Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Li Pan
Guangdong University of Foreign Studies
This article investigates the Chinese translations of several English news reports
on China’s human rights issue carried in Reference News, a Chinese authorita-
tive state-run newspaper devoted to translating foreign reports for the Chinese
reader, and aims to establish how evaluative resources are resorted to by the
translators to facilitate ideologically different positioning in presenting events
and identifying participants in the translated news. The translations are com-
pared with their English source texts using Appraisal Theory (Martin and White
2005) as the micro analytical framework and Fairclough’s (1995a, 1995b) three-
dimension model of Critical Discourse Analysis as the explanatory framework.
1. Introduction
The concept of ideology has been subject to much debate (Conboy 2007, 104),
having been understood in different ways by scholars from different fields (see
Thompson 1990 and Solin 1995 for criticism of the concept). Differences in under-
standing exist even within the field of media analysis (see summary in Devereux
2007), ranging from the Marxist tradition of “false consciousness” to Thompson’s
“ways in which meaning (or signification) serves to sustain relations of domina-
tion” (1984, 146). Thompson’s definition is regarded as “probably the single most
widely accepted definition of ideology” (Eagleton 1991, 5), and is adopted here.
Ideology has been the major concern of CDA for the past thirty years, and
media discourse, especially news reports, is a frequent subject (see, e.g., van Dijk
1988a, 1988b, 1995; Fowler 1991; Fairclough 1992, 1995a, 1995b, 2006). In CDA,
discourse analysis is carried out to reveal the relationships between language
use and the social relations and processes in which language use is “imbricated”
(Fairclough 1995b, 73). Fairclough proposes a three-dimension CDA model. In
the model any communicative event can be analyzed on three dimensions for the
ways in which values and power relations are encoded in texts. They are the di-
mensions of text, discourse practice, and socio-cultural practice (see the left part
of Figure 1).
The term text is used for “both written texts and transcriptions of spoken in-
teraction” (Fairclough 1993, 166). More specifically, it refers to “the product of the
Ideological positioning in news translation 217
Description
process of production (text analysis)
text
Interpretation
(processing analysis)
process of interpretation
discourse practice
Explanation
(social analysis)
sociocultural practice
which potentially positions the media audience (2006, 37). In news discourse,
evaluative resources play a crucial part in transmitting ideological values and con-
struing ideological positioning. In White’s words, evaluation is a key aspect of “this
ideological functionality” in that news reporting performs the “ideological func-
tion of endorsing, perpetuating and making seem natural particular systems of
value and belief ” while maintaining its claim to be impartial and objective (ibid.).
Through resources of evaluation in media discourse, the audience is positioned in
their interpretation to “take either negative or positive views of the participants,
actions, happenings and state-of-affairs therein depicted” (ibid.).
Resources of evaluation have so far been most fully depicted in AT, a theory
recognized as the “most concise approach to evaluative language as a tool of inter-
personal positioning” (Lauerbach 2007). The theory, developed from the study of
interpersonal resources in Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics (1994), pro-
vides researchers with a “systematic, detailed and elaborate framework of evalu-
ative language” (Bednarek 2006, 32). In AT, evaluative resources are described as
a system of appraisal consisting of three sub-systems, namely the systems of atti-
tude, graduation and engagement. The subsystem of graduation is considered cen-
tral to the whole system of appraisal (Martin and White 2005, 136). It is through
graduation that values of attitudinal resources “construe greater or lesser degrees
of positivity or negativity” and values of resources of engagement “scale for the
degree of the text producer’s investments in the utterance” (135). Semantic values
of evaluative expressions in graduation are described as two subsystems of gradu-
ation in AT (54): force and focus. Force covers those values that scale according to
intensity (termed intensification, e.g., slightly foolish, extremely foolish) and amount
(termed quantification, e.g., many countries, a few countries). It contains the up-
scaling and downscaling directions. Focus covers those values that scale accord-
ing to prototypicality and preciseness, in which graduation operates to construe
categories, constructing core and peripheral types of things. It has the directions
of sharpening or softening, depending on moving the specification to prototypical-
ity (e.g., a real father, a true friend) or to having a marginal membership in the
category (e.g., an apology of sorts).
AT’s depiction of the graduation system is enlightening for scholars who
are interested in examining how distinct ideological positioning is accommo-
dated in translation. While evaluation is generally not easy to challenge in dis-
course, and quite effective in manipulating the reader, evaluation with graduation
changes in translation is subtle and difficult to detect without careful compari-
son. Additionally, graduation is important in construing writer-reader solidarity
(Martin and White 2005, 139). Since it came into being in 1990s, AT has been
regularly applied to the study of ideological position and stance in monolingual
media discourse, both in English and Chinese (e.g., Iedema, Feez and White 1994;
Ideological positioning in news translation 219
White 1998, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2006; Wang 2004; Lassen 2006). However, there is
still a lack of sufficient research applying the framework to the study of evaluation
in translation. Early studies on subjective aspects such as ideological and evalua-
tive meanings in translation can be found in work by Hatim and Mason (1990),
which incorporates the notions of ideology and culture into the analysis of trans-
lation, and Hatim and Mason (1997), which gives “one of the most explicit state-
ments about ideology from a critical linguistic and discourse analysis perspective”
in translation studies (Munday 2007, 199). Hatim (1997, 113–21) goes further and
incorporates Fowler’s (1985) model of critical linguistics with the early proposals
on evaluative resources by Martin (1985) to form “a text-linguistic model of evalu-
ative texture” (Munday 2007, 199) with data from news papers. Yet for analysis of
the realization of the interpersonal meanings, both Hatim and Mason (1990) and
Hatim (1997) mainly consider shifts in modality in translation. While evaluation
is an important feature of language (Thompson and Huston 2000) and can hardly
be avoided in translation, as a whole, evaluative meanings have been insufficiently
researched in Translation Studies, most likely due to the lack of a reliable model
for analyzing this subjective and interpersonal aspect in translated discourse.
Evaluation and ideological positioning are terms suggesting the subjective use of
language. In order to carry out a comprehensive analysis of this subjective aspect in
news discourse, a tentative model is established, incorporating Fairclough’s three-
dimension CDA model and graduation system in AT. As illustrated in Figure 2, it
starts with the examination of the ways in which evaluative resources are deployed
by news translators to accommodate values and ideological positioning distinct
from the original text. It will then explore the institutional and social factors re-
sponsible for the relevant mediation in the translation. The solid arrows indicate
the conditioning relationships between the dimensions, and the broken arrows
show the direction of analysis.
Description through text analysis, taken as the starting point of the whole
analysis, focuses on the linguistic resources of evaluation at the lexico-grammar
level. In this step, deviations are identified and described with a comparative
analysis of the evaluative meanings in the source text (ST) and target text (TT),
with the aid of the graduation system in Appraisal Theory. Findings from the first
step are then interpreted with processing analysis in the second step, in which the
processes of producing and interpreting news and translated news are analyzed
to interpret the textual features evidenced in the textual analysis. It is followed by
explanation in the third step, which seeks possible explanations from the social
220 Li Pan
Ideology
(sociocultural practice) Explanation
3 (social analysis)
Positioning
(discourse practice)
Interpretation
2
(processing analysis)
Semantics of evaluation
(Appraisal System)
1 Description
Lexicogrammar (text analysis)
(evaluative resources)
analysis of ideological contexts in which the news reports and their translations
respectively function.
From the perspective of CDA, news translation can be regarded as a media
communicative discourse practice, consisting of both interpretive and productive
processes. For the new text producer, evaluative resources are indispensable for
certain ideological positioning. They are also the clues the reader depends on to
interpret events represented in the news text. Following the analytical model in-
troduced above, some Chinese translated and English source reports are analyzed
below, with an aim to explore how and why evaluative resources are deployed by
the translator in constructing distinct positioning in news translation.
The samples to be analyzed are two sets of Chinese translated and English source
reports of events related to China’s human rights record. One set of source texts
and target texts is on the UN Human Rights Council’s review of China’s human
rights report. The English originals for this set were collected from the websites of
the BBC, Reuters and The Washington Post (WP). The other set is about the then
Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao’s being attacked by a protester with a shoe during
his speech in Cambridge. The English source texts were published respectively
at the websites of The Associated Press (AP) and WP (URLs given in references).
It should be noted that each of the two translated reports by RN includes several
parts, translated from different foreign news reports. The analysis here only con-
siders the parts translated from English.
Ideological positioning in news translation 221
The text analysis focuses on the evaluation deviations identified from the com-
parative analysis of the source and translated texts. The term evaluation devia-
tion refers to a linguistic resource in the target text differing in evaluative mean-
ings from its counterpart in the source text (Pan 2012). The evaluation deviations
in representing the reported events are classified into three types: deviations in
identifying news actors, in presenting news events and in dissimulating the rep-
resentations (see 5.1–3 for elaboration). Such a classification relates the evaluative
resources in the source and target texts to their function of representing ‘reality’ as
narrated in the news stories, since news actors and news actions or events are the
core elements in a news discourse (Bell 1998). Each type will be illustrated with
examples from the sample texts.
News actors in a report, just like participants in a process within a clause (see
clause as representation in Halliday 1994, 106–107), are among basic components
when representing the happenings, and the ways of identifying them are often
subject have changes in translations (Pan 2010b; Puurtinen 2007). The deviations
often have ideological implications and construe distinct positioning in the trans-
lated texts. The following two examples are cases in point. They illustrate how the
differences in identifying news actors result in evaluation deviations in terms of
graduation. All examples list the ST first, then the TT, followed by a back transla-
tion (BT):
(1) ST: Chen Shiqiu, who has served as a Chinese government-appointed adviser
to U.N. groups looking into the promotion and protection of human rights,
agreed that the fact that China submitted a report at all is a big step.
(WP, Feb. 9, 2009)
TT: 联合国 人权理事会 咨询委员会 专家 陈士球
U.N. Human Rights Council Advisory Committee’s expert Chen Shiqiu
认为, 中国 递交 人权报告 这一事实 便是
suggested China submitting human rights report this fact is
向前 迈出的一大步。
forward making a big step (RN, Feb. 11, 2009)
BT: Chen Shiqiu, an expert from the Advisory Committee of U.N. Human
Rights Council, suggested that the fact that China submitted a report at
all is a big step.
While the ST attributes the comment to a very specific source, indicating both
his full name, Pu Zhiqiang and his specific occupation, a human rights lawyer, the
Chinese text just gives his broad occupation (a lawyer) and omits his name. The
change gives rise to an instance of deviation of softening focus, in which a specific
occupation and full name is replaced with a generic class. Such adjustment has, to
some extent, ideological implications, in the sense that the rendering attributes the
comment to a lawyer rather than a lawyer in the field of human rights, a field rarely
mentioned in Chinese media.
News events, when narrated in reports, like the processes themselves (see Halliday
1994, 108–44), are presented as various processes in their circumstances (here cir-
cumstances include elements such as the manners, causes, time and space of the
events as in Halliday 1994, 149–61). Events themselves and the manner in which
Ideological positioning in news translation 223
the events proceed are also presented differently in the ST and the TT, which re-
sults in deviations of changed directions mainly in force of graduation. Specifically,
such changes occur in quantifying the numbers and intensifying degree of quality
and vigor of process, as elaborated below with the following three examples.
(3) ST: And he hit back at a number of Western countries, including Australia,
that raised the alleged repression of Tibetans and Uyghurs. “We would
categorically reject this attempt to politicize the issue,” he said. (BBC,
Feb. 9, 2009)
TT: 对于 包括 澳大利亚在内的 若干 西方国家 提出的
As for including Australia several Western countries raised
所谓 中国 镇压 藏族人 和 维吾尔族人的 问题,
the alleged China’s repression of Tibetans and Uyghurs’ issue,
他说, 对于 个别 西方国家 关于 西藏问题的
he said, to a few western countries’ regarding Tibet issue’s
政治化 言论, 中方 坚决反对。
politicizing remarks, China’s side firmly rejects (RN, Feb. 11, 2009)
BT: […] (omitting he hit back at) as for several Western countries,
including Australia, that raised China’s alleged repression of Tibetans
and Uyghurs, he said that China would categorically reject a few
Western countries’ remarks politicizing the Tibet issue.
Example (3) shows two instances of deviations in describing processes (i.e., hit
back → omitted; attempt → remarks). With the two scaling down in force, the neg-
ative meanings indicated in the two processes in the ST are scaled down in the TT.
The omission of hit back tones down the Chinese delegation chief Li Baodong’s
strong reaction to the allegation of China’s “repression” of Tibetans and Uyghurs.
Turning attempt into remarks results in decreased intensification in describing the
motives behind such an allegation, since attempt, a noun describing a mental pro-
cess of strong potential of action (or a grammatical metaphor in Halliday’s [1994]
words), is tuned down in terms of vigor when replaced with remarks, a noun pro-
jecting a verbal process less likely to develop into action.
On the other hand, turning the issue into Tibet issue in the TT narrows the
scope of the allegation on China’s human rights situation. It is an instance of force
deviation in the Chinese version, found in translating a direct quotation attributed
to China’s delegation chief Li Baodong. The ST quotes Li Baodong saying “we
would categorically reject this attempt to politicize the issue.” The TT specifies the
issue as Tibet issue and thus limits the remarks as if concerning only the Tibet issue
rather than the issue of both Tibet and Uyghurs as indicated in the ST.
(4) ST: …, while Zimbabwe and Egypt hailed Beijing for major efforts to protect
human rights. Several countries saluted Beijing’s economic performance
224 Li Pan
as well as its rights record, and suggested China offered them an example
and beacon for their own development. (Reuters, Feb. 9, 2009)
TT: …, 津巴布韦 和 埃及 也 称赞 北京 为 保护 人权
…, Zimbabwe and Egypt also hailed Beijing for protecting human rights
付出了 巨大努力。 一些国家的 代表 称赞 北京的 经济
has given enormous effort Some countries’ representatives praised
Beijing’s
成就 及其 人权记录, 并 表示 中国 给 他们
economic achievement as well as (its) rights record, and suggested
China offer them
做出了表率, 为 他们自身的 发展 指明了 方向。
a good example, for their own development pointed clearly a direction
(RN, Feb. 11, 2009)
BT: …, while Zimbabwe and Egypt also hailed Beijing for enormous
effort in protecting human rights. Representatives from some countries
praised Beijing’s economic achievement as well as its rights record,
and suggested China offered them a good example and pointed a right
direction for their own development.
Example (4) displays how processes described with resources of positive value are
scaled up in the Chinese version. These scaling up instances are produced by the
translation method of variation, that is, positive descriptions are changed to in-
crease their positive value, for instance, major effort turned into 巨大努力 (huge
effort), salute turned into 称赞 (praise), and economic performance turned into
经济成就 (economic achievement). Deviating in this way, the other countries’
praise of China is raised in the translation. China’s effort in human rights and
achievement in economy are also given stronger admiration than in the ST with
offer an example turned into做出了表率 (offer a good example). In contrast to (4),
Example (5) shows how processes and qualities of negative value are scaled down
in force by the translator, particularly in terms of intensification.
(5) ST: This was in contrast to the virulent nationalism displayed in response
to Western criticism of how China handled the deadly riots in Tibet last
March and to foreigners protesting during the Olympic torch relay. (WP,
Feb. 4, 2009)
TT: 这 与 西方 批评 中国 处理 西藏骚乱 和
This to Western criticism of China handling the Tibet riot and
外国人 干扰 奥运 火炬 传递 所引发的 民族主义
foreigners disturbing the Olympic torch relay inciting the nationalistic
反应 形成了 鲜明对比。 (RN, Feb. 5, 2009)
reaction formed contrast
Ideological positioning in news translation 225
The TT in (5) is intensively loaded with deviations, in presenting both pro and anti-
China events and actions. The ST, in reporting the Chinese people’s reaction to the
shoe tossing attack on Wen Jiabao, the then Chinese Prime Minister, frames the
Chinese response as virulent nationalism and compares it with Chinese people’s
reaction to “Western criticism of how China handled the deadly riots in Tibet last
March and to foreigners protesting during the Olympic torch relay.” The italicized
expressions, all of which are heavily loaded with negative evaluative meanings in
the ST, are turned into the translation that brings in force deviations that help to
reduce the negative values either by tuning down the vigor of the process (e.g.,
protesting → disturbance) or by omitting negative pre-modifiers (e.g., deadly omit-
ted in referring the Tibet riot, and virulent omitted as modifier of nationalism).
Dissimulation, a term borrowed from Thompson (1990, 62), is used here to refer
to ways used in translation to deny or obscure the presumptions or propositions
present in the original reports. From the perspective of CDA, the analysis of what
is absent is as significant as what is present in exploring ideological positioning in
the text. The omission of a proposition or a presumption in the TT may sometimes
be used to resist the ideology embedded in the ST, as exemplified below in three
extracts from the sample news. In (6) and (7) below, two clauses omitted in the TT
are both used by the ST news writer to include negative background information
about the countries making judgments on China’s human rights situations.
(6) ST: Sri Lanka — itself under fire even in the U.N. for its treatment of its
Tamilminority — denounced what it called “malign criticism of China,”
… (Reuters, Feb. 9, 2009)
TT: 斯里兰卡 谴责 “对 中国的 恶意 抨击”, …
Sri Lanka denounced “against China malign criticism” (RN, Feb. 11,
2009)
BT: Sri Lanka, [omitting itself under fire even in the U.N. for its treatment
of its Tamil minority] denounced [omitting what it called] “malign
criticism of China,” …
of its Tamil minority and the detached signal of the ST writer’s stance what it called.
The TT thus sounds less negative and detached than the ST.
(7) ST: Western, and some Latin American, countries raised the issues of
Tibet and treatment of the Muslim minority of Xinjiang province in
a generally oblique fashion, with only the once communist-run Czech
Republic detailing alleged repression. (Reuters, Feb. 9, 2009)
TT: 西方 国家 和 一些 拉美 国家 以 一种 笼 统的
Western countries and some Latin American countries in a general
方式, 提出了 西藏 和 新疆 等地 穆斯林的
fashion raised Tibet and Xinjiang those places Muslim minority’s
境况 等问题。 (Feb. 11, 2009)
situations those issues
BT: Western countries and some Latin American countries, in a general
fashion, raised the issues of Tibet and situation of the Muslim in those
places including Xinjiang, [omitting with only the once communist-run
Czech Republic detailing alleged repression].
Processing analysis is carried out in this section to interpret the evaluation de-
viations described in the text analysis. The analysis of the process of production
enables the discovery of “what motivates one set of choices over another” in the
different versions of reality constituted in discourse practice (Fairclough 1995b,
104). It is not difficult to see that the choices that give rise to the analyzed devia-
tions result from the decisions of RN’s in-house translators and editors, that is, the
producers of the translated texts. The assumptions held by these people and the
institutional practice involved in producing the translations are thus expected to
better interpret the contradiction between the agency’s claim of “faithful transla-
tion” and the actual mediation evidenced in the evaluation deviations which ac-
commodate ideological positioning distinct from those in the originals.
Analysis of the process of producing translated news at the news agency is in-
dicative of the interpretation of the mediation for distinct ideological positioning.
Results from a survey conducted by the present author at Reference New Agency
(hereafter RNA) (see Pan 2012, 2014a, 2014b for more details) reveal that the
228 Li Pan
This can be the pivotal reason that evaluative values are scaled up in presenting
information such as positive comments on the government’s performance regard-
ing economic development and the human rights situation, while those linguistic
resources with negative values or implications are toned down, either by scaling
down the values or obliterating the allusion so as to meet the government’s pref-
erence for presenting its people with good news and making them aware of the
country’s progress and international recognition.
In addition, the translations depend to some extent on the producers’ percep-
tion of the coverage of China in the Western press and their presumption of origi-
nal and target readers’ reactions to negative reports on China. The same survey
reveals that, consistent with some scholars’ observations of the widespread belief
in China in the Western media’s usually negative representation of China (e.g.,
Wang 1996; Sparks 2010), the majority of RN’s in-house translators believe that
most international news reports on China are likely to be biased. Some translators
working for RNA believe that the possible reactions of the target reader should be
taken into consideration even though faithful translations are expected. Moreover,
the survey reveals that two thirds of the 35 respondents working as in-house trans-
lators at RNA believe proper guidance should be given to Chinese readers so as
to help them to avoid “possible harmful influence” from biased and negative re-
ports on China (Pan 2010a). To some extent, the distinct ideological positioning
constructed in the translated reports is not surprising because news reports, em-
bedded with ideological positions and values which can be varied from one news
organization to another, “do not merely ‘mirror realities’ as is sometimes naively
assumed” (Fairclough 1995a, 103). Similarly in news translation, “all translation
involves the manipulation of an original as it is reshaped for a new audience,” as
Bielsa and Bassnett (2009, 15) point out, and the requirement to be “faithful” to the
original in translation, like the claim to be objective in journalism, is a question-
able concept (89).
Situated in distinct cultural and social contexts, the Chinese and Western news
organizations are unavoidably subject to the influence of the social, cultural and
political values and beliefs of the societies which they respectively serve. The dif-
ferent socio-cultural contexts of the ST and the TT could thus contain the fun-
damental factors responsible for the evaluation deviations in the translated texts.
First of all, the stress on different social and cultural values tends to trigger
ideological conflicts between the Chinese community and the Western countries.
The emphasis on values related to individuality and aggressiveness in the Western
Ideological positioning in news translation 231
influence of the mainstream ideology of the institution and the society of the
Chinese mainland.
8. Concluding remarks
This article, drawing on Appraisal Theory and Fairclough’s CDA approach, has
investigated how evaluative resources have been manipulated to realize ideologi-
cally different positioning in translated news. It is found that in news translation,
the evaluative resources deployed to identify news actors and present news actions
are crucial for distinct positioning in the translated news that leads to different
interpretations of the reported event. The text analysis reveals that contrary to the
general expectation of objectivity in news reporting, both the original news and
its translations are not free from deploying linguistic resources to make judgments
and express attitudes implicitly in representing news ‘realities.’ In the translations,
the changes in the evaluative elements are a subtle yet effective means to construct
positioning in line with the ideology and culture of the target society. The ways
that translated texts reposition the target reader with the adjustments of the evalu-
ative values are found to be better understood not just by locating the evaluative
resources in their co-texts but, more revealingly, by taking into consideration the
various factors involved in the institutional practice of the news agency in ques-
tion as well as the social context in which the translating institution functions and
its translations are intended to serve. In this sense, Fairclough’s three-dimension
model and the depiction of graduation in AT are helpful in forming the analyti-
cal model for evaluation and ideological positioning in news translation, which
is more often than not in need of mediating or recontextualizating the translated
news to fit in a institutional and social context which rarely shares identical ideolo-
gies with the counterpart. In RN’s case, the evaluation deviations can be regarded
as signs of RN’s resistance to the ideological positioning of the original reports and
its attempt to contest the hegemony of Anglophone media in spreading discourses
related to China’s realities to its domestic readers.
Even with all the deviations analyzed above, translations carried in RN can
be regarded as “faithful versions” in the sense that the translated paragraphs in
RN rarely have the widely observed alterations found typical of news translation
in those global news agencies like Reuters and Agence France-Presse (Bielsa and
Bassnett 2009). With such a different practice in producing Chinese translation
of foreign news items, RN is worthy of investigation, not only because of its large
circulation but also of its significant status in China, both as the major newspa-
per solely engaged in providing Chinese versions of reports disseminated by news
media outside the Chinese mainland, and as the official newspaper under Xinhua
234 Li Pan
that has long served as the authoritative source of information for Chinese lead-
ers and people about other countries’ policies and views towards China. In view
of that and the rare application of CDA and AT to news translation analysis, the
investigation, though based on analysis of a small data set, has thus both practical
and theoretical implications for the study of news translation in China, as well as
in other countries which have a similar translation practice in their news media.
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Author’s address
Li Pan
Department of Translation and Interpreting
Faculty of English Language and Culture
Guangdong University of Foreign Studies
No. 2, Baiyun Dadao Bei
Guangzhou 510420
China
Jacy2000@163.com