, καθώς και η ανάπτυξη των δεξιοτήτων καταγραφής σημειώσεων
την ώρα της παράδοσης και της αναζήτησης βασικής βιβλιογραφίας στη βιβλιοθήκη του
Τμήματος.

ΚΛΑΣΣΙΚΙΣΜΟΣ

1) Carl Stamitz (Karel Stamic) - Viola Concerto in D major, Wolfram Christ (viola), Kölner
Kammerorchester (Cologne Chamber Orchestra), Helmut Müller-Brühl (conductor) Carl
Philipp Stamitz (Karel Stamic, 8 May 1745 – 9 November 1801) was a German composer of
partial Czech ancestry. He was the most prominent representative of the second generation
of the Mannheim School but he was more successful as a virtuoso on the viola d'amore than
as a composer, though his enormous catalog of symphonies, symphonies concertantes, and
concertos was impressive enough to provoke envy in Mozart.

Symphony in D-major "La Chasse" (c.1772) (Scored for strings, 2 oboes, horns, trumpets and
timpani.)

2) The Symphony No. 25 in G minor, K. 183/173dB, was written by Wolfgang Amadeus

Mozart in October 1773, shortly after the success of his opera seria Lucio Silla. It was
supposedly completed October 5, a mere two days after the completion of his Symphony
No. 24, although this remains unsubstantiated. Its first movement is widely known as the
opening music in Miloš Forman's film Amadeus. The symphony is laid out in standard
classical form: 1. Allegro con brio, 4/4 in G minor 2. Andante, 2/4 in E-flat major 3. Menuetto
& Trio, 3/4 in G minor, Trio in G major 4. Allegro, 4/4 in G minor. With its wide-leap melodic
lines and brisk musical subjects, this symphony is characteristic of the Sturm und Drang
style. It shares certain features with other Sturm und Drang symphonies of this time, and is
likely inspired from Joseph Haydn's Symphony No. 39 which is likewise in G minor. The
opening Mannheim rocket (a rising arpeggiated sequence) was quoted by Beethoven in his
first Piano Sonata as the principal subject of the first movement.

3) Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's last symphony, the Jupiter Symphony (No. 41), was
written along with two other, full-length symphonies in the summer of 1788 — in just
six weeks. Mozart had recently been idolized all over Europe for operas such as Don
Giovanni and for his spectacular performances of his own piano concertos.

Statue of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart in Salzburg, Jan. 26

Getty Images

But, by most accounts, Mozart was near the bottom when he wrote it: broke and in
debt. His audiences had become interested in other composers. Austria was at war
with Turkey. And his newborn daughter had just died.

Still, Mozart was determined to do something revolutionary. That comes in the final
movement of the Jupiter Symphony with the composer's use of counterpoint, or
weaving together two or more different melodies. Mozart uses five different melodies
simultaneously in the Jupiter, making it a challenge for any orchestra that takes it on.

Some have said the Jupiter sums up what had happened in symphonic music up to that
point, and that it foreshadows the work of Beethoven. But more than that, it's
exuberant and introspective, charming and complicated — a lot like life itself.

turm und Drang (German pronunciation: [ˈʃtʊɐ̯m ʊnt ˈdʁaŋ], literally "storm and drive", "storm
and urge", though conventionally translated as "storm and stress")[1] is a proto-Romantic
movement in German literature and music that took place from the late 1760s to the early
1780s, in which individual subjectivity and, in particular, extremes of emotion were given
free expression in reaction to the perceived constraints of rationalism imposed by the
Enlightenment and associated aesthetic movements. The period is named for Friedrich
Maximilian Klinger's play Sturm und Drang, which was first performed by Abel Seyler's
famed theatrical company in 1777.

Sturm und Drang, (German: “Storm and Stress”), German literary movement of the
late 18th century that exalted nature, feeling, and human individualism and sought to
overthrow the Enlightenment cult of Rationalism. Goethe and Schiller began their
careers as prominent members of the movement.

The exponents of the Sturm und Drang were profoundly influenced by the thought of
Rousseau and Johann Georg Hamann, who held that the basic verities of existence
were to be apprehended through faith and the experience of the senses. The young
writers also were influenced by the works of the English poet Edward Young, the
pseudo-epic poetry of James Macpherson’s “Ossian,” and the recently translated
works of Shakespeare.

Sturm und Drang was intimately associated with the young Goethe. While a student at
Strasbourg, he made the acquaintance of Johann Gottfried von Herder, a former pupil
of Hamann, who interested him in Gothic architecture, German folk songs, and
Shakespeare. Inspired by Herder’s ideas, Goethe embarked upon a period of
extraordinary creativity. In 1773 he published a play based upon the 16th-century
German knight, Götz von Berlichingen, and collaborated with Herder and others on
the pamphlet “Von deutscher Art und Kunst,” which was a kind of manifesto for the
Sturm und Drang. His novel Die Leiden des jungen Werthers (1774; The Sorrows of
Young Werther), which epitomized the spirit of the movement, made him world fam

However, I do have to tell you about that final movement. Famously, this Molto
Allegro fuses sonata form with fugue; that’s to say, it fuses the high-watermark of late
18th century practice in instrumental music with the most prestigious, and most
compositionally involved, form of counterpoint in earlier music: the fugues of the
Baroque, like those by Bach and Handel, that Mozart knew and loved. But that’s not,
in itself, an original idea – and neither is the four-note melodic tag (C-D-F-E) that is
catalyst for this explosion of contrapuntal mastery. Mozart borrowed his supposed
symphonic innovation from the Haydn brothers, Joseph (the famous one) and Michael
(less famous, but equally influential on Mozart). We know that Mozart wanted to hear
the latest fugues from Michael’s symphonies, which were written in Salzburg, and he
asked his father to send them to him. That means he would have known the finale of
Michael’s 28th Symphony, with its obsessive fugato, also in C major; probably the
fugue that crowns his 34th, in E flat major; and quite possibly another fugue-finale
from his 39th symphony, also in C major, composed just a few months before
Mozart’s. The similarities between Michael’s 29th and 39th, and Mozart’s 41st are
sometimes startling, as you can hear. Even more shocking, have a listen to this, the
final movement of Joseph’s 13th Symphony, written in 1764. There’s the very same
four-note idea used as the basis of a contrapuntal work-out of a symphonic finale.
There ain’t nothing so old – or so new – as a fugato-style finale.

And that four-note motif has a history, and not just in Mozart’s own music (you can
hear it most clearly in the Credo of his Missa Brevis K192, and in his 1st and 33rd
Symphonies) and that of his contemporaries. In fact, it goes back to a 13th-century
hymn attributed to Thomas of Aquinas, Pange Lingua, which Josquin des Prez used as
the basis for probably his last Mass setting in 1515. Since then, the four-note melody
at the start of the third line of the original hymn (which Josquin employs as a
contrapuntal catalyst in his Kyrie) has turned up throughout musical history,
especially as a fugal inspiration. That includes its use by Johannes Fux, the 17th and
18th century composer and theorist, in his famous textbook of musical polyphony
Gradus ad Parnassum (which Mozart knew, and used in his own teaching of his
English pupil, Thomas Attwood).

Which all means that Mozart’s composition of the finale of the Jupiter Symphony is a
palimpsest on music history as well as his own. As a musical achievement, its most
obvious predecessor is really the fugal finale of his G major String Quartet K387, but
this symphonic finale trumps even that piece in its scale and ambition. If the story of
that operatic tune first movement is to turn instinctive emotion into contrapuntal
experience, the finale does exactly the reverse, transmuting the most complex arts of
compositional craft into pure, exhilarating feeling. Its models in Michael and Joseph
Haydn are unquestionable, but Mozart simultaneously pays homage to them – and
transcends them. Now that’s what I call real originality.

ous and inspired a host of imitators.

4) Johann Christian Bach (September 5, 1735 – January 1, 1782) was a composer of

the Classical era, the eleventh surviving child and youngest son of Johann Sebastian
Bach. He is sometimes referred to as "the London Bach" or "the English Bach", due to
his time spent living in the British capital, where he came to be known as John Bach.
He is noted for influencing the concerto style of Mozart.

Symphony for 2 oboes, 2 horns, strings, and basso continuo in G minor, Op. 6/6
(1769)

"The Symphony in G minor forms the concluding work in both editions [of the Op. 6
symphonies]. This piece, at once sombre and fiery, is closely related, in its expressive
intensity, to the 'Sturm und Drang' symphonies of Haydn and, above all, to Mozart's
so-called 'Little' G-minor Symphony. An unremitting energy and tension run through
the work from first bar to last. The massive strength of the opening Allegro
temporarily gives way, in the central movement, to a gentler bittersweet mood, only to
be further intensified in the concluding Allegro molto with its low-pitched, almost
menacing horn-calls." - Peter Wollny

5) Giovanni Battista Sammartini, Sammartini also spelled San Martini, byname Il

Milanese (born 1700/01, Milan [Italy]—died Jan. 15, 1775, Milan), Italian composer
who was an important formative influence on the pre-Classical symphony and thus on
the Classical style later developed by Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.

The son of Alexis Saint-Martin, a French oboist, he spent most of his life in Milan,
was organist at several churches there, and was said by Charles Burney to have been
organist at the convent of Santa Maria Maddalena from 1730 to 1770. He became
known first as a composer of sacred music. He was one of the first to compose
symphonies for concert performance; their ancestry was in the Italian opera overtures.
As his orchestral and chamber music became known outside Italy, it attracted pupils
to Milan, among them Christoph Gluck, who probably studied with him in 1737–41.

Sammartini was a prolific composer; by some estimates, he produced 2,000 works. It

is impossible, however, to decide whether certain works were composed by him or by
his brother Giuseppe, or even by Giovanni Battista Martini (1706–84) or one of the
numerous forgers who profited from the popularity of his genuine works.
Sammartini’s brother, Giuseppe Sammartini (1695–1750), was renowned as the finest
oboist of his time and was also a prominent composer in England, where he spent his
later years.

Giovanni Sammartini, not to be confused with his brother Giuseppe Sammartini, also a
composer, is widely regarded as "the father of the symphony." While he may not have
invented the form, he was the first composer to master it and helped establish it as a
separate entity from its direct ancestor, the opera overture. The spirit of Classicism is
present in the earliest datable works of Sammartini, which represented a distinct break from
Baroque traditions. Sammartini's influence on composers such as Christoph Willibald Gluck,
Johann Christian Bach, and Luigi Boccherini has long been acknowledged, and even though
Franz Josef Haydn disdained the shadow cast by Sammartini in reference to his own work, its
presence is unmistakable. Giovanni Sammartini lived his entire life in Milan and was that
city's most famous composer in the eighteenth century. By the time he was named maestro
di cappella of the Congregazione SS Entierro in 1728, he was already "famous" as a
composer of sacred music, most of which, unfortunately, is lost. He held the post at SS
Entierro until ill health likely forced him to retire in 1773.
Sammartini's earliest-known symphonies date from around 1732 and the last from 1772;
authentic Sammartini symphonies are 67 in number and are generally divided into three
phases; early (18 symphonies, 1732-1739), middle (37 symphonies, 1740-1758), and late (12
symphonies, 1759-1772). An additional 75 symphonies attributed to Sammartini are either
spurious or lost. One can trace the development of Classical style through this important
cycle of works: the early symphonies reveal traces of Baroque influences, whereas the
middle-period works dispense with these elements and add two horns to the ensemble. The
late symphonies are longer, and yet more wind instruments are added to the texture, and
the continuo is retired for good through his separation of the cello and bass parts. In
addition to the symphonies, 31 concerti of Sammartini have been authenticated, and
Sammartini deserves to be credited with helping foster the form of the classical symphony
concertante. His orchestral music has a driving rhythmic profile and certain minor key works
look forward to the Sturm und Drang style of the later classical era. Although it is said in
some sources that he produced a four-movement symphony in the 1730s, it is clear that he
favored three- and even two-movement symphonies throughout his life.
Sammartini also composed a wealth of chamber music, actually comprising the major part of
his surviving output -- he only composed three operas, and preferred to contribute an aria
here and there to already existing works over composing whole operas. Sammartini's
chamber music is of the highest quality and merits revival. Read less

Sonata form, also called first-movement form or sonata-allegro form, musical

structure that is most strongly associated with the first movement of various Western
instrumental genres, notably, sonatas, symphonies, and string quartets. Maturing in
the second half of the 18th century, it provided the instrumental vehicle for much of
the most profound musical thought until about the middle of the 19th century, and it
continued to figure prominently in the methods of many later composers.

Although sonata form is sometimes called first-movement form, the first movements
of multimovement works are not always in sonata form, nor does the form occur only
in first movements. Likewise, the variant sonata-allegro form is misleading, for it
need not be in a quick tempo such as allegro.

Three-part structure
The basic elements of sonata form are three: exposition, development, and
recapitulation, in which the musical subject matter is stated, explored or expanded,
and restated. There may also be an introduction, usually in slow tempo, and a coda, or
tailpiece. These optional sections do not affect the basic structure, however.

At first glance sonata form may appear to be a species of three-part, or ternary, form.
The three parts of ternary form are a first section (A), followed by a contrasting
section (B), followed by a repetition of the first section (that is, A B A). The parts are
interrelated not in terms of basic structure but by purely lyrical or character contrast.
Actually, the three parts of sonata form developed out of the binary, or two-part, form
prominent in the music of the 17th and early 18th centuries. In binary form the
structure depends on the interrelationship not only of themes but also of tonalities, or
keys, the particular sets of notes and chords used in each part. Thus, the initial part,
which is repeated, leads directly into the second part by ending in the new key in
which the second part begins. The second, also repeated, moves from the new key
back to the original key, in which it ends. The second part thus completes the first.

Similar Topics

 intermezzo
 plainsong
 passacaglia
 berceuse
 raga
 ritornello
 In nomine
 étude
 cassation
 sinfonia

In sonata form the exposition corresponds to the first part of binary form, the
development and recapitulation to the second. The exposition moves from the original
key to a new key; the development passes through several keys and the recapitulation
returns to the original key. This echoes the motion, in binary form, away from and
back to the original key. In relation to binary form, sonata form is complex. It offers,
in the exposition, contrasting musical statements. In the development these are treated
dialectically; that is, they are combined, broken up, recombined, and otherwise
brought into change and conflict. In the recapitulation they are restated in a new light.
This organic relationship between parts marks the sonata form as a higher, more
complex, type than the ternary form. The occasional designation of sonata form as
compound binary form is useful in that it stresses its origins in the earlier form, but
notes its added complexity.

Exposition
The emphasis on contrast, even conflict, is the element that distinguishes the
exposition of a sonata-form movement from the first section of an earlier binary form.
The first section of a binary movement in a Baroque suite or instrumental sonata, for
example, might contain two clearly differentiated themes, but the stress is on
continuity and on uniformity of musical texture rather than on contrast. In sonata form
the emphasis is more dynamic; there is a stronger sense of contrast within the
movement. The terms usually given the contrasting areas are “first subject/second
subject” or “principal group/subsidiary group.” These are misleading terms, for they
imply a simple contrast of themes.

Test Your Knowledge

Expedition Europe

In reality it is contrast of key, or tonal contrast, that characterizes the sonata-form

exposition. Usually the opening of the exposition is firmly rooted in the tonic, or
“home,” key of the work. The later segments of the exposition move decisively to a
closely related but distinct key. The second key chosen is almost invariably one of the
two keys most closely related to the home key. If the home key is a major key, the
dominant key is chosen; if the home key is minor, the relative major is chosen. (The
dominant key is the one whose keynote is five tones above that of the tonic, as C–G;
the relative major has a keynote three tones above the relative minor, as A minor–C
major.) The exposition thus creates an opposition of tonalities or key areas that the
rest of the movement—the development and recapitulation—will strive to reconcile.
Compared with the contrast of keys, the question of how many themes the movement
possesses is of minor structural significance. Very often, a movement in sonata form
has two clearly defined main themes, for example the first movement of Mozart’s
Symphony No. 41 in C Major, K 551 (1788; Jupiter). It may also have only one, like
the first movement of Haydn’s Symphony No. 85 in B-flat Major (1785?). Or it may
have more than a half dozen strongly characterized themes, as does the first
movement of Brahms’s Symphony No. 4 in E Minor (1884–85).

The thematic organization of a movement in sonata form may affect the character of
the exposition, and thus of the whole movement, in two specific respects. When two
themes or groups of themes are clearly differentiated, their distribution may help the
listener to assimilate the cardinal points of the tonal design (that is, the arrangement of
keys) of the movement. When, on the other hand, such differentiation between themes
is obscured or set at variance with the organization of tonalities, the very tension
between thematic design and tonal scheme may greatly enhance the subtlety and
interest of the form. Such tension may produce not merely an interplay of melody and
key within the movement but an interplay between two interplays. One fairly simple
way of achieving this is shown in the first movement of Haydn’s Symphony No. 99 in
E-flat Major (1793). Here, as in Symphony No. 85, the first theme is restated in the
dominant key. This restatement could appear at first to be the second subject. But later
it is followed by another distinct motive that, in terms of themes, is the real second
subject. At the same time the neat, almost epigrammatic character of the second
subject makes it similar to a codetta theme, which is often used to round off the
exposition after both main subjects have been stated.

The interplay between themes reaches an even higher level of subtlety in the first
movement of Mozart’s Symphony No. 35 in D Major, K 385 (1776; Haffner). The
second theme, against which the first persists as a counterpoint, is stated “on” rather
than “in” the dominant; that is, its harmonies suggest the dominant key, but remain
part of the home, or tonic, key. The second theme is thus heard as a new perspective
on the tonic. Later, when the dominant key is firmly established in its own right,
Mozart introduces a new subject whose tune is closely related to the first theme. In
this richly ambiguous structure, the newly introduced motive would be regarded by
the criterion of key, as the second subject; in purely thematic terms, it might almost be
said to constitute the beginning of the codetta, or concluding section.

Development
The functions of the second and third main sections in sonata form follow naturally
from what has been established in the exposition. Their purpose is to discuss and
resolve the conflicts of tonality and theme that the exposition has raised. The
development is an area of tonal flux—it usually modulates, or changes key,
frequently, and any keys it settles in are likely to be only distantly related to the keys
found in the exposition. It frequently proceeds by breaking the principal themes down
into smaller elements and bringing these elements into new tonal or contrapuntal
relations with each other. That is, themes or fragments of themes may appear in new
keys; they may be combined to form apparently new melodies; they may be played
against each other as counterpoint, or countermelody. One of the finest illustrations of
the methods of development used in the Classical period occurs in the first movement
of Mozart’s Symphony No. 38 in D Major, K 504 (1786; Prague). Another resource of
development is to seize on an apparently minor feature of the exposition and, by
developing it extensively, to demonstrate its hidden importance. Yet another is to
introduce entirely new material. This may provide a moment of relief in the course of
a rigorous argument (as in the last movement of Mozart’s Piano Sonata in C Major, K
330 [1781–83]); or it may allow the composer to expand the scope of a large-scale
movement (as in the first movement of Beethoven’s Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major
[1803; Eroica]). Sometimes such a theme may only seem to be new. In the first
movement of Beethoven’s Symphony No. 4 in B-flat Major (1806), for instance, the
theme in the development that is usually described as “new” is really a decorated
version of a motive already heard in the exposition.

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One common tactic in the Classical development section is to begin with the codetta
theme that ended the exposition. The first movement of Beethoven’s Cello Sonata No.
2 in G Minor (1796) is an example. The impact of this device, and of the development
section as a whole, is often obscured by the common tendency among modern
performers to ignore the composer’s instruction, present in almost all sonata-form
movements of the Classical period, to repeat the entire exposition. When this
repetition is omitted, the thematic balance of the movement is upset and the dramatic
effect of the development’s sudden departure from an established regularity can be
ruined. Music is an art to which the controlled use of time is basic. The temporal
structure of a movement cannot be altered without seriously changing the proportions
of the whole.

Recapitulation
Like the beginning of the development section, the point at which development passes
into recapitulation is one of the most important psychological moments in the entire
sonata-form structure. It marks the end of the main argument and the beginning of the
final synthesis for which that argument has prepared the listener’s mind. The Classical
masters differ in their handling of this juncture. All usually prepare for it with a long
passage of gathering tension. In Mozart the return of the tonic key and subject is
managed with understated punctuality, the actual moment of recapitulation gliding in
almost unnoticed. Haydn and Beethoven tend to celebrate its advent with panoply.

The recapitulation presents the principal subject matter of the movement in a new
state of equilibrium. The main subjects of the exposition are heard almost always in
the same order as before, but now both subjects are typically in the tonic key, whereas
in the exposition the first was in the tonic, the second in the dominant key. As a result
of the musical events in the development, the listener perceives the subjects in a new
relationship—rather like a traveller who glimpses the constituent parts of a valley
separately as he climbs a hill and then, when he reaches the summit, sees the entire
landscape for the first time as a whole. The recapitulation can vary greatly in the
literalness with which it repeats the elements of the exposition. Sometimes, as in the
first movement of Mozart’s Sonata in B-flat Major, K 570 (1789), a tiny modification
in the transition that originally led from the tonic to the dominant key is enough to
effect the necessary change of key perspective and keep the second subject in the
tonic key. In other cases (the first movement of Beethoven’s Eroica, for instance, and
many of Haydn’s symphonic movements), far-reaching modifications and
reshufflings of the original material are made in the recapitulation. As in any living
manifestation of a principle of musical form, the methods differ vastly from work to
work; but the effect is always to bring about the reconciliation of opposites that is
essential to sonata form.

A large-scale sonata movement often creates conflicts of key and theme that cannot
be completely settled even by the full process of recapitulation. In this case, the
movement may be rounded off with a coda, or concluding section. Beethoven often
extends the coda so greatly that it becomes almost a second development section, as
in his Piano Sonata No. 23 in F Minor (1804–05; Appassionata). But this is no more
an essential element of sonata form than the introduction that may precede the main
movement.

Significance of sonata form in Western music history

Sonata form is only one episode in a complex chronicle of styles and principles of
musical organization. Seemingly infinite in its variety, the form has since 1750 been
the basis for some of the greatest works of Western music. It is exemplified by the
typically quick-paced first movement of most sonatas and sonata-style compositions
(such as symphonies and string quartets) in the Classical period. While earlier forms
prioritized a relatively smooth interface of melodic elements, sonata form emphasizes
conflict instead of continuity, ultimately deriving its impact from the explosive power
of tonal organization.