Chapter 9

The
Human Body
CONTEXT AREA
■ Your body is the most valuable thing that you have. Without your body you would
not be here.
■ Some people are careless with their body. They eat poor food, breathe smoke, take
drugs, get sunburnt, and don’t wear equipment which protects their body from injury.
They ignore the welfare of their body.
■ To help care for our body we must know about it. How does our body use the food
we eat? How does food get from our mouth to our little toe? What happens when
we breathe? What does blood do? Are bones alive? What is inside them?
■ This chapter looks at the parts and functions of the body.

PRESCRIBED FOCUS AREAS

4.3 identifies areas of everyday life that have been affected by scientific developments
4.4 identifies choices made by people with regard to scientific developments
4.5 describes areas of current scientific research

DOMAINS
KNOWLEDGE AND 4.14 follows a sequence of instructions to undertake a
first-hand investigation
UNDERSTANDING 4.15 uses given criteria to gather first-hand data
4.8.4 multicellular organisms 4.17 evaluates the relevance of data and information
a identify that there is a wide range of multicellular 4.19 draws conclusions based on information available
organisms 4.21 uses creativity and imagination to suggest plausible
b identify that tissues, organs and organ systems solutions to familiar problems
in multicellular organisms consist of different types 4.22 completes a variety of individual and team tasks
of cells with guidance
c explain why multicellular organisms require
specialised organs and systems VALUES AND ATTITUDES
d identify the materials required by multicellular 4.23 demonstrates confidence and a willingness to make
organisms for the processes of respiration and decisions and take responsible actions
photosynthesis 4.24 respects different viewpoints and is honest, fair
4.8.5 humans and ethical
a describe the role of the digestive, circulatory, 4.25 recognises the relevance and importance of lifelong
excretory, skeletal and respiratory systems in learning and acknowledges the continued impact of
maintaining humans as functioning organisms science in many aspects of everyday life
4.12 technology 4.26 recognises the role of science in providing
a identify what technologies make tasks easier information about issues being considered and
or more convenient in increasing an understanding of the world
around them
SKILLS
4.13 clarifies the purpose of an investigation and, with
guidance, produces a plan to investigate a problem
CONCEPTS
What happens to food? Digestion and absorption
Digestion Role and parts of digestive system
Teeth and tongue Chewing and swallowing, dental care
Energy content of food Calculate energy consumed in food
Blood Parts and role of blood
Circulation Arteries, veins, role in body
The heart Structure, double pump
Excretion Wastes, role of liver, kidneys, skin
The lungs Role of lungs and the respiratory system
Bones Functions, skeleton, interior of bones
Muscles Functions, how muscles work
Joints Role of joints in movement, arthritis

181
 9.1
The big picture
Our body is made of many millions of cells. Each
cell is a living unit. Each cell needs food, oxygen
and water, and each cell produces waste. Cells
work together to keep everything alive.
Cells work together in teams. Groups of similar
cells that do a similar task are called tissues.
Examples are muscle tissue, skin tissue and nerve
tissue. Groups of tissues that work together are
called organs. Examples of organs are the liver,
heart and intestines. Groups of organs work
together in a system, or organ system. Examples
are the digestive system and the circulatory
system. All these systems work together for the
survival of the whole organism.
Each level of organisation involves more cells.
Tissues are made of many cells. Organs are made
of many more cells. Systems have even more
cells. And organisms can be made of millions of
cells. Organisms are said to be multicellular,
meaning that they are made of many cells. For
example, people, plants, worms, mosses and
seaweeds are all multicellular organisms.
CELL TISSUE
muscle cell
nerve cell
skin tissue
red blood cell
skin cell
The different levels of organisation in the body
182
Each level of organisation becomes more
complex. The complexity increases from cells to
tissue to organs to systems. The most complex of
all is the multicellular organism. Compare this to a
one-celled organism. The one cell does everything.
What is needed for us to stay alive? The organs
of our digestive system break down food so our
body can use it. Lungs absorb oxygen and pass it
to the blood. Food chemicals combine with
oxygen in every cell of our body to release
energy. This is the energy our cells and bodies
need to stay alive. Many cells, tissues, organs and
systems work together to keep us alive. It is this
coordination, or teamwork, which keeps us healthy.
Cells need energy to stay alive. This energy
comes from food and oxygen. The process of
obtaining energy from food and oxygen is called
respiration. The food material that cells need for
respiration is a sugar called glucose. Cells are
supplied with glucose and oxygen by the circula-
tion of blood. The waste materials from respiration
are carbon dioxide, water and some heat energy.
ORGANS SYSTEM ORGANISM
stomach
digestive system
heart
lungs
skeletal system
 THE HUMAN BODY 183

Respiration is the process which keeps all cells
alive. This is true in all organisms whether they
are unicellular or multicellular.
People are homeothermic organisms. The old
name for this is warm blooded. This means that
the body temperature of people remains fairly
constant. Many other factors also remain
constant. The amount of sugar and carbon
dioxide in our blood and blood pressure only
change by small amounts. These levels are
maintained automatically by our body. This is
called homeostasis. Involuntary actions such as
shivering, perspiring, and breathing faster or
deeper, all help to maintain constant conditions.
All the cells, tissue, organs and systems work
together. Imagine all these organ systems
working together and relying on each other. This
is what happens in our body every minute of
every day.

SKELETAL DIGESTIVE RESPIRATORY EXCRETORY CIRCULATORY

SYSTEM SYSTEM SYSTEM SYSTEM SYSTEM
muscles, stomach, lungs kidneys, heart,
bones, intestines, lungs, blood
joints liver skin

The body’s systems work together

COPY AND COMPLETE

CHECKPOINT:

Cells work ________ in teams. Groups of _______ cells that do a similar ____ are called ______. Groups of ______
that ____ together are called ______. Groups of ______ work together in a ______, or organ ______. All these
_______ work ________ for the ________ of the whole ________.
Organisms are said to be _____________, meaning that they are made of ____ _____.
Cells need ______ to stay alive. This ______ comes from ____ and ______. The process of obtaining ______ from
____ and ______ is called ___________. Respiration is the _______ which keeps all _____ alive.

QUESTIONS 6 In a sporting team, different players do different

1 Rank, in order of complexity, the ways the cells in
our body are organised.
2 What is the difference between a multicellular
organism and a unicellular organism?
3 Name three types of cells, three types of tissue,
three organs and three systems.
4 Draw four types of cells. Name the organ in which
you would find these cells.
5 What is homeostasis? Give examples of conditions in
our body that are maintained by homeostasis.
jobs. For example, there might be a goalkeeper, a
wing, a shooter, and a centre.
a List the players’ roles in a team sport that you
know about.
b Why is it important for different players to have
different roles?
c What would happen to this team if every player
did what they liked?
7 Our body is like a sporting team, because different
tissues do different jobs.
a Why is it important that different tissues in our
body do different jobs?
b What would happen to us if all cells and tissues
looked after themselves?
 9.2
Nutrition
Our body is a complete organism. All our cells
work together to keep us healthy. To stay healthy,
our body needs certain inputs and outputs. The
inputs are food, oxygen and water. Our body uses
these to produce energy in the process of
respiration, which keeps us alive. The outputs are
called waste products. These are heat and
chemicals such as carbon dioxide, water, salts,
urea and indigestible food. They are removed by
breathing, and in urine and faeces.
INPUTS OUTPUTS
food • sugars energy • to keep cells alive
• carbohydrates • heat energy
• protein wastes • carbon dioxide
• lipids • salts
• vitamins • water
• minerals • urine
water • faeces
oxygen
The body’s inputs and outputs
The input–output diagram above is a very
simple view of what our body needs. Food should
contain everything that is needed for good health.
Eating food which contains all these food groups
is called good nutrition, or having a balanced diet.
Our food is needed to:
1 Provide the energy for respiration to keep our
cells alive. Food is a high energy substance. It
contains chemical potential energy. Sugars
such as glucose provide immediate energy.
Carbohydrate energy is released more slowly.
Lipids (= fats and oils) are high-energy
compounds. Our body stores energy as lipids in
fat cells.
2 Provide the materials to repair and build cells.
The main materials needed are protein for
building, and glucose for energy.
3 Provide the vitamins and minerals that our
body needs but cannot make itself. These
include vitamin C, and the minerals iron and
calcium.
4 Provide water. Our body is 66% water, and
water is the solvent in every cell. Most of our
body chemicals are dissolved in water.
184
5 Provide fibre. Fibre is not a food. It is called
roughage. It provides bulk to our food and
helps in the movement of food through our
intestines. Fibre is found in foods derived from
plants, such as cereal, bread, fruits and
vegetables.
Some foods are more useful than other foods.
We should eat lots of the useful foods and not
much of the other foods. The foods which are the
best to eat are shown in a food pyramid.
Fats, Oils, & Sweets
Use sparingly
Milk,Yogurt, Meat, Poultry, Fish, Dry Beans,
& Cheese Group Eggs, & Nuts Group
2–3 Servings 2–3 Servings
Vegetable Group Fruit Group
3–5 Servings 2–4 Servings
Bread, Cereal,
Rice & Pasta Group
6–11 Servings
A food pyramid
You can have health problems from eating too
much food, or not eating enough food, or not
eating enough of the right foods. Eating too much
food causes your body to store the extra food as
fat. People who eat too much, or do not exercise
enough, become overweight or obese (‘oh-
beese’). Not eating enough food is called
undernourishment. These people lack the
energy and building materials to keep their
bodies strong. Not eating enough of the right
types of food is called malnutrition (‘mal-new-
trish-shun’). Not enough protein means that your
body will not grow properly. Not enough
vitamins and minerals causes diseases such as
rickets, scurvy and beri beri.
Not everything in our food is good for us.
Energy rich foods have lots of kilojoules in them.
We need to eat small amounts of these foods.
These foods are at the top of the food pyramid.
Lipid is the group name of fats and oils. Lipids
derived from animal products are said to be
saturated, and lipids from plant products are
described as being unsaturated or polyunsaturated.
Our diet should contain more polyunsaturated
plant lipids than saturated animal lipids.
 THE HUMAN BODY 185

Cholesterol is a lipid which

AIM: To investigate

EXPERIMENT
builds up on the inside of blood
vessels, making them smaller. energy in food
Our heart has to pump harder to
It is simple to show that nuts water in
force the blood through them.
contain energy. Nuts contain test tube
This may lead to heart problems.
a lipid which burns easily to
Too much salt can cause health
release heat energy.
problems. The sodium in salt is burning
Spike a nut onto a pin and nut
thought to cause high blood
hold the pin in a test tube
pressure.
holder or crucible tongs. Light
People who have to ‘watch crucible
the nut with a match. Use the tongs
their weight’ have to balance
flame to heat some water in a
the energy in their food with
test tube or a small can.
the energy they use. If they eat
Try different types of nuts.
food containing more energy
Do they all have the same
than they use, they put on
energy content? Design an
weight. Their body stores the
experiment using the
extra food as fat. The energy
procedure described above
content of food is measured in Heating water with a peanut
as a guide.
kilojoules, abbreviated to kJ. Our
energy use depends on our age,
gender, size, and the amount of
activity we do each day.

COPY AND COMPLETE

CHECKPOINT:

Our ____ is needed to:

1 Provide the ______ to keep our _____ alive.
2 Provide the _________ to ______ and build cells.
3 Provide the ________ and ________ that our body needs.
4 Provide _____.
5 Provide _____.
Some foods are more ______ than other foods. We should eat ____ of the useful _____ and not eat much of the
other _____.
People who have to ‘watch their weight’ have to balance the ______ in their ______ with the ______ they ______.

QUESTIONS
1 List as many reasons as you can to explain why we
need to eat food.
2 What food groups are needed for a healthy,
balanced diet?
3 What would happen to you in the following
situations?
a You eat too much food.
b You eat too little food.
c You eat food which lacks vitamins and minerals.
d You eat food that contains too many kilojoules.
4 Could you live on vitamin and protein tablets, and
never eat foods like cereals, fruit and vegetables?
Explain what would be missing from your diet.
5 What does it mean when someone says:
a ‘Eat lots of fruit and vegetables because they
contain fibre.’
b ‘No thank you. I have to watch my weight.’
c ‘You can eat more when you exercise more.’
d ‘Instead of eating the chocolate bar, eat some
fruit.’
6 If you were going on a space trip lasting six months,
what foods would you take? Remember that foods
should contain energy, vitamins and minerals, and be
nice to eat.
 9.3
The food we eat
Our food must provide us with energy to stay
alive, building materials for growth, and fibre for
digestion. Different food groups provide the
materials for each of these roles.
The main food groups are sugars, starch,
protein, lipids and water. Sugar and starch are
sometimes grouped together and called
carbohydrates. Each food group is a different
chemical group. Each group can be tested with
different chemicals. This lets us find out which
food groups are in the foods we eat.
Remember that the food we eat should contain
foods from all these food groups. Each food group
has a different role in the body.
The experiment below describes chemical tests
that allow you to find out which food groups are
present in the food we eat. It is important to
remember some safety precautions:
1 Do not eat the food used for testing.
2 Keep the chemical reagents away from your
skin. Wash off any spills.
3 Wear safety glasses while using reagents.
4 Ask your teacher if you are unsure or
uncertain about what to do.
5 Dispose of used food as recommended by
your teacher.
6 Wash your hands when you have finished
and clean your workspace.

AIM: To investigate food groups Experiment 1

EXPERIMENT

Test each food group as described below. Wear Glucose is the simplest sugar. It is tested using
safety glasses when using chemical reagents. Before Testape and Benedict’s Solution. Testape is available
you start, copy this table into your note book and from pharmacies. It was once used by some
record your results as you work through the diabetics to test for the presence of sugar in their
experiment. urine. Benedict’s Solution is a chemical mixture. Be
The reagents to use are described in the careful with its use. Glucose can be purchased from
experiment. If the reagent changes colour because health food shops as a syrup or powder. A powder
the food group is present we say that this is a is more convenient to use.
positive result. The results of a positive test are not A Dissolve a quarter teaspoon of glucose into
described in the experiment.You will see the 20 mL of water in a large test tube. Dip in a
results as you perform the experiment. length of Testape, and wait for the colour to
change. Record the results in the table.
Food Example Reagent Result of
group or test a positive B Into the leftover glucose solution, add 5 drops
test of Benedict’s Solution. Place the test tube in a
Sugar Glucose Testape beaker of warm water. The blue solution turns
yellow then orange then red, as a red insoluble
Glucose Benedict’s
Solution substance forms. This is the positive result and
shows that glucose is present.
Starch Flour
Bread
Protein Egg white
Egg white
Lipid Cooking oil
Water Water

Note to the teacher: Testape and Albustix are

simple paper tests for glucose and protein. Not
all pharmacies stock them now. Check for price
and availability before starting this experiment if before after
you will be using them. Albustix cost about $20
for 100 sticks. Testing for glucose with Benedict’s Solution

186

Experiment 2
Starch is an insoluble substance made from many
glucose molecules.The chemical agent used to test
for starch is iodine. Sources of starch are flour, bread
and potato. Obtain one or more of these, and add
iodine. Observe what happens, and record the result
in the table in your note book.
Experiment 3
Protein is an essential food group. Like glucose, it
can be tested with a chemical or a paper strip.
The paper strip which tests for protein is called
Albustix. Albustix paper strips are available from
pharmacies. The solution which tests for protein
is called Biuret (‘By-you-ray’) Solution. A convenient
source of protein is the white of a boiled egg.
A In a large test tube, dissolve a quarter of a
teaspoon of egg white in 20 mL of water. Swirl
(don’t shake) to dissolve the protein. Dip in an
Albustix strip, and wait for the colour to change.
Record the results in the table.
B Into the leftover protein solution, add 5 drops
of Biuret Solution. Place the test tube in a beaker
of warm water. Wait for a colour change and
then record your result in the table.
Experiment 4
Lipids are fats and oils. Usually fats are solids at
room temperature, and oils are a liquid. They are
both the same chemically. They are tested with
brown paper.
Cut some squares of brown paper with edges
of about 5 cm. Place them onto newspaper. Onto
one square add a drop of water, and onto the
COPY AND COMPLETE
CHECKPOINT:
The main food groups are ______, ______, _______, ______ and _____. Sugar and starch are sometimes grouped
together and called _____________. Each ____ group is a different ________ group.
Glucose is the simplest _____. Starch is an _________ substance made from many _______ molecules. Protein is an
_________ food group. Lipids are ____ and ____. Water is the most ______ ingredient in _____.
QUESTIONS
1 What is meant by a positive test?
2 Seeds are a good source of food for many animals.
What food groups are in them, and how could you
confirm this?
3 What food groups are present in fish meat? How
could you show this in an experiment?
4 How could you compare the amount of starch in raw
and boiled potatoes?
THE HUMAN BODY 187
other square add a drop of cooking oil.
Hold each piece of paper up to the light from
a window. How are the drops different? Record
your result in the table.
Experiment 5
Water is the most common ingredient in foods.
Water is tested using cobalt chloride which has
been soaked into paper strips. Cobalt chloride is
a different colour when it is wet to when it is dry.
Dry some cobalt chloride paper and record its
colour. Wet it and note its new colour. What
happens when the paper is dried again?
Experiment 6
The food we eat is a mixture of many food types.
Many foods can be tested using the results of the
experiments above. Use the information in the
table, and your own ideas, to test the following
foods and answer these questions.
A Is there sugar in lemonade ? What about diet
lemonade?
B Which of these food groups are in honey: sugar,
starch, protein, lipid?
C Is there fat (lipid) in chocolate? (Rub the
chocolate onto some paper.)
D Is there sugar in milk?
E Obtain some hot chips from a fast food shop,
and a boiled potato. Which contains the most
lipid and the most starch?
F Is there sugar, starch, lipid or water in margarine?
G Is there sugar, starch or protein in apples?
H What food groups are in white vinegar?
5 When some chefs boil or microwave vegetables, they
keep the water for making the gravy. They say that
the vitamins and minerals are boiled out of the
vegetables. Outline an experiment that you could do
to confirm or refute this hypothesis.
6 Some old biology books give the test for lipid as a
red powder called Sudan 3. It is soluble in lipid but
not in water. Suggest what would happen if you put
Sudan 3 powder into salad dressing. (Salad dressing
is a suspension of lipid in dilute vinegar.)
 9.4
What happens to food?
What happens to the food we eat? Are tiny pieces Lipids are digested into fatty acids and glycerol.
of bread sent to each part of the body? No. The As a diagram it looks like this.
bread is broken apart into soluble substances. The
soluble substances are absorbed by the blood and
circulated around the body to where they are
needed.
Digestion is the breaking up of food into
soluble substances. Digestion is a chemical change.
Reusable substances called enzymes are needed
lipid molecules glycerol and fatty
for digestion to happen as quickly as it does. acid molecules
Enzymes are made by the body, used in digestion, How lipids are digested
and then absorbed so they can be used again.
Digestion takes place in the mouth, stomach,
Different food groups are digested in different
and intestines. Starch, proteins and lipids are
ways into different substances. The main food
insoluble and cannot be absorbed into our body.
groups are starch, proteins and lipids.
Glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol are
Starch is a long chain of glucose molecules
soluble and are easily absorbed into the blood by
joined end to end, like the beads on a long
the small intestine. The blood carries the products
necklace. If the symbol ◆ represents one glucose
of digested food around the body.
molecule, then a long line of them is a starch
Enzymes are the substances that help digest
molecule. Glucose is soluble, and starch is
food. Different enzymes act on different food
insoluble. Starch is digested into glucose.
groups. In order to be effective, enzymes need
Proteins are long chains of molecules called
special conditions. Some enzymes function best
amino acids. Human proteins consist of 22
in the stomach, as they are suited to acidic
different amino acids. Digestion of protein
involves separating the amino acid molecules. In
AIM: To study the action of an

EXPERIMENT
the diagram below, different amino acid
molecules are drawn with a different shape. enzyme
The liver is a large complex organ that has several
roles in the body. It contains many enzymes that
help in performing these roles. One enzyme
breaks down hydrogen peroxide, a poison, into
water and oxygen. We can see the reaction
occurring in a test tube by the oxygen bubbles
that are formed.
Set up the experiment as shown. Wear safety
starch molecule glucose molecule
glasses when using hydrogen peroxide.
How starch is digested 1 2 3

hydrogen peroxide water hydrogen peroxide

only and liver and liver

Write up the experiment in your note book,

protein molecule amino acid molecules using the aim, method, results, conclusion format.
How protein is digested

188
 THE HUMAN BODY 189

conditions. Other enzymes function best in the

small intestine, as they are suited to the neutral
conditions of this part of the digestive
system. As a result, different stages in the
digestion of food occur in different parts of the
digestive system.
Digested food is used by the cells in our body
for three main purposes.
1 To provide energy. Glucose is used in
respiration, and amino acids are sometimes
broken down to release energy.
2 To make new chemicals for the body. The
protein in our bodies is made by
reassembling amino acid molecules into a
special order. The amino acid molecules come
from the protein we eat.
3 For energy storage. Glucose is converted into
glycogen, which is stored in muscles. Lipids are
rebuilt and stored in cells as substances called
triglycerides. (Triglycerides and glycogen are
insoluble in cells.)
protein glycogen
Human protein and glycogen
It is important to remember that digestion is
first a physical change and then a chemical
change. When we chew food such as sausage and
bread, it is crushed to release its parts such as
lipids and starch. This crushing of food is a
physical change. The food is then broken down
into soluble products such as fatty acids, glycerol
and glucose. This is a chemical change. These
components are absorbed from the intestine into
the blood stream. In the liver these components
are reassembled into lipids, proteins and
glycogen. These substances are needed to
maintain our health.

COPY AND COMPLETE

CHECKPOINT:

Digestion is the ________ up of ____ into _______ substances. Digestion is a ________ change. Reusable
substances called _______ are needed for _________ to happen as _______ as it does. _______ are made by the
____, used in _________, and then __________ so they can be ____ again.
Starch is a long _____ of _______ molecules ______ end to end. Starch is ________ into _______. Proteins are
____ chains of _____ acid molecules. Digestion of _______ involves separating the amino ____ molecules. Lipids are
________ into _____ acids and ________.
Digested ____ is used by the _____ in our ____ for three main purposes.
1. To provide ______.
2. To make new _________ for the body.
3. For ______ storage.

QUESTIONS a Name the food groups that are changed in

digestion. What chemical groups are they
1 What is the meaning of these words: digestion, converted into?
soluble, absorbed? b Which food groups are unchanged during
2 What is the similarity and difference between a fatty digestion?
acid and an amino acid? 4 Name two food groups (see activity 9.3) which are
3 Copy this table into your note book, and complete it. not changed in digestion.
5 Animals store this substance as glycogen. Plants
Food group Food chemical store it as starch. What is this substance? How do
before digestion after digestion animals obtain it?
6 What is the food that is released in digestion
Starch
used for?
Protein 7 How is digested food distributed around the body?
Lipid
 9.5
Digestion
Digestion begins when you bite some food and and enzymes. The acid kills germs and makes the
begin chewing it. Chewing breaks the food into conditions right for the enzymes to work best.
smaller pieces so it can be swallowed. Enzymes in The inside of the stomach is coated with
saliva start digesting starch as you are chewing. substances which stop the stomach from being
When you swallow, your tongue pushes a ball digested by the acid or enzymes.
of food to the back of your mouth. The tube The food now looks nothing like the dinner you
joining the mouth to the stomach is called the ate. It is very runny, warm, smelly, and has a totally
oesophagus (‘eye-soff-a-gus’), or gullet. This is a different taste. It is now called chyme (‘kyme’).
soft muscular tube. Muscles push balls of food The stomach slowly releases chyme into the
along it in the process called peristalsis small intestine. The top part of the small intestine
(‘perry-stell-sis’). The action of peristalsis is like is called the duodenum. Enzymes made by the
you squeezing a tennis ball along a stocking or pancreas are added to the chyme in the
long sock. duodenum. Bile is a yellow-green liquid made in
The stomach stores food. It has elastic walls and the liver. It is stored in the gall bladder and added to
can expand to fit in a large meal. It also produces the duodenum. Bile helps in the digestion of lipids.
gastric juice. This is a mixture of hydrochloric acid In the small intestine the process of digestion is
finished. All of the digested food and enzymes are
absorbed through the walls of the small intestine.
For all this absorption to take place, the small
intestine must be quite long. So for it to fit into
our body, it has to be coiled and folded. The small
intestine is about 5 m long when laid out straight.
Food is pushed along the intestine by peristalsis.
mouth
Absorption of the soluble food works best
tongue when there is a large surface area. The inside of
the small intestine is not smooth, but covered in
villi (singular = villus). Villi are tiny finger-like
oesophagus
extensions. They are surrounded by digested food
on all sides. They are semi-permeable and absorb
the soluble digested food and pass it into the
blood vessels and lymph vessels inside them.
The liver is the largest organ in the body. It has
many jobs, including making bile, storing food
products, vitamins and minerals, and converting
liver
stomach food materials into other materials needed by the
body.
bile duct pancreas The appendix is a small tube with only one
opening at the beginning of the large intestine.
large
duodenum
intestine
The appendix has no function in people, but it is
important in animals that eat grass.
caecum small In the small intestine the food you ate has all
intestine the soluble chemicals removed from it. From the
rectum small intestine the chyme enters the large
appendix intestine. It is shorter but much wider than the
anus small intestine. The large intestine absorbs water,
vitamins and salts. The solid waste, now called
faeces, is stored in the rectum. It is expelled
The digestive system through the anus when you go to the toilet.

190
 THE HUMAN BODY 191

circular muscle villi

AIM: To investigate the absorption

EXPERIMENT
of digested food
Dialysis tubing is like a semi-permeable
membrane. A semi-permeable membrane is
similar to a sheet of plastic with small holes in it.
It lets small, soluble molecules (particles) pass
through it but does not let large, insoluble
molecules pass through it. The small intestine is
villus also a semi-permeable membrane.
Cut a 15 cm length of dialysis tubing. Use a
capillary rubber band and tie off one end. Pour into the
network
tubing some freshly boiled starch solution, and a
solution of glucose. The starch represents
blood vessel
supplying undigested food, and the glucose is digested food.
blood to The dialysis tubing is the intestine. Tie off the top
villus end and place the tube in a beaker or container
of water.
Leave the dialysis tubing in water for about
circular 20 minutes. Write the experiment into your note
muscle book during this time. After 20 minutes, test the
water outside the dialysis tubing for the presence
Villi help the small intestine absorb food of glucose and starch. Does this explain what
You can see what is inside your digestion happens in your small intestine?
fresh water—
system when you are sick. When you vomit, the test this after
contents of your stomach exit through your 20 minutes for
mouth. The sour taste is due to the acid from glucose and
starch
your stomach. Sometimes you can see the balls
of food that you swallowed. When you have dialysis tubing
contains starch Experiment on
diarrhoea the large intestine is irritated and does absorption
and glucose
not function to absorb water and enzymes.

COPY AND COMPLETE

CHECKPOINT:

Digestion ______ when you bite some ____ and begin _______ it. Enzymes in ______ start digesting ______ as you
are chewing. The stomach ______ food. It also produces _______ juice. This is a mixture of ____________ acid and
_______. The stomach slowly releases _____ into the _____ intestine. Enzymes made by the ________ are added to
the _____ in the duodenum. In the small _________ the process of _________ is finished. All of the digested ____
and _______ are ________ through the walls of the _____ intestine. The inside of the small _________ is covered
in _____. They are ____-_________ and absorb the _______ digested food and pass it into the _____ vessels and
_____ vessels inside them. The large intestine absorbs _____, ________ and salts.

QUESTIONS 4 Explain the meaning of these words: peristalsis,

gastric juice, enzymes, bile, chyme, faeces.
1 List, in order, the organs of the digestive system that
5 What are villi? What is their function?
food moves through, from the mouth to the anus.
6 The small intestine is semi-permeable. Why is this
2 Which organs are involved in digestion but do not
important?
have food pass through them?
7 You would be very foolish to drink hydrochloric acid,
3 What is the role of these organs in digestion: teeth,
but your stomach contains hydrochloric acid, and it
stomach, liver, gall bladder, pancreas, small intestine,
usually causes no harm. Explain how this is so.
large intestine, rectum?
 9.6
Teeth and tongue
enamel forms tooth decay starts on the top of
The teeth the hard, biting large back teeth, and where one
Teeth are used to chew and crush food. This surface of a tooth tooth touches another
breaks the food into smaller pieces so we can
dentine is similar
swallow it. We have four types of teeth. Their to bone
shape depends on the job they do.
Incisors are the front teeth. They are flat and
sharp, and are used for cutting. They are shaped
like a chisel. You can see their profile shape when
you take a bite out of a sandwich. the pulp cavity
contains nerve
Canines are the pointed teeth next to the endings and
incisors. They are used for holding and tearing blood vessels
food. In cats and dogs the canine teeth are long
gum disease
and strong. In people, the canine teeth are not cement holds starts between
much taller than the teeth around them. the tooth the gum and
in its socket teeth
Premolars and molars are the cheek teeth.
They are the big flat teeth towards the back of Inside and outside the teeth
your mouth. The premolars are used for crushing
food and the molars are used for grinding food. Tooth decay is when your teeth get cavities
Wisdom teeth are the last of the molars, the teeth (= holes) in them. Decay happens when bacteria
furthest from the front of your mouth. in your mouth turn leftover food into acid. The
acid dissolves the enamel and dentine on the
incisors teeth. Teeth will ache when the decay reaches a
canine nerve. Fluoride in toothpaste makes your teeth
less likely to decay.
premolars Gum disease occurs when a layer of food and
bacteria, called plaque (‘plark’), grows between
the teeth and gums. The plaque rots and swells
and causes the gum to swell and bleed. The
Children are born without teeth, molars
but soon amount of plaque on teeth can be seen by
grow a set of 20 temporary teeth. These are some- sucking plaque disclosing tablets.
times called milk teeth.

The positions of the different types of teeth

Children are born without teeth, but soon

grow a set of 20 temporary teeth. These are
sometimes called milk teeth.
Teeth are living structures made by the body.
The outside layer is made of enamel, which is
hard and resists wear. Inside the enamel is
dentine, which is bone-like tissue. Deeper in the
tooth is the pulp. It contains nerves and blood
vessels. Each tooth sits in a socket, or hole, in the
jawbone and can move slightly. This stops them
from breaking when you bite hard food. A bad case of tooth decay

192
 THE HUMAN BODY 193

The tongue

The tongue is a large muscular organ that allows
us to swallow. The part of your tongue that you
can bite is small compared to the total size of the
tongue. When you swallow, the tongue pushes
upwards, sideways and backwards and pushes the
food to the back of the throat.
The top of the tongue is rough and contains
four types of taste buds. Each type of taste bud is
sensitive to one of the four tastes—sweet, sour,
salty and bitter. Different parts of the tongue are
sensitive to different tastes.
EXPERIMENT
AIM: To map the position of taste
buds on the tongue
There are four tastes, that are detected by four
types of taste buds in different locations on the
tongue. The taste solutions to use are:
sweet (sugar water) sour (vinegar)
salty (salt solution) bitter (tonic water).
Taste the solutions so that you are familiar with
the taste of each, and that the concentration is
similar. Place some solution on a cotton bud, and
have a friend put dabs of solution on your tongue.
Indicate to them (using a suitable sign) whether
you can taste the solution or not.
Repeat for all four taste solutions. Map where
you can taste each of these solutions.

upper jaw bitter

tongue

sweet
lower jaw sour
sour

sweet Position of tastebuds

and sour on the human tongue
Cross-section of the skull, showing the position of the tongue

COPY AND COMPLETE

CHECKPOINT:

_____ are used to ____ and _____ food. We have ____ types of teeth. Their _____ depends on the ___ they do.
Tooth decay is when your _____ get _____, or ______, in them. Decay happens when ________ in your _____ turn
leftover _____ into ____.
Gum disease occurs when a layer of ____ and ________, called ______, grows between the _____ and ____. The plaque
____ and ______ and causes the gum to _____ and _____.
The tongue is a large ________ _____ that allows us to _______. The top of the tongue is _____ and contains ____
types of _____ buds.

QUESTIONS 4 What are wisdom teeth and milk teeth?

5 How many teeth are in a set of milk teeth? How many
1 What is the meaning of the words cavities and plaque?
teeth does an adult have?
2 Complete this table about teeth.
6 Explain why the incisor and canine teeth have a
Type of tooth Location Function different shape to molar teeth.
Incisor 7 The tongue is important in talking and tasting. What is
its main function?
Canine
Premolar 8 What are the cells on the top of the tongue, that give
the sensation of taste, called? Where are each of these
Molar cell types located on the tongue?
3 Write a paragraph to explain the cause of
a tooth decay
b gum disease.
 Review
Food and the g large organ which makes bile and processes
food
digestive system h soft sided tube which joins the mouth to the
stomach
1 Match the word with its meaning. Write the i stores food, mixes it with acid and enzymes
word behind the meaning. Select from these j stores bile until it is released
words: obesity, anorexia, cavities, stomach, k makes many of the enzymes which are
peristalsis, digestion, deficiency disease, released into the pancreas
kilojoules, enzyme, villi. l small tube at the beginning of the small
a holes and decay in teeth intestine, no purpose in humans
b muscular action to push food along 4 Each organ in Question 3 is shown with a
oesophagus and intestine number in the diagram below. Match the letter
c when food groups or vitamins are missing in Question 3 with the number of the diagram.
from your diet
d being overweight, from lack of exercise
or eating too much
1
e chemical substance which speeds up a
2
chemical process and can be used over again
12
f tiny finger-like knobs in the intestines to
help absorb food
g muscular organ which stores food and mixes
11
it with acid and enzymes 3
10 4
h unit used to measure the amount of energy 9
5
in food
6
i caused when you do not eat enough and your
8
body wastes away 7
j the breakdown of food into soluble
substances which can be absorbed 5 This question refers to the graph below.
It shows the acceptable weight and height
2 Susie tests ice cream to see which food groups for people.
are in it. These are her results. Use them to
Height and weight guide for men and women
infer which food groups are in ice cream.
Underweight Acceptable weight Overweight Obese
Benedict’s Solution—turned orange slowly 2
Iodine Solution—went foamy, stayed yellow 20 25
I= I= 30
BM I=
BM BM
Biuret Solution—stayed blue, froth on top
Height (m)

of solution 1.5
Brown paper—no observable change
Water—changed from blue to pink
3 Name these organs of the digestive system. 1
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
a stores faeces until you go to the toilet Weight (kg)
b the upper part of the small intestine
c long thin tube where absorption of food takes a If your friend is 1.8 metres tall and weighs
place 90 kg, are they underweight, acceptable,
d long tube which absorbs water and enzymes overweight or obese?
from remnants of food b What is an acceptable weight for someone
e muscular organ which pushes food when we between 1.7 and 1.8 metres tall?
swallow
6 The process of digestion is a step by step
f place where food is chewed and mixed with
process. The steps are written below, in the
saliva

194
 THE HUMAN BODY 195

wrong order. Rewrite them in the correct Small intestine

sequence.
Food is rolled into a ball and swallowed by
the tongue.
The food enters the small intestine where
9 Look at the chart in activity 9.7, which shows
absorption of digested food occurs.
The food ball passes down the oesophagus.
The stomach releases food a little at a time
into the duodenum.
Waste is stored in the rectum until it leaves
through the anus.
Indigestible food passes into the large intestine.
In the duodenum food is mixed with enzymes
and digestion is finished.
Appendix
Rectum
Anus
the energy content of some common foods.
a Use it to find the energy in the food you
would eat in one day.
b Use it to design a healthy diet,
remembering good nutrition and energy
intake.
The energy demands depend on your gender,
weight and your levels of physical activity.
Average demands, in kilojoules, are in the
table below.

You chew the food with your teeth to make

Age Boy Girl
it easier to swallow.
11–15 8500–12500 kJ 7500–9500 kJ
The large intestine absorbs water from the 15–18 8500–12500 kJ 6500–9500 kJ
indigestible food.
Food in the stomach is mixed with acid and Subtract 3000 kJ if you are very inactive. Add
enzymes. 2000 kJ if you have an active lifestyle.
Chewing mixes the food with saliva and For more information, look in handbooks such
digestion starts. as Calorie Counter, available in supermarkets
and pharmacies.
7 Write a definition, like you would find in a
dictionary, of each of these words. 10 Athletes and sports people need a ready
enzyme peristalsis supply of energy for them to perform at their
gastric juice digestion best. Marathon runners, triathletes and sports
plaque respiration people eat carbohydrate rich food (such as
cavities pancreas pasta) the day before the event. Sprinters
tissue saliva will eat glucose shortly before they race.
lipid amino acid a Why do sports people eat glucose before an
semi-permeable Benedict’s Solution event?
organism b Why do marathon runners eat carbohydrate
rich food the day before an event?
8 Complete this table for these parts of the
digestive system. 11 This diagram shows the digestive system of a
dingo (a meat eater) and a koala (a leaf
Part Function eater). The digestive system of the koala is
Teeth much longer than that of the dingo. Why is this?
A B small intestine
Tongue
Oesophagus small
intestine
Stomach stomach

Pancreas
caecum
Liver
Gall bladder colon
(large
Duodenum intestine)
Villi
Digestive system of A a dingo and B a koala
 9.7
Energy content of food
The food we eat contains energy. This is the
energy needed to keep our cells and body alive. It QUESTIONS
is important to balance the energy in the food we
eat with the energy we use in our daily life. Use the table below to find the following.
As well as energy, we need to consider the 1 The energy content in the food you eat
nutritional value of food. The nutritional value is in a normal day (tsp = teaspoon).
not included in the table below. Nor are the 2 Prepare a diet with the appropriate amount
amounts of cholesterol and sodium. Cholesterol is of energy and nutrition.
a factor in heart disease, and sodium helps raise
blood pressure. B
Energy in food, measured in kilojoules

Breakfast Chips and fries 600–1200

Cereal block, each 230 (depending on size and type; crinkle-cut has more fat and energy)
Sweet cereal, 30 g serve 480 Meat
Cereal flakes, 30 g serve 475 Chicken drumstick, with skin 380
Bran, 30 g serve 350 Skinless chicken breast 960
Muesli 460 Beef steak, 100 g 1600
Milk, 200 mL (1 glass) 580 Beef mince, 100 g 840
Egg, medium, boiled 300
Drinks
Scrambled egg 525
Soft drink, 375 mL can 660–840
Lunch Diet soft drink, 375 mL can 5
Slice of bread, normal 330 Fruit juice, 150 mL glass 300
Lebanese bread, 14– loaf 290 Water or mineral water 0
Bread roll, dinner roll 340 Tea, coffee, no milk or sugar 0
Hamburger roll 1050 (add 80 for 1 level tsp sugar, 30 for milk)
Butter or margarine, 1 tsp 150 Snacks and fast food
Cheese single slice 270
Sausage roll, small 420
Honey, 2 tsp 180
large 880
Jam, 2 tsp 160
Meat pie about 2000
Vegemite, 12– tsp 12
Hamburger about 2300
Peanut butter, 1 tsp 580
thick milkshake about 1100
Fruit Slice of medium-size pizza 920
1
Apple, medium 360 4 barbecued chicken with stuffing
– 670
Orange, medium 300 potato salad 420
Banana, medium 500 1 piece fish, deep fried 1680
Vegetables 1 piece fish, grilled 630
Potato, 1 medium 300 10 chips 440
Peas, 1 cup 210 Potato crisps or cheese snacks, 30 g 630
Lettuce, 2 leaves 16 Others
Onion, raw 190 Ice cream, 1 scoop, 100 mL 380
Pumpkin, 100 g 120 Soft-serve ice cream 360
Tomato, raw or canned 90 Chocolate, 6 squares 660
Carrot, raw, large 210 Chewing gum (pellet) 20
Carrot, cooked, large 130 Sugar-free gum 1
Rice, boiled, 1 cup 670 Milk-flavoured ice block 520
Rice, fried, one cup 1420 Fruit-flavoured ice block 230
Pasta, firm, one serving 920 Chocolate-coated ice cream 860

196
 9.8
Blood
Blood is the fluid which carries digested food,
wastes and other materials around our body. An
80 kg adult has about 5 litres of blood, and a
40 kg child has 21/2 litres.
Blood is a complex mixture. It is a solution and
a suspension at the same time. It carries many
cells as a suspension, and many chemicals
dissolved in it to make a solution.
The most common cells are red blood cells.
They give the blood its colour and contain the
chemical called haemoglobin. Oxygen attaches to
haemoglobin. Red cells are small disc-shaped
cells. They do not have a nucleus and live for
about 100 days before being destroyed by the
liver. They are broken apart and their chemicals
used in new blood cells. New blood cells are made
in the marrow of long bones such as thigh bones.
Also in blood are white blood cells. These are
larger than red cells and have a nucleus. They
engulf and destroy foreign matter such as
chemicals and bacteria. They can leave blood
vessels and go between body cells in search of
infection. White blood cells have no set shape,
and are colourless (not white) under the
microscope.
The tiny discs in blood are called platelets. They
help to clot the blood. If it were not for the
platelets we could bleed to death from a cut.
Cells and platelets float in a straw-coloured
liquid called plasma. Plasma is the liquid which
carries the blood cells, but it is also the solution
which carries many other substances. These
include food products such as glucose, wastes,
hormones, salts and vitamins.
A bruise forms when you bleed under your
skin. Blood flows out of a blood vessel into the
CHECKPOINT:
COPY AND COMPLETE
________ is the fluid which carries ________ food, _____ and other materials around our _____. It carries many ______
as a suspension and many ________ dissolved in it to make a ________. The most common cells are _______ _______
_______. They give the blood its ________. Also in blood are ______ cells. They ________ and ________ foreign
matter such as ________ and ________.
QUESTIONS
1 Draw a diagram, like a concept map, showing
the components of blood and their uses.
2 Draw the shape of a red blood cell.
surrounding cells. White blood cells break down
the blood cells and take them away for recycling.
The different colours in a bruise are due to the
different stages in the breakdown of the red blood
cells. People can have different blood groups. The
most important blood groups are called A, B, AB
and O. These blood groups are caused by proteins
on the surface of the red blood cells and similar
proteins in the plasma. If blood from different
groups is mixed, the proteins can make the red
blood cells stick together. This can cause the blood
to clot inside the blood vessels, leading to the
death of the person. If someone needs a blood
transfusion, the blood group of the donor must be
compatible with the blood group of the recipient.
Blood is an important product in our society. It
is widely used in hospitals in operations and in
treating accident victims. People donate blood
which can be stored for use, or processed to
provide blood products for people with serious
illnesses.
Red blood cells can be seen with a compound
microscope. Look at prepared slides only. Do not
try to use your own blood, because you might get
an infection.
surrounding
capillary
wall
body cells
white blood cells
leave the arteries
and veins, and move
platelets between body cells
white
cells
A microscopic view
plasma of a blood vessel
red cells
3 Why is it important that white blood cells have
no shape?
4 What would happen if all the plasma in your blood
was replaced with pure water? Consider oxygen,
food, wastes and fighting disease.
197
 9.9
Circulation
Imagine the cars and trucks on a very busy
freeway. Each one is carrying people and goods to
different destinations. The cars and trucks and
roads and freeways make up the transport system
of our cities.
The transport system of our body is the blood,
arteries and veins. It is all kept moving by the
heart. It is called the circulatory system. It
transports nearly every substance which needs to
be moved in our body.
The arteries and veins are the roads of our
circulatory system. Arteries are the tubes which
carry blood away from the heart. They divide into
the arms and legs massage the veins to help the
blood flow. This is why exercise is important for
good circulation.
One disease of the circulatory system is caused
by our diet. Cholesterol is a natural product that
is in our diet and made by the liver. Too much
cholesterol, combined with stress and not enough
activity, can cause the arteries to become partly
clogged. A healthy diet with regular exercise will
help reduce the build-up of cholesterol in
your arteries.
AIM: Tothe
study the pulse

EXPERIMENT
smaller blood vessels, and finally into the tiniest Studying pulse
blood vessels of all. These are called capillaries. FindFind your
your pulse
pulse in your
in your wrist.
wrist, Do notinuse
as shown theyour
dia-
There is a capillary near every cell in your body. thumb to find the pulse.
gram. Do not use your thumb to find the pulse.
Blood flowing through the capillaries brings food Start this experiment after you have been sitting
and oxygen to every cell, and removes waste, no quietly for ten or more minutes. Count your pulse
matter where the cell is. As the blood moves for one minute. Use a wall clock or your teacher to
towards the heart, the capillaries join into larger tell you when one minute has elapsed. This is called
blood vessels called veins. Veins carry blood your resting pulse. Record it in your note book.
towards the heart. Now go for a brisk walk for 200 metres. As soon
As the heart pumps, it forces blood through the as you have finished walking, sit down and record
arteries. The surge of blood as it passes through your pulse again.Your pulse will be higher. As you
our arteries is called the pulse. The walls of the rest, record your pulse every two minutes. How
arteries are thick and elastic to withstand the long does it take to return to normal?
pressure, or force, of the blood. To help blood After exercise your pulse increasesfeel with your
because your
first two fingers
flow from your arms and legs to your heart, veins body needs more oxygen and glucose, and is
have valves to stop the blood from flowing Finding a pulse
producing more waste. More blood flow is needed.
backwards. If the veins are weakened, they can Start this
Your heart pumpsexperiment
faster so after you have
that more been
blood can
become lumpy because of poor blood flow. This sitting quietly
reach your muscles. for ten or more minutes. Count
causes varicose veins to form. As well, muscles in your pulse for one minute. Use a wall clock or
your teacher to tell you when one minute has
Endothelium (lining): elapsed. This is called your resting pulse. Record
one layer of cells it in your note book.
Now go for a brisk walk for 200 metres. As
Involuntary muscle soon as you have finished walking, sit down and
and elastic fibres record your pulse again.Your pulse will be
higher. As you rest, record your pulse every
two minutes. How long does it take to return
Tough non-elastic to normal?
fibres After exercise your pulse increases because
your body needs more oxygen and glucose, and
is producing more waste. More blood flow is
Vein Artery needed.Your heart pumps faster so that more
blood can reach your muscles.
An artery has a muscular wall which expands as blood is pumped
through it, and it squeezes back to help the blood through. The walls
of a vein are much less muscular

198
 THE HUMAN BODY 199

Circulation lungs
The heart pushes the blood through the arteries,
capillaries and veins. The path taken by blood is artery vein left side
described below. right side
1 Blood gets oxygen from the semi-permeable
membranes in the lung. The oxygen causes
heart
the blood to become bright red in colour.
2 The blood moves to the heart where it is
upper parts
pumped through an artery to the body. The of body
big arteries branch into small arteries.
3 The blood eventually flows through capillar-
ies. A capillary goes beside every body cell. circulation in arteries
4 The oxygen moves from the blood in the liver
capillary through the semi-permeable mem-
brane into the cell. The cell uses the oxygen stomach and
intestines
in respiration to provide energy. The blood veins
has lost its oxygen and is now a bluish red. kidneys
5 From the capillaries the blood moves into
the veins and back to the heart. The heart
collects the blood and pumps it to the lungs. lower parts of the body
This is a simple view because blood flows to
many parts of your body. Blood is filtered in the
kidneys, and in the liver and intestines blood
receives its load of glucose and other foods. A
more accurate way of showing the circulation of
blood is shown to the right. The circulation of blood

COPY AND COMPLETE

CHECKPOINT:

Arteries are the _____ which carry blood ____ from the heart. They divide into smaller _____ _______, and finally
into the _______ blood _______ of all. These are called ___________. As the blood moves _______ the _____, the
___________ join into ______ blood vessels called _____. Veins carry _____ _______ the heart.
As the heart pumps it forces _____ through the ________. The _____ of blood as it passes through our ________ is
called the _____. The walls of the arteries are _____ and _______ to withstand the ________ of the blood. To help
blood ____ from your ____ and ____ to your _____, veins have ______ to stop the blood from flowing _________.

QUESTIONS
1 What are the parts of the circulatory system? 7 Complete this table.
2 What is the difference between an artery and a vein?
Discuss blood flow and walls of the blood vessels. Blood Direction Materials Description
vessel of blood carried of walls
3 What causes our pulse? Why does pulse change?
flow by the
4 How do arteries and veins help in the circulation of blood
blood through them?
5 What is cholesterol? What happens if too much Artery
cholesterol is produced? Vein
6 On the diagram of the circulation of blood there is Capillary
one vein which does not flow back to the heart.
Where does it flow from and to? Suggest why it is
there.
 9.10
The heart
The heart is the most remarkable organ in our Blood returning from the lungs in the
body. The heart is a double pump which pushes pulmonary veins goes to the left side of the
blood to two different places—to the lungs and heart. Blood is gathered in the left atrium and
to the body. then pushed into the left ventricle. The ventricle
The right side of the heart pumps blood to the is the pumping chamber. It has thick, strong
lungs. The pumping chamber is the right walls. Valves stop the blood from flowing
ventricle. The blood travels along the pulmonary backwards into the atrium. The blood flows from
artery. This artery divides into two, one artery for the left ventricle through the artery called the
each lung. The lungs are very close to the heart. aorta. The aorta is the largest blood vessel in the
body.
pulmonary to left aorta (main
artery lung artery), carries Blood returning from the body is collected in
blood to body the right atrium, before being passed to the right
to right
lung ventricle for pumping to the lungs. The walls of
pulmonary
caval veins from the right side of the heart are not as thick as the
vein right lung
(from left side because the blood does not have to be
head) pumped as far.
right
atrium As the heart beats, both atriums contract and
force blood into the ventricles. Then both
pulmonary
veins from ventricles contract and force blood into the
caval left lung arteries. The sound of a beating heart is due to
vein
(from the valves closing. Doctors listen to this sound
left atrium
body) with a stethoscope. A heart murmur is when the
right left
valves leak just a tiny bit, and the valves do not
ventricle ventricle snap shut. If a person’s heart valves are diseased
or damaged, artificial valves made of plastic can
Cut-away view of the heart
be put inside the heart.

AIM: To dissect a heart 4 Push a glass stirring rod out through the artery
EXPERIMENT

For this you will need a heart from the butcher’s
shop.Your teacher will show you the following
parts of the heart. Wear gloves before touching
the heart.
1 Examine the outside of the heart, especially the
fat and the coronary blood vessels. The pointed
part of the heart is the bottom. There are
arteries and veins at the top of the heart.
2 The right side of the heart feels softer than the
left side. This is because the right side has thinner
walls.You should be able to feel the muscle in
the centre of the heart.
3 Using a scalpel, cut open the right atrium and
right ventricle. Pull back the wall and look inside
to see the atrium and ventricle. The ventricle is
the chamber closest to the pointed end of the
heart. The white tendons hold the valves in
place.
leading from the right ventricle. What is this
artery called?
5 Cut open the left side of the heart. It has thicker
walls than the right side. Locate the atrium,
ventricle, and tendons holding the valves.
6 Push a glass stirring rod out through the artery
leading from the left ventricle. What is this artery
called? If this artery has not been cut away,
compare the thickness of the wall with a vein.
Safety
Always wear gloves when handling animal tissue. Be
very careful when using knives, scalpels and other
dissecting equipment. Scalpels are extremely sharp.
Keep your fingers away when you are cutting.
Never be silly with a scalpel, and always put it in a
safe place when you have finished using it.

200
 THE HUMAN BODY 201

The heart is made of a special type of muscle
tissue. It never gets tired or stops for a rest. But it
does need a supply of oxygen and glucose. The
heart has its own blood vessels which do this.
They are the coronary arteries. Sometimes the
coronary arteries and veins get partly blocked and
the flow of blood is restricted. The shortage of
glucose and oxygen can cause part of the heart
muscle to die. This is called a heart attack. In
some cases the heart stops beating and the person
either dies or has to be revived.
vena cava aorta
pulmonary
vein (hidden)
common in men than in women. Coronary heart
disease is not caused by only one thing. Several
factors are involved. These are called risk factors.
The risk factors in heart disease are the amount of
cholesterol in your blood, having high blood
pressure, and smoking. Lesser risk factors are
having uncontrolled diabetes, obesity, and stress.
The beating of the heart is controlled by tissue
called the pacemaker. It is located within the
heart tissue. If a person has an irregular
heartbeat, a surgeon can place a battery-operated
electronic pacemaker under the patient’s skin.

ACTIVITY
right
atrium
AIM: To make a model heart
pulmonary
artery Your teacher will photocopy the cut-out heart
from the back of this book. Cut out the square
drawing and glue it into your note book. Then
fat left cut out the six drawings of the arteries and
atrium veins, and the cover of the heart.
Glue the arteries and veins on the drawing,
coronary and then draw in the tendons and add arrows
vessels
to show the direction of blood flow in the
The outside of the heart heart. (Use the drawing on the opposite page as
a guide.) Label the left ventricle, left atrium, right
Coronary heart disease is a serious health ventricle, and right atrium. Finally glue the cover
problem in our society. It is more common in onto the heart with the tab.
older people than younger people, and more

COPY AND COMPLETE

CHECKPOINT:

The heart is a ______ pump which pushes _____ to two different ______—to the _____ and to the ____.
The sound of a _______ heart is due to the ______ closing. Doctors ______ to this sound with a ___________.
Sometimes the ________ arteries and veins get partly _______ and the flow of _____ is restricted. The shortage of
_______ and ______ can cause part of the heart ______ to ___. This is called a _____ attack.
Coronary heart _______ is not caused by _______ _______ _______. Several _______ are involved. These are called
____ factors. The ____ _______ in _____ disease are the amount of ___________ in your blood, having ____ blood
________ and _______.

QUESTIONS 6 Some people have a ‘hole in the heart’. This is a tiny

hole or leak in the wall of the heart which separates
1 What is the meaning of these words: coronary artery, the right side from the left side. What effect would
coronary heart disease, risk factors, obesity? this have on the person?
aorta
2 Name the four chambers in the heart.
3 Insert the names of the chambers of the heart in
order of blood flow. Excretion
body ➮ _____➮ _____➮ lungs ➮ _____➮ ______➮ body
hole
right
4 Rewrite your answer to Question 3, this time adding ventricle

the names of the arteries and veins.

left
5 What is a stethoscope? What is it used for? ventricle
 9.11
Excretion
Our cells produce many wastes. There is water, Kidneys
carbon dioxide and heat from respiration, and
Kidneys are the organs which filter our blood.
urea from the breakdown of protein. Our body
They are about 10 cm long and are located in
must also get rid of excess salts and other
your lower back just above your hips. Kidneys
substances in our blood. Waste is removed by the
can filter one litre of blood per minute, and filter
organs of excretion. They make up the excretory
all our blood every five minutes.
system. The organs of excretion are the kidneys,
Kidneys remove urea, salts and water from the
skin and lungs. (The kidneys and skin are studied
blood. Urea is produced by the liver as it breaks
in this activity, and the lungs are studied in
down proteins and amino acids. Water is removed
activity 9.12.)
so that the blood does not become dilute.
The liver Kidney cells are called nephrons. There are one
to two million nephrons in each kidney.
All our food has to be metabolised (= processed). Nephrons are special cells which remove
Metabolism is the name given to the chemical chemicals from blood and then put back into the
reactions which happen in the body. These blood any chemicals which are needed. This
reactions can break down food molecules, or maintains the balance of all the chemicals in
build up digested food molecules into bigger our blood.
molecules. Most metabolism takes place in
the liver.
AIM: To dissect a kidney

EXPERIMENT
The liver is not an organ of excretion, but it
produces most of the substances which have to be Obtain a kidney from the butcher’s shop.
excreted. The liver is one of the body’s largest 1 Examine the outside of the kidney. Look for
organs, and one of the most complex. It has many the ureter and blood vessels, which may have
functions, some of which are to process digested been cut close to the kidney.
food from the small intestine, and metabolise
2 Use a scalpel or knife to cut the kidney open,
lipids and amino acids. Our body cannot store
as shown in the diagram. Locate the parts
amino acids, so excess amino acids (from the
labelled.
digestion of protein) are used to provide energy.
The metabolism of amino acids produces urea, Safety
which is a compound rich in nitrogen. Urea is Always wear gloves when handling animal tissue.
poison to our body. Urea and other waste Be very careful when using knives, scalpels and
products are removed by the kidneys. other dissecting equipment.
typical position
of kidney tubule
(nephron)
liver kidney
(produces collecting
urine) ducts

renal cortex
artery
vein medulla
renal fibrous
ureter (carries vein capsule
artery urine to bladder)
flow of pelvis of
urine ureter

bladder kidney
(stores urine) ureter pyramids

The structure of the kidney

The location of kidneys

202
 THE HUMAN BODY 203
‘dirty’ blood
As the water in perspiration evaporates, salt
‘cleaned’ and other substances are left behind. Bacteria eat
blood

stances
ul h glucose,
useful substances are
reabsorbed into the blood these and produce a smell. We call it body odour,
urea ins
vitam

urine goes to
nd it
sub the bladder or BO for short. Deodorants contain ingredients
a

an water w ef that work in many ways. They reduce the

d other us
useful substances urine
nephron amount of perspiration produced, slow the
urine
Kidney cells called nephrons remove (urea and water) reproduction of bacteria, and absorb some of the
waste substances from the blood substances that are responsible for the smells.
Skin does many more things besides cool us
The waste collected by the kidneys is mainly down and excrete wastes. It gives protection to
water with urea, salts and other substances our organs and tissues underneath, contains fat
dissolved in it. This solution is called urine. Urine cells which act as insulation, and contains sense
flows from the kidneys through the ureter into organs so that we can feel.
the bladder. The bladder stores urine until we can hair
go to the toilet.
outer layer
The skin of skin
It is difficult to believe that our skin is an organ of
excretion. It removes excess heat, as well as the pore
chemical wastes of water, salts and other
compounds in small amounts.
capillaries near
When you run or exercise a lot you get hot. surface of skin
Your skin becomes hotter. Heat is lost from your
skin by radiation. Sometimes we perspire. Our
hair root
skin releases a water solution called perspiration blood vessel
or sweat. When the water evaporates, it takes
heat from our body. Perspiration contains salts
and small amounts of other substances. This is sweat glands
why perspiration tastes salty.
fat and oil
The structure of skin

COPY AND COMPLETE

CHECKPOINT:

Waste is removed by the ______ of _________. They make up the _________ system. The organs of excretion are
the _______, ____ and _____.
Metabolism is the ____ given to the chemical _________ which happen in the body. Most __________ takes place
in the _____.
Kidneys remove ____, salts and _____ from the _____. Urea is produced by the _____ as it breaks down _______
and _____ acids. Kidney cells are called ________. The waste collected by the _______ is mainly water with ____,
_____ and other substances _________ in it. This solution is called _____.
Our skin removes excess ____, and the chemical wastes of _____, _____ and other compounds in small amounts.
Perspiration contains _____ and small amounts of other __________.

QUESTIONS
1 What are the meanings of these words: excretion, 4 Describe the two ways that heat is removed from our
metabolism, urea, nephrons, perspiration, body body.
odour? 5 Why does perspiration taste salty?
2 What happens to the excess protein in our diet? 6 List the functions of the skin.
3 What is the difference between urea, urine and the 7 What causes body odour? What can we do to reduce
ureter? the effects of body odour?
 9.12
The lungs
We need a supply of oxygen to keep our body muscle, which is attached to the ribs, moves and
alive. We can live for days or weeks without this causes the lungs to fill and empty.
water and food, but only for about five minutes windpipe
without oxygen. We obtain oxygen when we bronchus
tubes
breathe.
bronchioles
Our lungs and the other parts of our body bronchiole
which help us breathe, such as ribs and nose, are air sacs
called the respiratory system. The respiratory air sac
network of blood capillaries
system takes in oxygen and releases carbon gives a large surface
dioxide. For respiration to occur in each cell, area for gas exchange

oxygen is needed and carbon dioxide is produced.

one alveolus
Our lungs are like two pink sponges located in
the chest cavity. When we breathe in, air rushes carbon
oxygen
dioxide
through our nose. Here the air is warmed, and blood blood contains
from oxygen, moves
some dust and other particles are filtered out. body into the body
From the nose air passes through our throat to contains CO2 oxygen moves from
the trachea (‘track-ee-ah’), or windpipe. The CO2 moves
air to blood

trachea is located at the front of the neck. It is from blood to air

made of stiff rings of cartilage so it will not get
squashed and block off the air supply. The trachea
branches into two bronchus tubes, and then into
smaller tubes called bronchioles. These tubes get
smaller and smaller until they end in tiny sacs.
Each of these is called an alveolus, or alveoli for
many of them. Our lungs have millions of alveoli.
Each one has blood vessels very close to it.
Each alveolus is made of a thin layer of cells
which separate the air and blood. The cells are
semi-permeable. Small molecules such as oxygen
Gas exchange in an alveolus
As the ribs move further apart and the
diaphragm moves down, the space in our lungs
gets bigger. Air enters through our nose into the
lungs to fill the space. We have breathed in, or
inhaled. Then the ribs squash closer together and
the diaphragm muscle tightens and pushes
upwards. Our lungs are squeezed and air is
pushed out. We have breathed out, or exhaled.
air enters lung (inhale) air forced out (exhale)

and carbon dioxide pass through, but not big

molecules such as glucose and proteins. Oxygen
moves from the air into the blood, and carbon
dioxide moves from the blood into the air.
Lungs cannot move on their own. They have
no muscles joined to them. The diaphragm

nasal cavity
(a) (b)
nostrils
pharynx How lungs work
larynx (voice box)
oesophagus We normally breathe 12 times per minute. We
ring of cartilage
trachea (windpipe) do it without thinking. During exercise we
breathe faster and deeper. While resting we
bronchial tube
lungs
breathe in and out about 500 mL of air for each
alveoli
(air sacs)
breath we take. The maximum amount we can
rib breathe in and out is about 3.0 to 3.5 litres,
diaphragm
depending on the size of our chest. We can never
The structure of the lungs breathe out all of the air in our lungs.

204
 THE HUMAN BODY 205

There are many diseases of our lungs. The most

common problem with lungs is caused by AIM: To measure your lung capacity

EXPERIMENT
smoking. Cigarette smoke contains tar, which How much air can you exhale? This experiment
condenses on the inside of the lungs, especially on lets you find out.
the alveoli. Tar is impermeable (= stops it from
going past) to air, so the tar stops the alveoli from
working properly. In addition, cigarette smoke 1
2
also contains carbon monoxide which stops the 3

red blood cells from carrying as much oxygen as

4
5
normal. Little wonder that smokers get tired
easily. Cigarette smoke can cause lung cancer.
Asthma is a common breathing problem. It is
narrowing of the airways, such as bronchus tubes
and bronchioles. These join the throat to the
Lung capacity experiment
lungs. A person suffering from asthma cannot
breathe properly and they have a shortage of
breath. They may sound wheezy when they 1 Calibrate a 5 litre cordial bottle with marks
breathe. Asthma has many causes, including every 500 mL.
illness and allergies. 2 Fill the bottle with water and invert it (= turn
it upside down) over a sink filled with water,
glass or plastic tubing,
represents trachea as shown in the diagram.
glass or plastic container,
3 Use a clean plastic tube, and push one end of
represents chest the tube into the bottle.
(must be airtight)
4 Take a deep breath and blow all the air you
balloons represent lungs can into the bottle.
5 Remove the tube, screw on the lid, and lift the
rubber sheet or plastic
balloon skin,
bottle from the sink. How much air is in it?
represents diaphragm

rubber band or tape

A model of the lungs

COPY AND COMPLETE

CHECKPOINT:

Our _____ and the other parts of our body which help us breathe, such as ____ and ____, are called the
___________ system. The respiratory system takes in ______ and releases ______ _______. For ___________ to
occur in each ____, ______ is needed and carbon _______ is produced.
The _________ muscle, which is attached to the ____, moves and this causes the _____ to ____ and _____.
Cigarette _____ contains ___ which condenses on the inside of the _____.
Asthma is a common _________ problem. It is _________ of the airways, such as ________ tubes and
___________.

QUESTIONS
1 What is the meaning of the words trachea, lungs,
alveoli, diaphragm, asthma?
2 What is the difference between exhale and inhale,
and semi-permeable and impermeable?
3 What part of the body does the disease bronchitis
affect?
4 Explain how smoking can reduce lung efficiency?
5 Write the sequence of steps in breathing in and out.
6 What are the advantages of breathing through your
nose instead of your mouth?
7 If a friend had an asthma attack, what would the
symptoms be? What should you do?
 Review
Circulatory, 7 The diagram shows blood moving through the
capillaries in active muscle tissue. The arrows
respiratory and show the direction of blood flow.

excretory systems At which location would there be the least

amounts of glucose and oxygen in the blood?
A X
Select the best alternative in these multiple choice B Y
questions and write the answer in your note book. C Z
1 The pumping chamber of the heart, which D There would be the same amount in all
pumps to the body, is called the three places.
A left ventricle blood flow in artery
B right ventricle
C left atrium X
D right atrium Y
2 The greatest cause of diseases in the lungs is capillaries
due to Z
A breathing through your mouth and not
your nose
B smoking cigarettes
C breathing pollution in cities
D hardening of the arteries blood flow in veins
3 The heart is a double pump. It pumps blood to Blood moving through the capillaries
two different places at the same time. These
places are 8 Only one of the following statements is correct.
A the head and the body Which one is it?
B the body and the lungs A Urea is made by urine in the ureter.
C the right side and left side of the body B Urine contains yellow urea and is stored in
D the body and kidneys the ureter.
C Urine contains urea and flows down the
4 The major risk factors in coronary heart disease ureter.
are D The kidneys separate urea, make urine and
A having lots of glucose in your food and store it in the ureter.
blood
B having lazy kidneys 9 Some blood cells are not found in blood, but go
C smoking, diet and lack of exercise wandering around the body. These cells, and
D playing sport and eating fruit their function, are
A red blood cells, to deliver oxygen to each
5 Asthma is a condition in which the sufferer cell no matter where it is
A has diseased lungs B white blood cells, to bring hormones to
B has a poor circulation of blood important organs
C cannot play sport C red blood cells, moving to the skin to
D has their airways close up, making it hard radiate heat away from the body
to breathe D white blood cells, looking for cells and
6 When resting a person breathes 12 times per chemicals which are not part of the body
minute and exchanges 500 mL of air each 10 If a friend has nephritis, which tissues or
breath. How much air is breathed each minute? organs do they have problems with?
A 6 litres A alveoli in lungs
B 6000 litres B cells in the kidney
C 42 litres C valves in the heart
D 512 litres D white blood cells
206
 THE HUMAN BODY 207

Answer the following questions in your note book. g label the carotid artery and carotid vein
which carries blood to and from the head.
11 Draw a bar chart and a pie chart to show the
composition of exhaled and inhaled air. 14 Copy and complete this table. It shows the
change in various substances in the blood as it
Gas Inhaled air Exhaled air flows through different organs of the body. Use
in air (% composition) (% composition) the key: + = increases, – = decreases, 0 = stays
Nitrogen 78 78 the same.
Oxygen 21 16 Amount of Amount of Amount of Amount of
ORGAN glucose oxygen carbon urea
Others 1 1 dioxide
Carbon dioxide 0.03 4 Lungs
Water vapour 0 1 Kidney

12 The diagram below shows a person in an iron Liver

lung. It is used to treat people who have Heart

paralysed breathing muscles. Around their neck
Leg muscle
is an air tight seal.
15 The following graphs show the breathing rates
of a runner before and just after a race.

5.0
Lung volume (litres)

An iron lung
3.4
Explain how the iron lung enables a person to 2.9
breathe.
13 The diagram shows a simplified view of the 1.8
path of blood around the body.
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10
Time (sec)

At rest After
vigorous exercise
a How many breaths did the runner have in
20 seconds before the race?
b How many breaths did the runner have in
A simplified 10 seconds after the race?
view of the c What was the volume in each breath before
path of blood running?
around the
body
d What was the volume in each breath after
running?
Copy the diagram into your note book, and e When was the runner taking in the most air:
then on the diagram before or after the race? Explain.
a draw arrows showing the direction of blood f Why does the body need more oxygen after
flow a race than before the race?
b label the aorta, which carries the blood from
the heart to the body 16 Some people have a ‘hole in the heart’. It is
c label the caval veins, which carry blood from really a tiny leak between the right side of the
the body to the heart and the head to the heart and the left side of the heart. This hole
heart means that blood from the right side of the
d label the pulmonary artery heart mixes with blood from the left side of
e label the pulmonary vein the heart. What is the effect of this? How
f label the hepatic portal vein, which carries would this affect the person?
blood from the intestine to the liver
 9.13
Bones
There is a body system associated with Cartilage — is smooth
Ball joint — fits into and tough, allows for
movement. It is called the skeletal system, and it socket of hip, rounded movement without wear
includes muscles and bones. to allow easy
movement Red marrow — makes
Our system of bones is called the skeleton. It red blood cells and
some white blood cells
consists of 206 bones. Our bones are hard yet Projections — to attach
Hard layer of compact
to muscles which move
flexible (= bendable). The hardness comes from the bone bone gives strength and
rigidity
calcium compounds, and the flexibility comes
Shaft — supports the Yellow marrow —
from proteins. weight of the body contains fat cells and
Our bones have many uses: stores minerals
Spongy bone — this is
1 Bones support our body when we walk, sit and Grooves — to allow like honeycomb, makes
easy movement at bone strong without
run. Without our bones we would be a lump of knee joint being too heavy
jelly.
Femur Section through
2 Bones protect vital organs. Our heart, lungs and femur
brain are safe behind bones.
The structure of a bone
3 Bones provide a point of attachment for
muscles. Bones and muscles work together to The shape of a bone depends on its use. Your
let us move. leg bones are thick and strong to support your
4 Bones produce white blood cells and red blood weight, while the bones in your arms are light
cells. They are produced in the marrow inside and have lots of movement. Ribs and skull bones
them. are curved for maximum strength.
Our backbone is made of many
small bones which make up the
flexible (= can bend) spine. These
cranium (skull)
bones are called vertebrae (single =
vertebra). There are 33 vertebrae,
mandible although some are joined together.
cervical vertebrae
clavicle The vertebrae protect our spinal
scapula sternum column, which is the bundle of
ribs
humerus nerves which goes from our head
thoracic vertebrae to every part of our body. Each
vertebra is separated by a disc of
lumbar vertebrae
radius
cartilage. Sometimes this disc
pelvis
moves out of place. This is called a
ulna
‘slipped disc’. It can be very painful.
carpals Osteoporosis (‘ostee-oh-poor-
metacarpals oh-sus’) is a bone condition which
femur phalanges affects people as they get older. It is
more common in women, but it
also affects lots of men. Osteoporo-
patella
sis is a reduction in the amount of
tibia bone tissue present in the bones.
fibula This happens as the thin layers of
bone in the spongy tissue develop
tarsals holes in them, and the outside
metatarsals layer of bone becomes thinner.
phalanges This means that bones are the same
size but are not as solid and strong,
The skeleton and its main bones and they break easily. Breaks at the

208
 THE HUMAN BODY 209

wrist, spine and hips are the most common.

Osteoporosis cannot be cured, but its effect can be AIM: To look at bones

EXPERIMENT
reduced by regular exercise and a diet containing
plenty of calcium. Calcium is found in dairy foods 1 Ask the butcher for a long bone, such as a leg
and in fish with edible (= eatable) bones. bone, and ask them to cut it lengthwise for you.
Look for the following features on the bone.
• hard, shiny cartilage on the end of the
One vertebra bone that reduces wear
This vertebra rubs The muscles you • the spongy part of the bone
against the next use to bend your
one here and here back are attached • the bone marrow
here and here • the strong, hollow bone shaft
• traces of blood (bones are living tissue and
have blood vessels to keep them alive)
• the remains of ligaments
• the ends of muscles
2 Obtain a thin bone, such as a rib bone from a
sheep or a chicken bone. Soak it in dilute
hydrochloric acid for a few days. Wash it well
and see if you can bend it. The acid dissolves
Intervertebral discs are The vertebra has a the calcium which makes the bone hard. Only
pads of cartilage between hollow centre. The protein is left, so the bone is flexible.
the vertebrae. They stop nerve cord goes
vertebrae knocking against through it 3 Look at a plastic skeleton of a person.This can
each other when you run be life-size or a scale model. Look for the bones
or jump
shown in the diagram on the previous page.
The structure of a vertebra
4 Do you have any X-rays of broken bones? If
so, name the bones shown and the bone
which was broken.

COPY AND COMPLETE

CHECKPOINT:

There is a body ______ associated with ________. It is called the ________ system and includes _______ and
_____. Our system of _____ is called the ________. The ______ of a bone depends on its ______.
Our ________ is made of many small _____ which make up the ______ spine. These _____ are called _________.
Osteoporosis is a ____ condition which affects people as they get _____. ____________ is a _________ in the
amount of bone ______ present in the _____. Osteoporosis cannot be _____, but its ______ can be _______ by a
combination of regular ________ and a ____ containing _______.

QUESTIONS
1 What is the meaning of the following words: 3 List all the functions of bones and the skeleton.
skeleton, vertebrae, slipped disc and osteoporosis? 4 What has happened in a person’s spine when they
2 Copy the table into your note book, 1 have a slipped disc?
filling in the missing words. 5 What is osteoporosis? How can it be prevented?
Name of Bone Organs Protected 6 What is the difference between vertebra, vertebrae,
2 and vertebrate?
1
7 What is the link between bones and blood?
2 3
8 What foods should people include in their diet to
3
strengthen their bones?
Most of these bones are curved in shape. What is the 9 Why are bones hollow? List at least two reasons.
reason for this?
 9.14
Muscles
Muscles are essential to the functioning of our
body. The functions of muscles are as follows:
1 Move limbs (arms and legs), organs (heart,
eyes) and hair on our skin. The diaphragm
muscle is important in breathing.
2 Force fluids through the body. Muscles push
materials through the digestive system and
blood through the veins of the arms and legs.
3 Hold organs in place and maintain our
posture. We lose our posture when we faint or
collapse, or fall asleep.
When muscle tissue is viewed with a
microscope, the muscle cells are seen as long and
slender cells. The cells are arranged in bundles
called fibres. Muscle cells can only shorten.
Different types of muscle cells have a different
appearance. There are three main types of muscle.
1 Voluntary muscles. In our arms and legs we
have muscles that we can decide when to use.
They are called voluntary muscles. The muscle
fibres in voluntary muscles have striations
(= stripes) on them. Only voluntary muscles
are striated. Some voluntary muscles are the
calf muscle in the leg, and the biceps and tri-
ceps muscles in the upper arm. This type of
muscle is also called skeletal muscle, because it
is always attached to the bones of our skeleton.
2 Involuntary muscles. Further inside our bodies
are involuntary muscles. These muscles work
without us knowing that they are working.
These muscles are in our arteries, surround our
intestines, and control the release of chyme
scapula biceps—this muscle contracts
(shoulder blade) to bend the arm
humerus
triceps—this tendon radius ulna
muscle contracts
to straighten
the arm
The biceps and triceps muscles in an arm
210
along the digestive system. When viewed with
a microscope, the fibres of these muscles have
no striations, so they are called smooth muscle
tissue.
3 Cardiac muscle. The third type of muscle
tissue is cardiac or heart muscle. It is smooth
muscle, but the fibres branch sideways and join
onto other fibres. Cardiac muscle contracts
regularly throughout our life.
A B C
A Voluntary muscles are made of fibres that are long and striped
B Involuntary muscles are made of short unstriped fibres
C Cardiac muscle is made of branched fibres
How muscles let us move
Muscles can only contract. For them to work
properly they must work in pairs. As one muscle
contracts the other muscle relaxes and allows
itself to be stretched. Voluntary muscles pull
against a bone and make that bone move.
Muscles are joined onto bones by tendons and
origins. The most famous tendon in the body is
the Achilles tendon at the back of your heel.
The muscles in the top of our arms are called
the biceps and triceps. As the biceps muscle gets
shorter, it pulls the bones in our arms closer to it.
This raises our arm and hand. At the same time,
the triceps muscle at the back of the arm has to
relax, so it is lengthened. To straighten your arm,
the reverse applies. The triceps shortens and the
biceps relaxes. Muscles never expand or lengthen
on their own. Feel your biceps and triceps change
in size as you bend and straighten your arm.
A cramp occurs when a muscle becomes
contracted and remains that way for some time.
Cramps occur in skeletal and smooth muscle.
They are caused by physical activity in heat, or
from strenuous work of a few muscles, such as the
leg muscles in long distance running. You can also
get cramps in your stomach from eating cold food.
 THE HUMAN BODY 211

A hiccup is a sudden intake of air because of a

spasm in the diaphragm. When the diaphragm AIM: To measure the strength of

twitches it pulls in air suddenly past the larynx or
voice box. This causes the ‘hic’ sound that we hear.
People can stop the hiccups by breathing deeply,
having a drink of water, or holding their breath.
AIM: To make a model arm
EXPERIMENT
EXPERIMENT
your muscles
Many people believe that they are very strong.
How much force can you exert with your
muscles? Compare it with friends of the same

gender, height and weight. The drawing below

Use some thick cardboard, such as the shows how you can measure a set of muscles.
corrugated cardboard from a cardboard carton, Write your results in a table in your note book.
and cut out the shapes of the bones shown in
the back of this book. Punch a hole and insert a
paper fastener where shown.
Punch out the circles labeled M and tie a
length of string or rubber, to represent the
muscle, between them. Make your model arm
move. Note that as one muscle shortens the
other muscle is lengthened.
8 9 11 12 13
34 5 6 7 14
1 2 I I I I I I I I I I I 15
I I I
I I

AIM: To make a crab claw

EXPERIMENT

How are the muscles arranged in a crab claw?

Could you make a working crab claw using strings
to simulate the muscles? Try
doing this using the cut
out provided in the
back of this book. Testing the strength of muscles

COPY AND COMPLETE

CHECKPOINT:

Muscles are ________ to the ________ of the ________.

When muscle tissue is viewed with a __________ the muscle _____ are seen as ____ and _______ cells. The cells
are arranged in _______ called ______.
Muscles can only ________. For them to work ________ they must ____ in _____. As one muscle _________ the
other muscle _______ and allows itself to be _________.
A _____ occurs when a ______ becomes __________ and remains that way for some ____. A ______ is a sudden
intake of ___ because of a _____ in the _________.

QUESTIONS
1 Why are the cardiac muscle and the diaphragm
muscle important to us?
2 List the functions of muscles.
3 What is the Achilles tendon? What do tendons do?
4 What are the three types of muscle? Describe their
appearance and role in the body.
5 What happens to your muscle when you get
a cramp?
6 What happens to give you the hiccups?
7 Explain how muscles work in pairs to allow us
to move.
 9.15
Joints
A joint is the name given to the place where which stop the bones from touching each
two bones are joined together. Sometimes the other. This is called synovial fluid (‘sign-ovi-
bones are fixed and do not move. But usually all’) and it is contained in the synovial sac.
the joint enables the bones to move and not Synovial fluid is a yellow oily liquid. If the
wear out. Many of the bones in our body have synovial sac in your knee breaks, you are said
more than one joint. to have ‘water on the knee’.
The type of joints around our bones depend
on what the bones do. There are four common bone
ligaments —
types of joints. These are listed below. strong fibres that
1 Immovable joints. These joints are fixed and hold bones together
the bones cannot move. Our cranium, or cartilage —
hard, slippery synovial fluid —
skull, is made of thirty bones which are layer that oily liquid that helps
locked together by immovable joints. prevents bones the bones move
from wearing away smoothly
2 Ball and socket joints. These are the type of
joints in our hips and shoulders. They allow synovial membrane —
the maximum amount of movement. contains the synovial
fluid, and stops it from
3 Hinge joints. These joints allow movement, draining away
but only in two directions. Examples are
your knee and elbow joints. The knee joint Finger injuries
only lets you swing your leg forwards and Many people who play sports that involve
backwards, not sideways. catching a ball suffer from injuries to their
4 Gliding joints. These joints are in the wrist fingers. The most common type of injury is
and ankle. They allow the bones to glide when the ball hits the ends of the fingers. The
over and past each other. finger can be pushed backwards or sideways,
Each moveable joint has some way of and sometimes pushed right back into the
holding the bones together, and from stopping hand. This injury may break the ligaments and
the bones from wearing themselves away. the synovial sac.
Ligaments are strips of cartilage which hold Your finger has two joints. Each joint has
bones together. They can be inside the joint or two ligaments along the side of the finger and
along the outside of the bones. Between the a synovial sac between them. There are
moveable bones are small containers of fluid muscles on the top and bottom.

hinge joint

lubricating cartilage —
humerus fluid reduces friction

radius ligament

fixed joint

elbow ball and

socket joint
femur

gliding joint
Types of joints

212
 THE HUMAN BODY 213

nail bone bone bone covering If the finger has been pushed sideways, then
of skin one of the ligaments may have been torn or
pulled away from the bone. Repairs to ligaments
take longer.

Arthritis
Arthritis is the name given to diseases of the
joints. People who have arthritis suffer pain,
ligaments on synovial fluid muscle on top and
stiffness and swelling in their joints. There are
side of fingers between bones bottom of finger two main types of arthritis.
Osteoarthritis is the most common form of
The finger
arthritis. It occurs when the joint wears out and
If a ball hits you on the end of the finger, the the two bones rub against each other. Lumps of
force pushes the bones together. The synovial sacs bone and hard cartilage may develop in the joint.
are squashed and might be broken. Yellow This causes a deformity in the joint and painful
synovial fluid escapes into the surrounding tissue. swelling.
Broken blood vessels bleed into the cells and Rheumatoid arthritis affects mostly the wrists
cause a bruise. The body’s emergency systems are and knuckles. It happens when the bone and
activated. Platelets seal off the blood vessel to cartilage are eaten away. The reasons for this are
prevent further bleeding. White blood cells rush not known.
in to break down, engulf and remove the remains
of the dead cells and other chemicals. The area
becomes red as more blood moves in with lots of
oxygen and plasma. The plasma contains protein
for the repair of tissue and glucose to provide
energy. Moving your finger would slow the
repairs, so it swells so you cannot move it. Repairs
take two to four days, and your finger will be red
and sore and swollen during this time.

Arthritis-affected joints

COPY AND COMPLETE

CHECKPOINT:

A joint is the name given to the place where two _____ are _____ together. Sometimes the bones are _____ and do
___ move. Usually the _____ enables the _____ to ____ and not ____ out.
Ligaments are strips of _________ which hold _____ together. Between the ________ bones are small __________
of fluid which stop the _____ from ________ each other. This is called ________ fluid.
Arthritis is the name given to ________ of the ______. People who have _________ suffer ____, _________ and
________ in their joints.

QUESTIONS
1 What is the meaning of the following words: joint,
ligament, synovial, arthritis?
2 What are the four types of joints in your body?
Give an example of each type.
3 What is the function of the synovial fluid and the
synovial sac?
4 What is arthritis? Name two types of arthritis.
5 What is the role of blood in repairing an injury to
our body? Consider the white blood cells, the red
blood cells, and the plasma.
6 Why do health experts advise older people against
repetitive, jarring exercise?
7 Outline, in point form, the steps involved in
repairing injuries to a joint in your finger.
 Review
9 Muscles work in pairs because
The skeletal system A muscles only pull on one bone, so two
Answer these multiple choice questions in your muscles are needed to pull on two bones
note book. B muscles can only get longer and another
muscle is needed to shorten them
1 Your friend has rung you and said that she has a
C they are always side by side
broken femur. When you see her, she will have
D one muscle relaxes while the other muscle
A her neck in a collar
pulls in the opposite direction
B her arm in a sling
C crutches to help her walk 10 The ends of bones are protected from wearing
D her hand bandaged away because
A new cells are constantly being made to
2 A vertebra is a bone found in your
replace dead cells
A shoulders and arms
B they have hard cartilage and synovial fluid
B in your backbone
to prevent wear
C in your feet
C blood vessels supply lots of oxygen and
D nose and sinus passages
glucose to the ends of the bones
3 There are 206 bones in our D they are so tough they can never wear out
A ribs
11 Unscramble the names of the bones below.
B brains, skull and teeth
Each name is shown on the skeleton diagram
C skeleton
in activity 9.13. Then identify each bone with
D torso, arms and legs
the number on the drawing below.
4 The function that bones do not have is to LUNA VICECAL LIFBUA
A protect organs PLACUSA ALLATEP CYXCOC
B help in the digestion of food BRIS SIRUAD NARCIUM
C hold up our body and give posture GALPESHAN REBEVATER IABIT
D attach muscles so we can move CUMRAS REMSTUN LIPSEV
SURMEUH REMUF
5 Joints in the body are found
A between bones 12 Use the numbers of the bones in the skeleton
B behind the stomach below to answer these questions.
C in the intestines 1
D only in the skull
6 The joints in our shoulders and hips are 2
3
A ball and socket joints 4
B hinge joints 5
6
C gliding joints 7
8
D immovable joints 10 9

7 Our bones are made of 11 13

A calcium 14
B only living cells 12
15
C calcium and living cells
D calcium, fluoride and cells 16
17
8 Under the microscope, the muscles that we can
choose to use look like The human skeleton
A long interlocked fibres a Name two bones on either side of the hinge
B long slender striped fibres joint in the legs.
C short branched fibres b Name two bones on either side of a gliding
D long slender smooth fibres joint in the arms.

214

c Which group of bones help in breathing?
d What is the hinge joint in the upper body?
e Which bone protects the brain?
f Which bones protect the heart?
13 The following drawing shows three types of
muscle tissue. Name each type, and state
whether it is under our voluntary control.
Three types of muscle tissue
14 Muscles in your thigh allow you to move your
knee. These muscles are called the quadriceps
and the hamstring muscles.
quadriceps
hamstring
muscle
Muscles allow movement
in your leg
Explain how your muscles work to move the
knee. (You can stand on one leg and feel the
thigh muscles moving near your knee.)
15 The diagram below shows a movable joint.
Match each label on the diagram with one or
more of the descriptions below.
a is an oily liquid
b is a hard slippery solid
c are the fibres which hold the bones together
d is the synovial membrane
e keeps the bones apart
f is called a ligament
A B C D
Bone Bone
A moveable joint
THE HUMAN BODY 215
16 a Name the gas produced as your muscles are
working.
b How is this gas removed from the body?
c Which gas do the muscles need to allow
them to continue moving?
d How is this gas delivered to muscles?
17 The following diagram shows the bones and
muscles in the right leg of a runner waiting for
the starting gun. A
Bones and
muscles in
E D Z Y the leg
a Give the name and letter of a ball and
socket joint shown on the diagram.
b Give the name and letter of a hinge joint
shown on the diagram.
c What holds the muscles X and Z together?
d Which muscles will contract when the
starting gun fires?
e Which muscles contract when the runner
crouches lower on the ground?
18 The diagram shows a normal hip, and the hip
of a person who has had a hip replacement
operation. This is done when the ball on the
top of the femur breaks, and the person can no
longer stand or walk. To repair the injury, the
top of the broken top of the femur is removed,
and a plastic insert is placed into the top of
the femur. This is shown in blue in the drawing.
pelvis
muscle
and flesh
femur
breaks
here
A normal hip (left) and a hip following a hip replacement operation (right)
a What type of joint is the hip joint?
b Why is the insert made of tough plastic, and
not iron?
c After this operation patients are advised to
consume lots of foods containing calcium.
Why is this diet important for the success of
the operation?
 Review and Research
Review questions 3 A student tested some food with chemical
reagents. Her results are listed below.
1 Copy and complete these sentences by writing
in the missing word. Testape or Iodine Biuret solution Brown
TEST Benedict’s (CuSO4 + NaOH) paper
a Muscles with stripes on them that are under
the control of our will are said to be Food 1
Food 2
_______.
Food 3
b Muscles can only ________. They can only Food 4
get longer when they relax and another Food 5
muscle pulls against them. Food 6
c A chemical substance in or from a living indicates a positive test indicates a negative test
thing which helps in chemical processes and
A reference book shows the following as the
is used over and over is called an ________.
composition of some foods.
They are also in some washing powders.
d The muscular organ which stores food and
mixes it with acid and enzymes is the FOOD % carbohydrate % water % protein % lipid
White bread 51 37 10.0 1.5
___________. Beef (raw) 0 71 22.0 6.0
e The bones which protect our spinal column Boiled potato 20 77 2.5 0.1
Cheese 0 14 1.0 85.0
are called _________. Egg white 0 87 12.0 0.5
f Your friend has been admitted to the cardiac Peas 15 77 7.0 0.5
ward of the hospital for treatment to her Apple 14 84 0.4 0.5
Lemonade 10 90 0.0 0.0
_________. Milk 5 87 3.0 4.0
g We have four types of teeth, two of them are Lipid = fats and oils Carbohydrate = sugars and starch combined

canines and molars. The other two types are

a Identify the food types in the top table. All
the _____________ and ______________.
the types are listed in the bottom table.
h Nutritionists recommend that we eat more
b Predict the results, by showing a tick or cross,
__________ and less ___________ in our
for these foods: chicken meat, oranges,
diet.
potato crisps, olive oil.
i The muscles in the upper arm are the biceps
and the ______. 4 This word puzzle has only the names of bones in
j A ligament joins bone to bone, a ______ our skeleton. The names are listed below the
joins muscle to bone. puzzle grid.
2 Many organs inside us, like our lungs and
intestine, have a very large surface area. This is
to increase the speed of absorption through the
semi-permeable membrane. The incomplete table
below shows the surface area of some internal
organs. Compare these areas with the 2 m2
surface area of our skin.
What is Effective Name of structure or cells
ORGAN absorbed area where absorption or
exchange occurs
The bones named are:
Intestines 250 m2
9 letters
phalanges
Lungs 90 m2 8 letters
clavicle vertebra
Kidneys 12 m2 7 letters
cranium sternum scapula patella
6 letters
coccyx pelvis carpal radius
fibula sacrum
Complete the table.
5 letters tibia femur
4 letters disc ulna
3 letters rib

216

a Copy the grid into your note book.
b Write in the names of the bones, like in a
crossword. The words only fit one way.
c Number the words and prepare a list of clues
as if you are compiling the clues for a
crossword puzzle.
5 Most foods have their nutritional information
printed on the sides of the packets. This is
required by law. For breakfast cereals, one
serving is 30 g and this information is
shown in the first column.
Weet-Bix
6 The X-ray shows the leg bones of a boy who
Special-K
7 The photograph below shows the skull of an
Compare the labels of Weet-Bix and Special-K and
answer these questions about a 30 g serve.
a Which cereal provides the most energy?
THE HUMAN BODY 217
b If someone needs a diet low in salt (sodium
chloride), which of these cereals should they
select?
c Does either cereal contain cholesterol when
eaten on its own? Both cereals are made
from grains.
d Which cereal has the most fibre?
e Which cereal has the most sugar?
f Why do you think the cereals have the same
amounts of the vitamins thiamine, riboflavin
and niacin?
g Nutritional information is important in
selecting a cereal, but there are other things
to consider. What else should be considered
in choosing a breakfast cereal?
was knocked off his bike by a car.
X-ray of broken
leg bones
Describe which bones have been broken and
how the surgeon has repaired them.
animal. Name the four types of teeth and
describe the function of each of these types.
Complete the table on page 218.
Dog skull
218 THE HUMAN BODY

Letter Name of tooth type Function of tooth Class project

Lots of people wear T-shirts and sweaters with a
A
pattern or design on them. Design a pattern for
B
some clothing depicting some aspect of the human
body. It could be what happens to a ham
C sandwich, or how muscles work in pairs, or the life
of a blood cell. Draw your ideas on a large sheet of
D paper which you could wear in a fashion parade in
the class.
Research question
Word check
Look up some deficiency diseases, such as rickets,
scurvy and pellagra. Design a poster showing the multicellular organism absorption
effects and how to prevent these diseases. tissue vitamin deficiency
nutrition fibre roughage
Extension experiments malnutrition glucose lipid
cholesterol digestion soluble
These questions ask you to design experiments.
carbohydrate amino acid triglyceride
Before starting on any experiment, write it in
protein semi-permeable dialysis
your note book and check the method with your
glycogen oesophagus peristalsis
teacher.
enzyme stomach chyme
AIM: To burn a nut gastric liver villi
In activity 9.2 the experiment was to burn a nut bile faeces rectum
and show that it contained chemical energy. Look appendix incisor canine
back at this activity and read your results. anus dentine caries
Can you make this experiment better? Consider molar kilojoules platelets
the following. tongue bruise circulation
a Should you use a glass beaker or a metal plasma varicose veins pulse
container (such as a small tin can) to hold the capillary coronary aorta
water? Remember that you want as much heat cardiac ventricle valve
as possible to enter the water. atrium excretion metabolism
b Is it better that the glass or metal container be pacemaker kidney nephron
white and shiny or dull and black? urea perspiration trachea
c How would you compensate for large and small sweat bronchioles alveoli
nuts? bronchus asthma skeleton
Repeat this experiment so that you obtain a larger diaphragm vertebrae cartilage
heat value, with less heat being lost and not marrow voluntary striated
heating the water. osteoporosis tendon hiccup
AIM: To investigate enzymes posture synovial arthritis
a Design an experiment to show that an enzyme ligament infection
in liver reacts with dilute hydrogen peroxide haemoglobin respiration
solution. Bubbles are released and this shows Concept map
the rate of reaction.
b Enzymes work best at 37°C, or close to this Draw a concept map of the ideas presented in this
temperature. Design an experiment to show that (long) chapter. It would be best to group your
this is true. Use the liver enzyme in part a in ideas under the different systems.
your experiment.
c Enzymes work best in acid or neutral conditions.
Which conditions are best for the liver enzyme? The big picture Multicellular organisms, levels
d Having a large surface area speeds absorption of organisation
Nutrition Inputs and outputs, nutrition,
and many reactions. Does it speed the action of
energy in food
enzymes? Design an experiment and test it.
The food we eat Food types and tests for them