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Chapter 10
Fatigue and Brittle Fracture
_______________________________________
10.1 S16-09: Clauses
Clauses:
□ Clause 6.3.4: Resistance to fatigue
□ Clause 6.8: Brittle fracture
 □ Clause 26: Fatigue
- 26.1: General
- 26.2: Proportioning
- 26.3: Live-load induced fatigue
- 26.3.1: Calculation of stress range
- 26.3.2: Design criteria
- 26.3.3: Cumulative fatigue damage
- 26.3.4: Fatigue constants and detail categories
Annexes: ● Annex L (Informative): Design to prevent brittle failure
Tables: ● Table 9: Detail categories for load-induced fatigue
● Table 10: Fatigue constants for detail categories
Figures: ● Figure 1: Fatigue constants for detail categories
● Figure 2: Illustrative examples of detail categories
Reference publications:
● Welding for Design Engineers, Canadian Welding Bureau, Chapter 7.
● Limit States Design in Structural Steel by Kulak and Grondin (2010).

10.2 Introduction to Fatigue

10.2.1 Basic Definitions and Principles
Fatigue: is the phenomenon of initiation of microscopic cracks which then propagate to
macroscopic size due to the action of cyclic (repeated) application of stress. This
phenomenon usually causes slow growth at the tip of the crack but results in fracture of a
connection or a member at stress levels well below the tensile or yield strengths of the
material. Service load design stresses are used for calculating “load-induced fatigue”.
Another possible cause of fatigue is due to secondary stresses (usually not calculated)
caused by “movement and deformation”. Clause 26.4 refers to this as “distortion-induced
fatigue” and emphasizes careful attention to detailing to prevent this type of fatigue.
Significance: fatigue and fracture are an important aspect of components such as: crane-
supporting structures, bridges, amusement rides, beams supporting rotating or
reciprocating equipment and seismic-resistant structures. In these cases, fatigue is
attributed to the moving/variable nature of the loading. The significance of fatigue is
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related to the associated brittle-like failure mode that may occur at fracture onset (even in
ductile materials).
Brittle mode of failure Ductile mode of failure

• negligible deformation and low • classical “cup & cone” are typically
energy absorption before fracture. characteristic of “ductile fracture”.
• crack is “unstable”; can propagate • considerable deformation and energy
rapidly without increase in applied absorption before fracture.
stress. • crack is “stable”; resists further
• also known as “brittle cleavage”. development unless applied stress in
• no warning. increased.
• not desirable. • gives warning before failure.
• preferred mode of failure.
Engineering approach / Design philosophy: Due to the probabilistic nature of fatigue,
the role of a structural engineer is to proportion members and details prone to potential
failures to have a sufficiently long life (comparable to the life of the structure). To do so,
an engineer has to understand fatigue mechanisms and associated influential factors.

10.3 Fatigue Mechanisms

10.3.1 Fatigue phases
There are three distinct phases of fatigue mechanisms:
1) Initiation of crack,
2) Crack propagation,
3) Final rupture.
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Cracks might be superficial or internal. Cracks may be initiated under fluctuating loads or
may exist originally.
The definition of fatigue includes initiation and propagation but most steel structures
have “initiators” built into the structure at the time of fabrication. Practically, the
initiation phase of fatigue exists at fabrication of steel structures. This is due to the fact
that fabricated steel structures predictably contain significant metallurgical or fabrication-
related discontinuities. This is more evident in welded structural configurations where
porosities and several welding defects can impose definite sources of cracks being within
the fabricated steel structure. Cracks initiate in areas of stress concentrations at
microscopic flaws. Stress raisers at the tip of micro-cracks, surface scratches, notches,
corners, weld arcs and weld craters, etc.., lead to stress amplification. Cracks propagate
incrementally under fluctuating loading leading ultimately to fracture. The figure below
is from Kulak and Grondin (Chapter 11 “Fatigue”) and illustrates typical “flaws” in a
weld which can act as crack initiators.

10.3.2 Influential Factors

a) Stress-range and stress parameters
There are different forms of fluctuating stresses. It is general practice to employ a
sinusoidal cycle having constant upper and lower stress limits to represent fluctuating
stress effects in an idealized form.

• real time history • analytical model

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S16-09; Clause 26.3.1: “The controlling feature in load-induced fatigue is the range of
stress stress to which the element is subjected. ……………
range The load-induced fatigue requirements of Clause 26 need to be applied only at
S locations that undergo a net applied tensile stress. Stress ranges that are completely in
compression need not be investigated for fatigue.”

Other stress parameters also affect the fatigue behavior of structural steel components.
As the tensile mean stress (σm) within the cycle increases, the allowable stress range
for specified fatigue endurance decreases.

stress range

b) Number of “cycles of loading”

Fatigue design criteria is most often based on established curves relating the allowable
stress range (S) to the number of cycles (N) as shown below. These are S-N curves.

S-N curve
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c) Geometrical factors
The most significant factor affecting fatigue is stress concentrations. The presence of
stress concentration is the trigger for crack initiation. The magnitude of stress
concentration affects fatigue life and rate of crack propagation to fracture. An
engineer should take into account various stress raisers or sources of stress
concentration in the geometrical configuration of structural components. This includes
anything which disrupts the stress flow trajectories and physically takes the form of:
abrupt changes in section or stiffness, cutouts, sharp re-entrant corners, punched holes,
flame cuts, arc cuts, keyways, welded attachments, welds “across the grain”, etc …
S16-09; Clause 26.1: “Members and connections subjected to fatigue loading shall be
designed, detailed and fabricated so as to minimize stress concentrations and abrupt
changes in cross-section. The life of the structure shall be taken as 50 years, unless
otherwise specified by the owner. ”
d) Environmental factors
Fatigue life is affected by environmental factors such as temperature. At low
temperatures, steel structures are more susceptible to brittle failure (Annex L).
At high temperatures creep effects interact with fatigue.
Corrosive environments can significantly lower fatigue resistance due to surface
pitting. Also, under cyclic loading, protective oxide film formed under normal static
conditions is ruptured in every cycle allowing further corrosive attack. Combination of
corrosion and fatigue is a serious hazard to structural steel.
e) Surface finish and treatments
Surface conditions have an important effect on fatigue strength. Manufacturing
processes also have an effect through the introduction of residual stresses.

10.4 S16-09 Design Rules

10.4.1 Overview of Design Philosophy
Fracture and fatigue are two different subjects studied extensively in an engineering field
known as “fracture mechanics”. Fracture can occur under a single cycle if the load is
sufficiently large (as in lab tests on tension coupons). Fatigue leads to fracture after
many cycles of loading if the stress range exceeds the “threshold value” of the detail.
When a fatigue crack grows to a “critical size”, the section is weakened/reduced to a
“fracture limit state” and brittle fracture occurs. A detail is considered to be satisfactory
in fatigue if, after a given (estimated) number of cycles of loading, the applied stress
range is less than the stress range permitted by the S-N curves. This can be expressed as:
fatigue demand ≤ allowed fatigue capacity
applied stress range on detail due to ≤ fatigue resistance based on the allowable
fatigue as calculated from service stress range from the corresponding
loads (Clause 26.1) S-N curves (Tables 9 & 10, Figures 1 &2)
fsr ≤ Fsr
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10.4.2 S-N curves of S16-09 (Table 9, Table 10, Figure 1, Figure 2 )

The allowable fatigue stress resistance Fsr is based on the trend established by S-N
curves, the number of cycles for fatigue life is inversely proportional to the stress cubed:
number of cycles = constant / stress3
This relation is based on the equation: log (Ncycles)= log (M) – m log (∆σstress range)
or, log (M)−log (N)= +m log (∆σ) , taking antilogs → M / N= (∆σstress range)m
Values of M and m are determined from testing and regression analysis of data.
S16-09 uses γ ≡ M. The value of m for steel subjected to normal stresses is m≈3.
Figure 1 in S16-09 fatigue design criteria is based on these established equations and
presents curves relating the allowable stress range (Fsr) to the number of cycles (nN).
The parameters for these S-N curves are given in Table 10 and are based on
experimental data from testing different fatigue-susceptible details.
The S-N equations used by S16-09, when plotted on a log-log scale, appear linear as
shown below (Figure 11.2, Kulak and Grondin). There are two different sets of equations.

fsr ≥ Fsrt ↔ (above threshold, slope=3) fsr < Fsrt ↔ (below threshold, slope=5)
1/ 3 1/ 5
 γ   γ' 
Fsr =   for stress values ≥ Fsrt Fsr =   for stress values < Fsrt
 nN   nN 
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“m=3” set of equations:

For values above a certain stress constant known as the threshold stress range (Fsrt), the
fatigue life or resistance (Fsr) of a detail is determined by the equation Fsr= (γ/ nN) ⅓
where nN is the total number of cycles and γ is a detail-dependent “fatigue life constant”
For “above threshold” conditions, S16-09 S-N curves use m≈3 and γ as described below.

The numerical values of γ are “detail-dependent”. The selected ensemble of detail

categories for load-induced fatigue presented in Table 9 and accompanying representative
sketches in Figure 2 are categorized according to factors affecting fatigue resilience and
provide the designer with some guidance. It is noted that the given categorization
described by S16-09 does not cover all possible details and is to be used as a guide only.
Judgment is required by the engineer in assessing details not covered by this Standard.

“m=5” set of equations:

• Fsrt is a “constant amplitude threshold stress”; which is the stress range below which a
crack will not grow (theoretically); it is for constant amplitude loading only. This is also
known as the endurance limit for that category; it means that if the structural component
is stressed below this limit then fatigue fracture should not occur, regardless of the
number of cycles.

For design purposes, “codes” extend fatigue considerations to a reasonable value below
this endurance/threshold limit. There are two different design approaches currently in
practice:
1. The approach used for bridges by AASHTO and S6-06 is to extend the “m=3” set of
equations down to a stress range of ½ Fsrt and then go horizontal at an (m=0) slope. For
bridges, the ½ was chosen because their “fatigue truck” is only about half as heavy as
their “design truck” for strength design.
2. In S16-09 and Eurocode3, the design approach is different and uses an “m=5” set of
equations below Fsrt. The Fsrt limits are shown as horizontal dashed lines in Figure 1 of
S16-09 and below these limits the S-N lines relax the line slope from 1/3 to 1/5 by making
them more horizontal in the “long life” (high N) region for the detail. These low-slope
lines extend from Fsrt to 108 cycles of loading (end of graph). This approach is deemed to
be more appropriate for the types of loadings encountered in industrial buildings.
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Table 10:
The values shown below, as presented in Table 10 of S16-09, can be input into the S-N
equations discussed earlier to reproduce the design curves (lines) shown in Figure 1.
• γ and γ' are fatigue life constants with assigned numerical values.
• n is the number of stress range cycles at a given detail for each load application; it has
been specifically included to account for cases where a single passing of a moving
load gives more than one stress range at the detail (for example: single passing of a
bridge crane over a crane girder support but loading from “n” wheels of the “truck”).
• N is the number of applications (“passings”) of the load over the detail.

Fatigue life constants from Table 10.1 of S16-09

Detail Constant
Category γ → (m=3 curves) γ ’ →(m=5 curves) Amplitude
decreasing Fatigue Resistance

(8 types) Threshold Stress

Range (Fsrt) [MPa]
9 15
A 8190 x 10 223 x 10 165
9 15
B 3930 x 10 47.6 x 10 110
9 15
B1 2000 x 10 13.8 x 10 83
9 15
C 1440 x10 6.86 x 10 69
9 15
C1 1440 x 10 9.92 x 10 83
9 15
D 721 x 10 1.66 x 10 48
9 15
E 361 x 10 0.347 x 10 31
9 15
E1 128 x 10 0.0415 x 10 18

To use this Table, the engineer must choose/identify the appropriate “detail category”
before doing the calculations. This may require some discretion by the the engineer. A
few sample sketches and examples of “fatigue detail categories” compiled from Table 9
and Figure 2 of S16-09 are shown on the next two pages.
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Illustration Description Category

- rolled/clean surfaces. A

- flame-cut edges with roughness ≤ A

25 µm.

plain members
- unpainted weathering steel. B

- geometrical discontinuities at
copes, cuts/ block outs. B

- connection by full- penetration

base metal and weld metal in components

groove welds with backing bar B
removed.
- connection by continuous fillet
without attachments welds parallel to direction of
applied stress. B
built-up members

- connection by full- penetration

groove welds with backing bars in B1
place.

- connection by continuous partial-

penetration weld parallel to applied B1
stress.

- base metal at gross section of B

mechanically fastened

high-strength bolted slip- critical

connections.
connections

- at net section of high- strength

bolt non-slip-critical. B
- at net section of non pre-tensioned
bolted connections. D
- net section of riveted connections. D
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Illustration Description Category

- plates of similar cross
section with welds ground B

groove weld spliced connections with weld soundness established by

flush.

base metal and weld metal at full penetration groove weld splices
NDT and all required grinding in the direction of applied stress
- B with welds ground B or C
flush,
- C if backing bars not
removed.
- with or without
transition not greater than
1:2½ when weld C
reinforcement is not
removed.

- with transitions in width

or thickness with welds B
ground to provide slopes or
not steeper than 1:2½ . B1

- with 600 mm radius

transition in width with
welds ground flush. B
on fillet weld
fillet welded
HSS to base

shear stress

E1
plate
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10.5 Design Example Problem

This design problem is taken from the Kulak & Grondin 2010 text book (page 379).
given:
• WWF 350x155 fillet-welded plate girder, 8-metre span, for an overhead crane.
• Ixx = 451 x 106 mm4, d=350 mm.
• load = 300 kN transported end-to-end of building (entire length of girders).
• crane girder receives maximum 80% of the total load as reaction which can be
assumed to act as a single concentrated load on the girder → n=1
• crane travels no more than two trips per hour, work schedule is
10 hours per day five days per week .
• design life of the facility is 40 years
→ N= (2 trips/hr) (10 hrs/day) (5 days/week) (52 weeks/year) (40 years)
= 208,000 trips (cycles) during the “service life” of the girder and supports.
required:
• assessment of the fatigue life of the girder
solution:
for calculation purposes, the designer will need:
• the category of the detail under examination,
• number of cycles of loading, and
• stress range which the detail is subjected to.

1: estimating the fatigue resistance capacity based on S16-09

a) identify the “detail category” from Table 9 (descriptors) and Figure 2 (pictorials) for
a fillet-welded plate girder as a type B

b) from Table 10, the corresponding threshold value is: Fsrt= 110 MPa
and, γ = 3930 x 109 (Table 10)

c) for this example, n =1 and N= 208,000 cycles= 2.08 x 105 (≈ ¼ million cycles)

• now, either calculate Fsr from the equation below,

1/ 3
 γ 
Fsr =  = 266.3 MPa ≥ 110 MPa =Fsrt , ∴ → must consider fatigue.
 nN 

or,

• from the S-N curves in Figure 1, read Fsrt ≈ 275 MPa

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2: estimating stress range based on crane “demands” WWF 350x155

• max load on girder = P = 300 kN x 80% = 240 kN (load cannot be all the way over).
• max moment on girder = M = PL/4 = (240 kN) (8 metres) / 4 = 480 kN.metres

• max service live-load flexural stress in girder ≡ σmax

σmax = M y / I = (480 x 103 kN. mm) (175 mm) / (451 x 106 mm4)
= 0.186 kN/mm2= 186 MPa
• min live-load stress on girder ≡ σmin
= zero
• stress range ≡ σmax − σmin ≡ fsr = 186 MPa

3: compare “capacity” to “demand”:

fsr= 186 MPa ≤ Fsr= 266 MPa, ∴ the girder should be okay for fatigue.

• another way to do this problem is to use the Fsr equation and calculate 5.91 x 105 cycles
as the maximum number of cycles which can be tolerated at a stress range of 186 MPa .
Since the girder is subjected to only 208,000 cycles, it should be okay for fatigue.
________________________________________

10.6 Variable Stress Ranges and Cumulative Damage (Clause 26.3.3)

The analysis thus far (and the Tables and Figures) have been based on a “constant
amplitude” stress range for fatigue, but “variable amplitudes” are more realistic.
For stress histories of a detail subjected to stress ranges of different amplitudes and a
varying number of cycles for each, S16-09 adopts the “linear damage rule” proposed by
Palmgren (1924) and Miners(1945). In the Commentary, this rule is referred to as the
Palmgren-Miner rule. In spite of some shortcomings, it is a very simple rule which uses
the fatigue effects of each different stress range as a ratio (actual/permitted) and linearly
sums them to get the cumulative effect. For a safe design, the sum of the ratios must ≤
1.0. The equation given in Clause 26.3.3 states, that for each “ith” cycle of loading, the
final effect is a simple summation of the ratios from the individual events:

number of cycles at stress range (i)

Σ number of cycles required to cause “fatigue failure” at stress range (i)
≤ 1.0

Although very simple, the rule is limited by not accounting for the sequence of stress
cycles as well as for the amplitude of stress. More involved analyses should be adopted
for cases where these factors could have a significant effect on the fatigue assessment.
However, for most cases this rule yields acceptable results.
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10.7 Design Considerations for Fatigue Life and Brittle Fracture

Design considerations for non-static load conditions such as: cyclic, dynamic, impact,
and low-temperatures must be considered at the onset of a design project.
Some factors to be considered in the “design criteria” are listed below.
a) material selection and testing:
- consider material selection factors affecting fatigue endurance limit of steel and
brittle fracture including steel strength, toughness, thickness and service
temperature. Annex L has been introduced into S16-09 to provide design guidance
against “brittle fracture”. Decrease in temperature causes dramatic decrease of
crack resistance at the “transition temperature” of the steel.
- material testing for measures of toughness should be considered, mill test results
for Charpy V-notch values, should be requisitioned from the steel mill in advance.
- material selection should also relate to type and function of structural elements.
Failure of fracture-critical members or joints have serious consequences to life or
very high costs. Annex L discusses fracture toughness requirements for
“primary”, “fracture critical”, and “secondary” members.
b) specify “category” for Charpy V-notch impact testing of structural steel:
- CSA G40.21-04 [Table 9a] lists five standard “temperature categories” for
Charpy impact testing. The test temperatures for the first four categories are:
< 0oC, -20oC, -30oC, -45oC >; if none of these suit the purpose then the designer has
the option of specifying a different temperature in “category 5”. The “impact
energy ratings ([Joules] or [ft.lbs]) for different steel grades are given in Table 9b.
Table 9 - CSA G40.21-04
Standard Charpy impact specimens
(a) Standard Charpy impact test temperature*
for specified category
Standard test temperature
Category °C °F
o
1 0C +32oF
2 -20oC 0oF
3 -30oC -20oF
4 -45oC -50oF
5 - to be specified by purchaser †

c) detailing and fabrication to avoid stress raisers:

- avoid notches, sharp corners and abrupt changes.
- use smooth shapes.
- locate splices at lower stress locations.
- avoid intermittent welding.
- ensure quality control measures of surface finishes, fabrication and welding.
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S16-09 Annex L Brittle Fracture requires additional structural design considerations for
“brittle fracture susceptible” structures. To assist design against brittle fracture failure
and its dangers, the following format is used to help decide when “notch-tough” (WT)
steel and filler metal (welds) may be needed:
• the rate of loading on the member (and connections) is classified according to rate of
strain of loading as being either dynamic or impact.
▪ Dynamic loading ↔ intermediate strain rates (examples: vibrations due to
wind, waves or seismic).
▪ Impact loading ↔ high strain rates (examples: blast, explosions, or crash
conditions).
• “service temperatures” as indicated in all 5 tables of Annex L.
• the importance of the member and its connections regarding the consequences of its
failure on the rest of the structure, or of danger to “life and limb”
▪ “fracture critical” members ↔ loss of component could cause collapse of the
structure, or danger to life, or incur a very high cost.
▪ “primary tension” members ↔ includes essential tension and flexural members and
joints which, upon failing, do not collapse the entire structure but have only a
“localized effect” on the rest of the structure.
▪ “secondary” members” ↔ need not be considered as vital members and as such do
not require design considerations for brittle fracture.
Without repeating the contents of Annex L, the following table summarizes the “design
criteria” which a designer should consider for cases with potential for brittle fracture.
required Charpy V-notch energy ratings (20 or 27 Joules) vs. Temperatures (oC)
Annex L Member Type Loading Test Temperature vs.
Tables Service Temperature
L.1 “primary tension” Impact • 4 categories from 0oC to -60oC
L.2 “primary tension” Dynamic • 4 categories from 0oC to -60oC
L.3 “fracture critical” Impact • 4 categories from 0oC to -60oC
L.4 “fracture critical” Dynamic • 4 categories from 0oC to -60oC
L.5 filler metal ▪ Dynamic • 2 categories
(welds) ▪ Impact (with a split at T=−40oC)

Annex L also discusses “lamellar tearing”, “steel availability” and “control of

discontinuities”. It is to be noted that Annex L is also intended to apply to “protected
zones” of seismically-loaded structures.

[end of Chapter X “Fatigue and Brittle Fracture”]