Journal of Adolescence 53 (2016) 1e9

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Journal of Adolescence
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jado

Peer attachment and class emotional intelligence as

predictors of adolescents' psychological well-being: A
multilevel approach
Nekane Balluerka*, Arantxa Gorostiaga, Itziar Alonso-Arbiol, Aitor Aritzeta
University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The aim of the study was to analyze whether gender, age, peer attachment, and class-level
emotional intelligence could predict adolescents' psychological well-being by applying a
multilevel approach. The sample comprised 2182 secondary school students from the
Keywords: Basque Country (northern Spain) (from 118 classrooms, 51.6% girls), aged between 12 and
Well-being 18 years. A two-level model (with students nested into classes) was used to analyze the
Positive affect
influence of three level-one covariates (gender, age, and peer attachment) and one level-
Peer attachment
two covariate (class-level emotional intelligence) on the positive affect component of
Class emotional intelligence
Gender
psychological well-being. The results showed an overall decrease in well-being as ado-
Multilevel approach lescents grow older, and an increase linked to a higher peer attachment. Furthermore,
class-level emotional intelligence showed a positive relationship with students' well-
being. This group-level covariate also strengthened the effect of peer attachment on the
well-being. The advantages of using a multilevel approach for predicting mental health
and psychological adjustment are discussed.
© 2016 The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier
Ltd. All rights reserved.

Like adults in the workplace, most adolescents spend a considerable amount of time of the day in a classroom. Apart from
learning academic-related contents, in this setting adolescents also acquire life skills and personal and emotional compe-
tences. Parental attachment has often been studied to help to explain adolescents' psychological well-being. Secure
attachment with parents is associated with several well-being outcomes, such as higher levels of self-esteem and life
satisfaction (e.g., Armsden & Greenberg, 1987; Gomez & McLaren, 2007), higher emotional and social competence (e.g., Laible,
2007; Muela, Balluerka, & Torres, 2013; Muela, Torres, & Balluerka, 2012), and higher emotion regulation (e.g., Allen & Miga,
2010). However, the specific role of peers at the individual and group-level has received less attention, despite the associ-
ations found between peer attachment and self-esteem (Gallarin & Alonso-Arbiol, 2012) and the results of other studies
indicating that the quality of peer relationships is also relevant to adolescents' development and adjustment (for an overview
see Allen, 2008). Due to adolescents' growing tendency to affiliate with their peers (Hazan & Zeifman, 1994) and to get more
involved in peer group activities (Lerner & Steinberg, 2004), the impact of the emotional support adolescents receive from
their peers on their psychological well-being is undeniable. Nevertheless, the influence of adolescents' perceptions of

* Corresponding author. Social Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Methods Department, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Avda. de Tolosa nº
70, 20018 San Sebastia
n, Spain. Fax: þ34 943015670.
E-mail address: nekane.balluerka@ehu.eus (N. Balluerka).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.08.009
0140-1971/© 2016 The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 N. Balluerka et al. / Journal of Adolescence 53 (2016) 1e9

emotional bonds with individual peers and of the group emotional climate is still an understudied area, especially in terms of
the positive affect component of psychological well-being. Witherspoon, Schotland, Way, and Hughes (2009) demonstrated
the value of applying a multilevel approach to examine adolescents' well-being, given the relevance of the independent and
joint effects of variables located in different contexts. To date, this approach has not been applied when studying the peers'
emotion-related sphere.
The present study aims to fill this gap in the literature by jointly investigating the emotional support an adolescent may
perceive at both an individual level (i.e., peer attachment) and group level (i.e., group emotional intelligence) in the classroom
context. We assess adolescents' positive affect component of well-being, testing different models that look at predictive
variables at both an individual and group level, as well as at the interaction between variables at these two levels.

Psychological well-being in adolescence

A current concern in the area of adolescents' mental health is the search for conditions that improve adolescent well-
being, beyond the mere reduction/elimination of psychiatric symptoms (Huppert, Baylis, & Keverne, 2004). Subjective or
psychological well-being is regarded as one of the most relevant psychological characteristics associated with mental health
(Derdikman-Eiron et al., 2011).
Psychological well-being can be conceived as a multidimensional construct that includes both emotional and cognitive
elements (Salami, 2011). It is understood to be a self-evaluation involving both positive and negative affect, along with a more
cognitive element of the evaluation an adolescent makes of his/her satisfaction with life (e.g., Diener, Oishi, & Ryan, 2013;
Ronen, Hamama, Rosenbaum, & Mishely-Yarlap, 2014). Most researchers have examined the negative aspects of psycho-
logical well-being (e.g., Moksnes & Espnes, 2012), but the investigation of its positive aspects is no less important (Alonso-
Arbiol, Abubakar, & Van de Vijver, 2014). This latter approach, examining the element of positive affect, is the one adopted
in the present study.
Adolescence is a period marked by notable changes of a physical, cognitive and socio-emotional nature; at an emotional
level, mood changes and emotionally charged events are common at this stage of life (Rosenblum & Lewis, 2003). Thus, in a
context in which adolescents start distancing themselves from their parents, they may benefit from the emotional support
they receive from peers, in order to enhance the positive affect aspect of their subjective well-being (Allen, 2008).

Peer attachment and psychological well-being

Several authors have observed links between attachment security of adolescents and different aspects of their psycho-
logical well-being. For instance, peer attachment in adolescence is associated with well-being outcomes such as self-esteem
(Gallarin & Alonso-Arbiol, 2012; Gomez & McLaren, 2007) and life satisfaction (Abubakar et al., 2013; Nickerson & Nagle,
2004). These studies back up a line of research that bases adolescents' psychological well-being, at least partly, on the
emotional support obtained from peers.
The theory of attachment emphasizes the importance of interpersonal relationships between children and their primary
caregivers in shaping individuals' views of themselves and of the world around them during the early stages of life (Bowlby,
1969). Early patterns of interaction with attachment figures become organized into generalized patterns by the time a person
reaches late adolescence (Bowlby, 1973). In adolescence, the exploration is more likely to focus on an individual's emotional
and cognitive autonomy (Allen, Hauser, Bell, & O'Connor, 1994), and this is also a time when attachment functions begin to be
transferred; close friends become attachment figures for adolescents even if they maintain strong attachment relationships
with their parents (Abubakar et al., 2013; Gallarin & Alonso-Arbiol, 2013; Kerns, Tomich, & Kim, 2006). Nelis and Rae (2009)
stressed the importance of peer attachment and explored the role and functions of peers as attachment figures in adoles-
cence. At this developmental stage, peers start fulfilling attachment functions of proximity seeking and safe haven (Nickerson
& Nagle, 2005); support is provided when adolescents' attachment system is activated and teens start feeling reluctant to
return to parents for comfort at those times of distress.
Peer attachment is understood as being a specific bond established with one or a few peers, as opposed to other di-
mensions of friendship quality, such as conflict resolution, conflict betrayal, help and guidance, and companionship and
recreation (Parker & Asher, 1993). While friendship quality has been observed as being related to well-being in adolescents

, de Matos, Camacho, Simoes, & Diniz, 2014), these authors underline the fact that provision of satisfaction of basic
(e.g., Tome
(emotional) psychological needs dpeer attachmentd is somehow behind the association between quality friendship and
happiness. Likewise, according to Tome
and associates, classmates' support also contributes to well-being.

Class emotional intelligence and psychological well-being

Although group Emotional Intelligence (EI) is a well-known construct in the field of work and organizational psychology
€rtel, Ashkanasy, & Zerbe, 2009), research on group emotions, and specifically on group EI, is still scarce. The class-type EI
(Ha
examined here represents a group-level emotional trait that is based on subjective emotional experiences shared by the class
members. It may be defined as “The perception of the students about the way in which their class pays attention to and values
the feelings of classmates, is clear rather than confused about the emotions felt in the class and uses positive thinking to repair
negative moods in the class.” (Balluerka, Aritzeta, Gorostiaga, Gartzia, & Soroa, 2013, p. 112). Class EI differs from classroom
 N. Balluerka et al. / Journal of Adolescence 53 (2016) 1e9 3

emotional climate in that the latter refers to the quality of social and emotional interactions in the classroom between and
among students and teachers, for example, teacher and peer support, teachers' disciplinary style and school rules (Pianta, La
Paro, & Hamre, 2008). Class emotional intelligence, however, focuses only on the interaction between students that takes
place in a natural group and takes into account only emotional aspects. Therefore, class EI may be understood as being part of
the broader construct of the classroom emotional climate.
As in other educational systems around the world, in the Basque Country (in northern Spain), students stay with the same
classmates from pre-school until high school, when they spend more than 70% of the time with the same classmates. Spe-
cifically, they share 100% of the time with their classmates in pre-school and a minimum of 70% of the time in high school
depending on the optional subjects they choose each academic year. This makes the class a fundamental group of reference. In
this context emotions are regarded as essential for exploring classroom interactions and for understanding patterns of
motivation and learning among students (Beilock & Ramirez, 2011). In fact, some studies have found that what motivates
students in the classroom, and the ways in which motivation is related to cognition, are both associated with the development
of affective relationships with peers (Pintrich, 2003). A large body of evidence also shows how the establishment of a positive,
caring and encouraging learning environment can transform students' patterns of feelings, behavior, resilience and academic
diligence (Lovat & Toomey, 2009). This includes not just feelings associated with success or failure, but also the sense of
acceptance or rejection by others (Graham, 1991). Furthermore, research examining class emotional climate has shown that
consistently negative and non-supportive climates are usually associated with avoidance, disruptive and cheating behavior,
whereas supportive ones are associated with goal motivation (Patrick, Turner, Meyer, & Midgley, 2003). The conclusion to be
drawn from these findings is that the positive or negative emotional climate in a class generates a group level component of
shared emotional experience that can be particularly relevant for students' positive affect component of psychological well-
being. Thus, one might expect this adolescents' type of psychological well-being to be influenced by the emotional climate of
the group in which they spend most of their time, and in which they interact publicly with their peers.

Age, gender and psychological well-being

Besides emotion-related variables, demographic variables (i.e. age and gender) will also be analyzed here, as these are key
variables in understanding how adolescents' subjective well-being develops (Casey, Jones, & Somerville, 2011; Steinberg,
2013). Age is an important variable that needs to be acknowledged in the prediction of well-being. The results of previous
work are inconclusive; although most studies examining the positive elements of adolescents' subjective well-being have
observed a negative association with age (e.g., Huebner, Suldo, Valois, & Drane, 2006; Ronen et al., 2014), exceptions to this
rule have also been reported (e.g., Salami, 2011).
Regarding gender, the specific conceptualization of psychological well-being may evidence differences. While problem-
related well-being seems to be gender-specific, with girls displaying more internalized problems and boys more external-
ized problems (for an overview, see Azkargorta, Palacios, & Gallarin, 2009), other conceptualizations produce different
outcomes and gender differences do not always appear. On the one hand, there is evidence that adolescent girls score higher
on the positive aspects of subjective well-being, either for the cognitive-type life satisfaction (e.g., Huebner, Drane, & Valois,
2000) or for positive affect (e.g., Ronen et al., 2014), which is the focus of the present study. Ronen et al. suggest that this
gender effect would be a consequence of females' greater ability to express stronger and more complex emotions. However,
other researchers have reported no gender differences in the positive affect element of well-being (Lang & Tisher, 1978). Thus,
although we do not propose specific hypotheses regarding age and gender, these variables will also be included in the
multilevel models in order to control their possible effects.

Hypotheses

In the present study, we tested some models of the independent and combined effects of peer attachment and class EI on
psychological well-being, and where age and gender were also included as individual-level variables. We expected peer
attachment to have a positive association with the positive affect type of well-being (Hypothesis 1). At a class-level, we also
expected that being part of a group with a high level of EI would generate an emotional context which favors psychological
well-being (Hypothesis 2). Lastly, although we have not found studies on the cross-level interaction between peer attachment
and group (class-level) EI, we might expect class-level EI to strengthen the possible positive relationship between peer
attachment and positive affect type of psychological well-being (Hypothesis 3). This prediction derives from findings by Tome

et al. (2014), who observed, firstly, that adolescents having special friends (i.e., peers functioning as attachment figures)
reported receiving more support from classmates, and secondly, that well-being levels were higher when the friendship bond
was greater.

Method

Participants

The study sample comprised 2182 adolescents (1127 females and 1055 males) aged between 12 and 18 years (M ¼ 14.51;
SD ¼ 1.55). They attended 14 secondary schools in the Basque Country (northern Spain) and were grouped into 118 different
4 N. Balluerka et al. / Journal of Adolescence 53 (2016) 1e9

classes. Regarding school level, 22.5% of the sample were in their first year of Compulsory Secondary Education, 21% in the
second year, 20.7% in the third year, 15.8% in the fourth year and 20% were attending the first year of Post-Compulsory
Schooling. It must be pointed out that in the Basque Educational system, high school students share a minimum of 70% of
the time with their classmates depending on the optional subjects they choose each academic year. Schools were selected
from the population of non-university educational establishments from the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country
affiliated to a private association of centers whose language of instruction is Basque. After informing the schools in the as-
sociation about the aims of the study, those that expressed an interest in participating were included.

Measures

Peer attachment
Peer Attachment was assessed via the Inventory of the Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA; Armsden & Greenberg, 1987) in
its Basque version (Alonso-Arbiol, Balluerka, et al., 2014). This inventory measures adolescents' attachment security towards
significant other figures (mother, father and peers), implying specifically the emotional aspects that help create or foster
bonds with such figures, as opposed to other dimensions of friendship quality in the case of peers. The present study used
only the peer version, which comprises 18 items to be rated on a 5-point Likert scale regarding applicability to the participant,
when referring to his/her friends (1 ¼ Never or hardly ever, 5 ¼ Always or almost always). An example of an item would be: “I
can count on my friends when I need to get something off my chest.”. Alonso-Arbiol, Balluerka, et al. (2014) found the
reliability and validity of the IPPA in its Peer form to be adequate in two large samples of adolescents. Regarding factor
validity, an underlying one-factor structure was confirmed: CFI ¼ 0.94, TLI ¼ 0.93, and RMSEA ¼ 0.06. Its reliability is sup-
ported by its adequate internal consistency (alpha coefficient ¼ 0.93) and adequate temporal stability (test-retest
correlation ¼ 0.69) (Alonso-Arbiol, Balluerka, et al., 2014). In the present study sample, the alpha coefficient was 0.92.

Class emotional intelligence

The Basque Group Trait Meta-Mood Scale (G-TMMS; Aritzeta et al., 2016) was used, which includes 16 items to be
answered on a 5-point Likert scale, with options ranging from “Strongly disagree” to “Strongly agree”. It assesses the extent to
which, on average, students in a stable class perceive that their group attends to and values their feelings, feels clear rather
than confused about these feelings, and uses positive thinking to repair negative group moods (e.g., “In this class we pay
attention to how we feel”). As a self-perceived measure, it does not reflect real abilities in themselves but the subjective
perception of emotional traits. The G-TMMS has shown adequate reliability and validity in a population of classes at sec-
ondary school level (Aritzeta et al., 2016). Specifically, it has shown an underlying one-factor structure, adequate internal
consistency (alpha coefficient ¼ 0.84), temporal stability (test-retest correlation ¼ 0.87), convergent validity and external
validity based on relationships of Group EI with academic achievement, percentage of girls in the class, and class tutor gender
(Aritzeta et al., 2016). In the present study sample, the alpha coefficient was 0.85.

Positive affect of psychological well-being

Positive affect was measured using the Positive dimension of the Children's Depression Scale (CDS; Lang & Tisher, 1978) in
its short Basque version (Balluerka & Gorostiaga, 2012). The CDS is a self-report tool that globally assesses depression in
children and adolescents aged between 8 and 16 years, but also focuses on the positive (protective) factor of psychological
well-being. Only the Positive dimension was used in the present study. The short Basque version was developed from the
longer Basque version of the scale (Balluerka, Gorostiaga, & Haranburu, 2012) and consists of 37 items to be answered on a 5-
point Likert scale, with options ranging from “Strongly agree” to “Strongly disagree”. The Positive dimension, comprising 10
items, refers to happiness, fun and joy in the life of the child or to the child's ability to experience these feelings (e.g., “I think
that my mother/father is very proud of me”). If the items are reversed, this dimension reflects deep sadness or a lack of well-
being in the child's life but in their direct form the items reflect subjective or psychological well-being based mainly on self-
competence and on relationships with family. The short Basque version of the CDS has adequate psychometric properties
(Balluerka & Gorostiaga, 2012). The two-factor model showed an adequate fit, with values of CFI (0.92), TLI (0.91) and RMSEA
(0.07). The alpha coefficient for the Positive dimension was 0.84, and the test-retest Pearson correlation value was 0.73
(Balluerka & Gorostiaga, 2012). In the present study sample, the alpha coefficient was 0.84.

Procedure

Data were collected in whole-group classroom sessions during normal school days by two psychologists. Informed consent
was obtained from the school authorities, the pupils and their parents, and the study was approved by the Ethics Committee
for Research Involving Humans of the University of the Basque Country. In the course of data collection, the tools were
administered in the following order: IPPA, TMMS-G and CDS.

Data analysis

Data were analyzed using the SPSS MIXED procedure and by applying a multilevel regression model (Raudenbush & Bryk,
2002). The full information maximum likelihood was used as an estimation method. We began by specifying the null (or no
 N. Balluerka et al. / Journal of Adolescence 53 (2016) 1e9 5

predictors) model (Model 0) and continued by building a random intercept model with gender, age and peer attachment as
level-1 covariates (Model 1). Class-level EI was included as a level 2 covariate in the next model (Model 2). This second-level
covariate was created by averaging the scores in the G-TMMS from individuals belonging to the same class. In order to ensure
that mean scores adequately represented emotional intelligence at the class level (e.g., class emotional intelligence) and that
students belonging to the same class had similar perceptions about the construct, James indexes of inter-coder reliability
(James, Demaree, & Wolf, 1993) were previously calculated. We then added one randomly varying slope to the model (Model
3) and finished by specifying a more complex random slope and intercept model, including one interaction term between
class level EI and peer attachment (Model 4). All the covariates were centered on the grand mean.
The estimated values and standard errors of the fixed parameters and variance components were calculated for each
model, as was the deviance (the fit of the model). To establish which of the models showed the best fit to the data, the
difference between the deviance values was divided by the difference between the degrees of freedom. If the initial model
constitutes a reduced version of the subsequent model, this ratio follows a chi-squared distribution with as many degrees of
freedom as the number of parameters in the extended model minus the number in the reduced model. As the large sample

mez, & Hidalgo, 2005; Balluerka, Vergara, &
size used in this study made it easier to reach statistical significance (Balluerka, Go
Arnau, 2009), the proportions of variance accounted for at individual and at class level by predictive variables were estimated
as effect size indexes.

Results

The results of the multilevel regression models described above, with positive affect of psychological well-being score as
the criterion variable, are displayed in Table 1. The first model, the intercept-only model (Model 0), served as a baseline and
showed that the total variance was divided into two parts: 31.8 at student level and 4.59 at class level. This information was
then used to calculate the intra-class correlation coefficient, in other words, the proportion of variance accounted for at class
level. It was calculated as the ratio of between-subject variance to the total variance. This coefficient indicated that
approximately 13% of the total variability in positive affect scores occurred between classes. The next model (Model 1)
showed that gender, age and peer attachment explained a substantial part of this variation at the individual (8.9%) and class
(62%) levels, substantially improving the fit of the model (Dc2/Ddf ¼ 88.3; p  0.0001). Age had a negative relationship with
adolescents' positive affect, indicating that adolescents felt worse as they grew older. Regarding gender, in our sample positive
affect was higher for female adolescents than for males. As for peer attachment, an increase in positive affect type of well-
being linked to a higher attachment was observed, thereby confirming Hypothesis 1.
Regarding class EI, the values for the James index of inter-coder reliability ranged between 0.83 and 0.97, suggesting that
students belonging to each class had quite similar perceptions about the class-level EI. When this variable was included in the
model (Model 2) the fit again improved notably (Dc2/Ddf ¼ 15.61; p  0.005). This explanatory variable had a major influence
on the positive affect score, considerably reducing the variance component at the class level (22%). As expected, and as in the

Table 1
Models with peer attachment and class-level emotional intelligence as predictors of positive affect of well-being.

Effect Model 0 Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4

Fixed effects
Intercept (g00) 38.39 (0.23) 39.40 (0.22) 39.41 (0.21) 39.40 (0.21) 39.37 (0.21)
Individual-level variables
Gender 1.87* (0.25) 1.87* (0.25) 1.86* (0.25) 1.84* (0.25)
Age 1.14** (0.10) 1.06** (0.10) 1.06** (0.10) 1.06** (0.10)
Peer attachment 0.16** (0.01) 0.16** (0.01) 0.16** (0.01) 0.16** (0.01)
Class-level variables
Class-level EI (GEI) 0.16** (0.04) 0.15** (0.04) 0.15** (0.04)
Interactions
Class-level EI x Peer Attachment 0.009* (0.003)
Variance components
Within-subject (s2 e) 31.80** (0.99) 28.97** (0.91) 28.95** (0.91) 28.36** (0.91) 28.35** (0.91)
Between-subjects (t00) Intercepts 4.59** (0.84) 1.75** (0.45) 1.36** (0.39) 1.39** (0.40) 1.40** (0.40)
Between-subjects (t31) Slopes 0.005* (0.002) 0.004*(0.002)
Intercepts-Slopes Covariance (t03) 0.01 (0.02) 0.01 (0.02)
Model fit
Model deviance 13,771.02 13,506.03 13,490.42 13,482.95 13,476.93
D Deviance (1e0) 265**
D Deviance (2e1) 15.61*
D Deviance (3e2) 7.47
D Deviance (4e3) 6.02*
D df 3 1 2 1

Note. All predictor variables were centered over the grand mean. Standard errors are listed parenthetically; g00 ¼ Population mean of the average intercept;
s2 e ¼ Within-subject variance; t00 ¼ Variance of the intercepts (between-subjects variance); t31 ¼ Variance of the slopes (between-subjects variance);
t03 ¼ Covariance between intercepts and slopes.
*p < 0.05, **p < 0.0001.
6 N. Balluerka et al. / Journal of Adolescence 53 (2016) 1e9

case of peer attachment, there was a positive relationship between class EI and adolescents' positive affect of well-being,
thereby confirming Hypothesis 2.
Since peer attachment was significantly related to positive affect, in the next model we decided to test whether this slope
(i.e., the relationships between peer attachment and positive affect) varied across classes. Model 3 showed that allowing the
slope to vary randomly did not improve the fit of the model: all the fixed effects showed similar values to those in the previous
model and the covariance between the intercept and the slope was negligible. However, the variance component for the slope
between peer attachment and positive affect was statistically significant. Finally, in Model 4, we introduced the cross-level
interaction between class-level EI and peer attachment in order to examine whether the positive relationship of peer
attachment with positive affect was influenced by this contextual-level covariate. The interaction term was statistically
significant and the fit of the model improved (Dc2/Ddf ¼ 6.02; p  0.02). Thus, class-level EI did strengthen the influence of
peer attachment on positive affect, supporting the effect we had tentatively anticipated in Hypothesis 3.

Discussion

In the present study we assessed the combined effect of two variables of affective type d peer attachment and class
emotional intelligence d over adolescents' positive affect component of psychological well-being. Gender and age effects
were observed, with girls and younger adolescents showing higher levels of psychological well-being of a positive emotional
nature.
The positive relationship observed between class EI and positive affect is consistent with the results obtained in studies
based on flow theory (Patrick et al., 2003) and in studies that focus on students' coping behavior and classroom interactions
(Monroe & Harkness, 2011). Thus, in agreement with other authors (Avant, Gazelle, & Faldowski, 2011), our findings confirm
that class emotional intelligence is associated with psychological adjustment. We believe this finding should be seen within
the wider framework of school climate. In fact, an increasing body of research on school climate supports the influence of a
good school climate on various aspects of well-being, including academic outcomes, self-efficacy, behavioral problems and
also problems related to anxiety and depression (Thapa, Cohen, Guffey, & Higgins-D'Alessandro, 2013). While studies of
school climate take into account various elements of the school environment (teachers' disciplinary style, school rules, re-
lationships with other students and with teachers, and so on), the class EI perspective focuses only on the natural group in
which the student most frequently interacts, and takes only emotional aspects into account. This facilitates the analysis of
specific sources of well-being related to emotional aspects, self-concept and life satisfaction.
This study corroborates the results of previous research (e.g., Allen, 2008; Gallarin & Alonso-Arbiol, 2013) which found a
relation between good peer attachment and a higher level of general psychological well-being, and it also demonstrates that
class emotional intelligence exerts a magnifying effect. Processes of individuation and identity formation take place during
adolescence; adolescents start to differ from their parents and grow closer to their peers (Shaffer & Kipp, 2007). It should be
noted, though, that identity development (or individuation) involves the establishment of an autonomous sense of self and at
the same time the development and maintenance of close relationships with others (e.g., Grotevant & Cooper, 1985). Healthy
identity exploration and achievement involves the simultaneous processes of developing an autonomous self within the
context of close relationships with peers (e.g., Grotevant & Cooper, 1985; see also Cleveland & Reese, 2005), and of attending
to a broader group in which the adolescents feel a need to be accepted and to be a part of (class). This may help to explain why
both aspects (i.e. peer attachment and class-level EI) jointly contribute to improving adolescents' positive affect type of
psychological well-being, as shown by the cross-level interaction between them.
Although not a key issue in this research, we observed that female adolescents show a better psychological well-being
than their male counterparts, as other researchers also focusing on positive affect have previously reported (e.g., Ronen
et al., 2014). It is surprising that our results conflict with those of Lang and Tisher (1978), since we used the same concep-
tualization/instrument as they did and we also focused on positive affect; the discrepancy in the results may be due to cross-
cultural differences between their Australian adolescent sample and our Spanish sample. While Ronen and associates used
Watson, Clark and Tellegen's (1988) Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS, adapted for children/adolescents by
Laurent et al., 1999) which comprises (context-unrelated) words describing feelings, Lang and Tisher (1978) used full
statements referring to specific contexts. The latter option is more susceptible to cultural variation, because it is context-
dependent and dimensionality-dependent.
Lang and Tisher’s (1978) positive dimension taps the positive affect element of subjective well-being with ten items, of
which four revolve around family relationships, two refer to self, two refer to the school context, and the last two are mixed. In
the Spanish context family values are highly regarded and the strong connections with the family reflect that parental
affection is important for adolescents' adjustment (Martínez & García, 2007). In Spanish samples, positive (cognitive) well-
being based on self-concept and self-competence has been found to be greater in male adolescents than in females (e.g.,
Padilla-Carmona, García Go
mez, & Suarez Ortega, 2010; Pastor, Balaguer, & García-Merita, 2003), while conceptualizations
made to capture well-being with regard to family relations or to school climate usually produce higher levels in girls
(Amezcua & Pichardo, 2000; Padilla-Carmona et al., 2010). As the positive dimension used in the present study with Spanish
adolescents contains more items that focus on family relations than on self-concept or self-competence, it is not surprising
that girls evidence a higher level of well-being.
Regarding age, another variable that is not central to this study but is also explored, our findings corroborate previous
reports of a negative association between age and general well-being (Huebner et al., 2006), also when positive affect is
 N. Balluerka et al. / Journal of Adolescence 53 (2016) 1e9 7

specifically examined (Ronen et al., 2014), as we did in our study. However, Salami’s (2011) study did not reveal this link
between age and well-being. This may derive from the specific conceptualization that this author uses in his study. He
adapted Ryff and Keyes' (1995) definition of positive psychological functioning from adulthood to adolescence, and which
taps six dimensions: 1) environmental mastery, 2) autonomy, 3) personal growth, 4) purpose in life, 5) positive relations with
others, and 6) self-acceptance. In adulthood it has been found that the two first dimensions increase with age, while the third
and fourth decrease and the last two remain constant (Ryff, 1989). Thus, it is not surprising that results provided through a
composite combining all these six components may hide age fluctuations in adolescence. In fact, it must be mentioned that in
Western-based countries, a U-type curve has been described to depict the decrease of subjective well-being in adolescence
(Dolan, Peasgood, & White, 2008; Ronen et al., 2014), probably as a consequence of the increased stressors that adolescents
perceive during their struggle with identity formation.
The study has a number of limitations that should be mentioned. The first is the mono-method bias. Although the use of
questionnaires to evaluate psychological well-being and emotional intelligence is a customary practice, the relationships
between variables measured with the same method may be inflated due to the action of common method variance.
Furthermore, the results of studies on psychological well-being may be affected by social desirability (Ronen et al., 2014).
Future studies should include other assessment methods.
A second limitation of the study is that its correlational nature prevents us from determining the direction of the effect
with complete certainty. We have argued that individuals who evidence good peer attachment may be capable of leading a
happier life. However, it is also possible that students who report higher levels of positive affect type of well-being may find it
easier to affiliate with peers.
Furthermore, the relevant variables of the study are at peer level. It would be interesting to develop a study in which the
models include the analysis of covariates located in multiple contexts, as in Witherspoon et al.’s (2009) study, in which the
authors simultaneously analyzed the effects of family, neighborhood and school variables on adolescents' well-being.
Finally, in order to explain and predict classroom experiences in more compelling ways, it would be interesting to assess
classroom emotional phenomena from both the classroom emotional climate perspective (Pianta et al., 2008) and the class EI
perspective (Aritzeta et al., 2016). This trend in research could help highlight the importance of classroom emotional re-
lationships in the development of emotional types of well-being among young people.
While acknowledging these limitations, the study nevertheless demonstrates that both peer attachment and class EI are
important for predicting adolescents' positive affect type of well-being, recalling previous studies that confirm the positive
effects of same-age referents: peers in one-to-one relationships (e.g., Abubakar et al., 2013; Allen, 2008) or the group as a
provider of emotional support (Lovat, Toomey, & Clement, 2010). Furthermore, it provides a way of explaining differences in
adolescents' psychosocial adaptation by considering the class as a relevant context of reference, which has not been studied in
depth in the educational field. In this regard, our study offers a first instance of the suitability of promoting activities that
enhance group EI e an extended practice in organizational settings - in the school context.

Acknowledgements

This research was partially funded by a grant from the Research Bureau of the University of the Basque Country (General
Funding for Research Groups, GIU14/18) and a grant from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitivity (PSI2012-
35471).

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