Gigatronics Radar Reference Ebook

A glossary and useful reference information
for the Radar Engineer
Radar Reference EBook

The Giga-tronics Radar Reference eBook for Radar Engineers is brought to you by Giga-tronics.
The information contained within is primarily collected from the public domain and the cited references and
is correct to the best of our knowledge, but not guaranteed. The reader should recognize that the Radar field
is continually evolving and new technology and terminology is constantly being introduced. We welcome
comments and suggestions for improvements or corrections to the content.
Founded in 1980, Giga-tronics designs and manufacturer RF and microwave signal generators, microwave
power amplifiers, microwave power meters and broadband switching matrices.
R&D, production and calibration managers, scientists, engineers and technicians, around the world, use Giga-
tronics test equipment and achieve lower cost, higher productivity and greater ease of use in many applications:
ATE systems, aerospace & defense, communications and microwave component test.
URL: www.gigatronics.com
i
Table of Contents
Radar Glossary ................................................................................................................................ 1

Radar Equations ............................................................................................................................. 5
Useful Information ........................................................................................................................ 7
Antenna Pattern Definitions .................................................................................................................. 7
Radar Antenna Equations .................................................................................................................... 8
Pulse Waveform Definitions .................................................................................................................. 9
Phase Noise and its Changing Role in Radar Design and Test ................................. 10
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 11
Dissecting Phase Noise ............................................................................................................................ 12
Frequency Switching Speed in Microwave Signal Generators ......................................... 15

Agile Frequency Generator - how fast can I tune? ........................................................................... 16
The Reference ............................................................................................................................................ 17
The Synthesizer ............................................................................................................................................ 17
Direct Synthesis .................................................................................................................................. 17
Indirect Synthesis ............................................................................................................................... 18
Frequency Multipliers, Filters and above all Switches ...................................................................... 19
The Output Stage ..................................................................................................................................... 19
Control Considerations ............................................................................................................................. 19
The Moving Bottleneck ............................................................................................................................ 20
Introduction to Phase Noise in Signal Generators ....................................................... 21

Phase Noise is an Attribute of All Real World Signals ...................................................................... 22
Phase Noise in Signal Generators ......................................................................................................... 24
Phase Noise Limits in Signal Generators ............................................................................................. 28
Effect of Frequency Multiplication on Phase Noise ........................................................................... 30
Relating Amplifier Noise Figure Phase Noise ..................................................................................... 31
Absolute vs Residual Phase Noise in Signal Generators .............................................................. 33
Introduction to Leeson’s Equation ........................................................................................................ 34
ii
Table of Contents
Comparing Spectral Purity in Microwave Signal Generators ................................ 37

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 38
Phase Noise ................................................................................................................................................ 38
Harmonics and Spurious ......................................................................................................................... 41
Ten Things about Giga-tronics 2500B Microwave Signal Generators ............. 44

High Performance Microwave Signal Generators ......................................................................... 44
Fast Switching Speed and High Signal Purity ............................................................................... 45
Phase Noise versus Frequency Range and Reference ................................................................ 48
External Frequency Reference and Phase Tracking Multiple 2500B Singal Generators ...... 51
Leveling Narrow Pulses ........................................................................................................................... 52
2500B Step Attenuator Options ........................................................................................................... 54
2500B Power Offset, Power Slope and Power Sweep Functions ............................................. 55
2500B External Cable Loss Correction “Cable Cal” Feature ........................................................ 56
Using 2500B with External Microwave Power Amplifiers ............................................................ 57
X-Band Power Boost ............................................................................................................................... 59
Replacing Obsolete Signal Generators ............................................................................................... 60
References ............................................................................................................................................... 62
iii
Radar Glossary
Terms Description
EW Electronic Warfare. The term broadly applies to application of radar for military use.
ECM Electronic Counter Measures. The term refers to the application of radar (or other electromagnetic radia-
tion) to attack enemy radar, equipment or facilities. Currently referred to as electronic attack (EA).
ECCM Electronic Counter Counter Measures. The term refers to the application of radar (or other electromagnetic
radiation) to confuse, mis-direct or otherwise neutralize enemy radar, equipment or facilities.Currently
referred to as electronic protection (EP).
EA Electronic Attack. The term refers to the application of radar (or other electromagnetic radiation) to attack
enemy radar, equipment or facilities. (Also see ECM)
EP Electronic Protection. The term refers to the application of radar (or other electromagnetic radiation) to
confuse, mis-direct or otherwise neutralize enemy radar, equipment or facilities. (Also see ECCM)
CW Radar Radar that uses a CW (continuous wave) signal rather than a pulsed signal. Common to short range radars
such as used in proximity fuzes.
Radar RAdio Detection And Ranging. The equipment used to detect a target and determine its distance (range),
and velocity and direction (if moving).
Bistatic Radar A radar system using separate antennas for transmitting and receiving.
L-Band Radar A radar operating in the 1 GHz to 2 GHz frequency range
S-Band Radar A radar operating in the 2 GHz to 4 GHz frequency range
C-Band Radar A radar operating in the 4 GHz to 8 GHz frequency range
X-Band Radar A radar operating in the 8 GHz to 12 GHz frequency range
Ku-Band Radar A radar operating in the 12 GHz to 18 GHz frequency range
SAR Synthetic Aperature Radar. A radar system that simulates having a very large sized antenna by computa-
tionally combining the received signals from a very small size antenna that is moving relative to the target.
ESA Radar Electronically Scanned Array. A radar with a stationary antenna that steers the radar beam using an elec-
tronically controlled phase shifter placed immediately behind each radiating element. ESA radars use a
central transmitter and receiver to feed the radiating elements, as compared to a AESA radar which had
power distributed among advanced T/R modules. (See AESA Radar). Also known as phased array radar.
AESA Radar Active Electronically Scanned Array. A radar utilizing an antenna consisting of hundreds or thousands of
transmit/receiver (T/R) modules, each acting like a small individual radar. AESA radars have the ability to
track multiple targets simultaineously. The T/R modules may work together on a single task, or work in
groups to do multiple tasks in parallel. Also known as active phased array radar.
PESA Passive Electronically Scanned Array. A phase array radar antenna (See ESA Radar)
AWACS Airborne Warning And Control System. Also called Airborne Early Warning and Control (AEW&C). These are
radar platforms used for air-to-air and air-to-ground surveillance, fire control and a variety of searching,
mapping and targeting missions.
ISR Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance. The goal of Airborne ISR is to provide the warfighter with
near real-time threat identification, tracking, targeting, and attack as well as battlefield situational aware-
ness data such as imagery, video, and signals intelligence.
Target Space A radar system that sweeps a beam through a region of interest. This region of interest is refered to as the
target space.
1
Radar Glossary
Terms Description
Search Scan Pattern The path traced by the radar's main beam. The path will be limited by the type of antenna. AESA radars
may have multiple beams and complex search scan patterns. (See AESA Radar)
Scan Volume The region in space covered by the radar scan is called the scan volume or frame.
Scan Time When a radar is scanning, it is necessary to control the scan rate (time) so that a sufficient number of
pulses will be transmitted in any particular direction in order to guarantee reliable detection. To maintain
a low false detection rate, the number of pulses transmitted in each direction should be kept high, usually
greater than ten.
Dwell Time The duration in time that the target remains in the radar's beam during each scan.
Target Detection A target is detected if it is within the line of sight of the antenna transmit beam and if the signal echoes
(returns) from the target are strong enough to be detected above the system noise floor.
CPI Coherent Processing Interval. The time it takes the radar to process and compute the coherence of the
transmit and receive signals.
PRI Pulse Repetition Interval. The time between radar pulses, usually measured as the time from the 50% (mid-
point) of the first pulse to the 50% (midpoint) of the following pulse. Also called the pulse period. (Also see
PRF)
PW Pulse Width. The width of the transmitted radar pulse, usually defined as the time from the 50% (midpoint)
of the pulse's rising edge to the 50% (midpoint) of the pulse's falling edge.
PRF Pulse Repetition Frequency. The frequency (rate) of the radar pulses and the inverse of the PRI, pulse
repetiton interval. PRF (Hz) = 1/PRI (sec).
MOP Modulation On Pulse. The superposition of a modulating signal onto a radar pulse. Also see intentional
modulation on pulse (IMOP) and un-intentional modulation on pulse (UMOP).
AMOP Amplitude Modulation On Pulse. Amplitude variation or coding of a pulsed radar signal. Also See inten-
tional modulation on pulse (IMOP).
FMOP Frequency Modulation On Pulse. Also referred to as chirp. A radar signal, usually pulsed, in which the fre-
quency of the RF carrier signal increases or decreases with time. Also see intentional modulation on pulse
(IMOP).
IMOP Intential Modulation On Pulse. The term refers to various radar pulse compression techniques used to
lower probability of intercept.
UMPO Un-intential Modulation On Pulse. Noise, interference or other undesired signals residing on the pulse, or
unwanted pulse waveform distortion due to variations in transmitter equipment.
ISAR Inverse Synthetic Aperature Radar. The movement of the target rather than the radar emitter to create the
synthetic aperture. (See SAR)
GMTI Ground Moving Target Indicator. Radars used to detect slow moving targets, such as persons or vehicles on
the ground.
Radar Data Cube The radar data cube is a mathematical tool used to conceptually represent space-time processing of re-
ceived radar data.
ELINT ELectronic INTelligence. The collection, analysis and exploitation of signal energy (primarily radars) in the
spectrum.
COMINT COMmunications INTelligence. The collection, analysis and exploitation of signal energy (primarily commu-
nication signals) in the spectrum.
2
Radar Glossary
Terms Description
SIGINT SIGnals INTelligence. The collection, analysis and exploitation of signal energy (from all sources) in the
spectrum.
IFF Identification of Friend or Foe. The automatic discrimination between friendly and hostile platforms.
Chirp A radar signal, usually pulsed, in which the frequency of the RF carrier signal increases or decreases with
time. The change in frequency may be linear or non-linear, depending on the radar. Also known as chirp
spread spectrum (CSS) or frequency modulation on pulse (FMOP).
EMS ElectroMagnetic Spectrum. The spectrum (range) of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation present as
energy in the universe. The entire spectrum includes audio (including subsonic and supersonic), RF and
microwave, optical (including infrared and ultraviolet), and finally X-rays, Gamma rays and Cosmic rays. The
RF and microwave spectrum (used in radar) is usually divided into frequency bands. X-band, for example,
covers the frequency range of 8 GHz to 12 GHz.
POI Probability Of Intercept. The statistical probability of the presence of a radar signal being detected and/or
identified. Also known as probability of detection (PD).
LPOI Low Probability Of Intercept. The minimizing of the statistical probability of a radar signal being detected
or identified by lowering transmitted power, frequency hopping (or frequency agility) or by other means.
PFA Probability of False Alarm. The statistical probability of interpreting noise as a true signal of interest.
RCS Radar Cross Section. The term refers to an object's radar signature. Minimizing radar cross section reduces
the probability of an object being detected and/or identified by radar.
FSK Frequency-Shift Keying. A type of frequency modulation (FM) in which digital information content is
modulated onto the carrier by step changes in the carrier frequency between two values representing the
digital zero and one states.
ASK Amplitude-Shift Keying. A type of amplitude modulation (AM) in which digital information content is
modulated onto the carrier by step changes in the carrier amplitude between two values representing the
PSK Phase-Shift Keying. A type of phase modulation in which digital information content is modulated onto
the carrier by step changes in the carrier phase between two values (usually 0° and 180°) representing the
Wavelength Symbol λ (Lambda). The distance (in meters) between adjacent peaks of a sine wave signal electromagnetic
radiated wave. Wavelength is inversely proportional to the frequency of the signal, given by the formula λ
= c/f where c is the speed of light (in meters/second) and frequency is in Hz (cycles/second)
SNR Signal to Noise Ratio. A measure of signal strength relative to the receiver noise floor. A higher signal to
noise ratio means lower probability of false alarms and increased range.
Antenna Array An antenna consisting of a number of individual electromagnetic radiating elements.
Linear Array An array antenna consisting of the radiating elements arranged in a straight line. Also see ESA Radar.
Circular Array An array antenna consisting of the radiating elements arranged in concentric circular rings. Also see ESA
Radar.
3
Radar Glossary
Terms Description
Planar Array An array antenna consisting of the radiating elements arranged over a flat surface such as a rectangular or
hexagonal array. Also see ESA Radar.
Conformal Array An array antenna consisting of the radiating elements arranged over a non-flat surface such as conforming
to a curved aircraft surface. Also see ESA Radar.
MDS Minimum Detectable Signal refers to the receiver noise floor power level, which is essentially the minimum
detectable signal power level, without digital signal processing of coherent signals.
Squint Angle The angular deviation of an antenna beam main lobe or directional null of antenna beams from the
corresponding boresight axis.
Antenna Pattern A 2-dimensional or 3-dimensional graphical representation of the antenna relative radiation shape and
strength as a function of position and distance, usually in spherical coordinates.
Reactive Near Field The region of the antenna field pattern immediately surrounding the antenna, characterized by standing
Region waves representing stored reactive energy.
Radiating Near Field The region of the antenna field pattern between the reactive near field region and the far field region,
region where the energy from the antenna is being radiated (transmitted), but is still a function of the distance
from the antenna.
Far Field Region The region of the antenna field pattern a sufficient distance from the antenna such that the field
distribution is independent of the distance from the antenna. This field is characterized as propagating
waves and appears as a plane wave to a receiving antenna.
Isotropic Antenna An antenna pattern characterized by uniform radiation in all directions. An isotropic radiator is an ideal
Pattern point source of radiation.
Omnidirectional An antenna pattern characterized by uniform radiation in all directions. Also see Isotropic Antenna Pattern.
Antenna Pattern
Directional Antenna An antenna pattern in which radiation is more focused (intense) in one direction than another.
Pattern
Antenna Gain The ratio of a directional antenna pattern intensity in the focused direction to the value of antenna pattern
intensity from an isotropic radiator with the same input transmitting power. Also see Isotropic Antenna
Patttern and Directional Antenna Pattern.
Antenna Main Lobe The antenna pattern radiation lobe of maximum intensity. Also referred to as the major lobe.
Antenna Pattern Side The antenna pattern radiation lobes of lower intensity relative to the main lobe. Also referred to as the
Lobes minor lobes. Side lobes are usually undesirable and minimized as much as possible in antenna design.
Antenna Pattern Back The antenna pattern radiation lobe directly opposite the main lobe. Back lobes may or may not be
Lobe undesirable depending on the antenna application.
HPBW Half Power Beam Width. The angular width of the antenna pattern main (major) lobe, at the half power or
-3 dB points. Aso referred to as the 3 dB bandwidth.
FNBW First Null Band Width. The angular width of the antenna pattern from the null point angle either side of the
main (major) lobe. The first null points occur between the main lobe and the nearest side lobes. There may
be further null points between adjacent side lobes and between side lobes and the back lobe.
4
Radar Equations
Basic Radar Pr = power received (W)

Equation: Pt = power transmitted (W)
G = antenna gain
λ = wavelength (m)
σ = radar cross section or scattering coefficient (m2)
R = range (m)
Radar Range R = ct / 2 c = speed of light (2.99792458 x 108 m/s)
Equation: t = travel time of pulse from transmitter to receiver
Maximum Rmax < ctpri / 2 tpri = pulse repetition interval
Unambiguous
Range:
Minimum Range: Rmin > ctpw/2 tpw = pulse width
Doppler shift Δf = vf/c v = velocity (m/s)

(moving target): f = carrier frequency (Hz)
Doppler shift: ∂R/∂t = relative velocity (m/s)
(target and
transmitter
moving)
Receiver thermal kTB = -174 + 10 log kTB in dBm
noise floor: (BW) B = frequency bandwidth in dB
(at room (example: 10 GHz = 1010 dB)
temperature) k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38065 x 10-23
T = temperature in Kelvin
T = 293 °K = 20 °C or 68 °F
5
Radar Equations
Radar Equation for Signal to Noise Ration at the output of the Receiver:
Pt = power transmitted (W)

G = antenna gain
λ = wavelength (m)
σ = radar cross section or scattering coefficient (m2)
R = range (m)
k = Boltzmann’s Constant = 1.38065 x 10-23 (W/Hz K)
T = Temperature in Kelvin
B = Bandwidth of Receiver (Hz)
NF = Noise Figure of Receiver (dB)
L = Round-trip path loss (dB)
Blake Chart for calculating the Signal to Noise Ratio at the output of the Receiver:
Description Symbol Units dB Value

Constants (T=293°K) 1/kT(4π)3 (1/W)dB 170.95
Transmit Power Pt dBW (Pt)dBw
Antenna Gain G dB 2 x (G)dB
Wavelength λ (m)dB 2 x (λ)dB-m
Target RCS σ (m2)dB 2 x (σ) dB-m2
Target Range R (m)dB -4 x (R)dB-m
R x Bandwidth B (Hz)dB -(B)dB-Hz
R x NF NF dB -(NF)dB
Path Loss L dB -(L)dB
S/N Sum of above (dB)
6
Useful Information
7
Useful Information
Radar Antenna Equations
Phase Shift for Ø = phase shift between successive elements

Beam Steering: d = element spacing
θ = bean steering direction
Near Field Region: Rnf = maximum distance from antenna

(Reactive Region) D = largest dimension of antenna
(D = antenna diameter for circular antenna)
Near Field Region: Rnf < Rf < Rff Rf = distance from antenna
(Radiating Region)
Far Field Region Rff = minimum distance from antenna
D = largest dimension of antenna
(D = antenna diameter for circular antenna)
Antenna Gain: η = efficiency

A = physical aperture area
Note: Ae = ηA = effective aperture
Minimum MDS = kTBF k = Boltzmann’s constant
Detectable Signal: T = temperature in Kelvin
B = frequency bandwidth
F = receiver noise factor
MDS = minimum detectable signal without digital signal
processing of coherent signals.
8
Useful Information
Pulse Waveform Definitions
9
Phase Noise and Its Changing Role in Radar Design and Test
by Mark Elo, VP of Marketing
10
In war, conflicts and other military to military skirmishes we need to detect high velocity vehicles such as
supersonic jet fighters. This in the past has driven how we optimized the performance of Radars and Electronic
Warfare systems and their associated test equipment. While a requirement for this capability still exists, a great
deal of modern uses of radar is for surveillance - be it monitoring factions in the Middle East, or analyzing
unscrupulous activity occurring at countries borders – this means we have to deal with much slower targets,
such as vehicles, mules and individuals.
This changing requirement is observed more specifically in Doppler Radar Systems. These radars rely on the
same effect observed as the apparent change in frequency or pitch when a sound source moves either toward
or away from the listener, or when the listener moves either toward or away from the sound source. As we will
discuss this theory not only applies to sound waves, but is equally applicable at microwave signal frequencies as
well.
For example - let’s look at military to military skirmish - if a hostile jet fighter is traveling head-on towards our
radar at about 300mph and we illuminated it using a pulse transmitted in the X-band, say 10 GHz, we will see a
difference in frequency from the original and the reflected of approximately 9 kHz to 10 kHz. The amplitude of
the reflection of course is very small compared to that of our original signal, and to be able to detect it requires
that the phase noise or frequency stability of the system synthesizer or Local Oscillator is not dominant at this
reflection frequency.
I picked this example specifically to outline that most microwave Speed Reflected
signal generators have some phase noise optimization around (MPH) Frequency (Hz)
the 10 kHz offset frequency range. In fact most X-Band frequency
1 30
synthesizers and microwave test equipment usually quote phase
noise at a center frequency of 10 GHz with a 10 kHz offset. 10 298
What if our hostile target is now a heavily laden donkey 20 596
approaching our border on overcast winter night, or a convoy of 30 895
vehicles in a desert sandstorm? At a maximum speed of about 40 1193
10 mph, the Doppler frequency shift using the same X-band 50 1491
transmitter will be about 300 Hz. So if you’ve been tasked with
60 1789
designing the next generation of surveillance radars or a moving
Table 1. Doppler Frequency Shift (Hz) versus Target
target indicator system (MTI), close to carrier phase noise is a
Speed (mph) at 10 GHz
critically important factor. (See Table 1).
11
Dissecting Phase Noise
Phase noise refers to short-term, random fluctuations in the phase of the signal, and is usually expressed as
value normalized to a 1 Hz bandwidth and at some offset frequency away from the signal frequency and relative
to the amplitude of the signal. It can be expressed as a number (for example -115 dBc/Hz at 10 GHz and 10 kHz
offset), but is also commonly shown as a graph of phase noise versus offset frequency for one or more signal
frequencies. (See figure 1).
Figure 1. Single Sideband (SSB) Phase Noise versus Offset Frequency at several Carrier Frequencies for the Giga-tronics 2500B
series Microwave Signal Generators with Option 20, Ultra-Low Phase Noise
12
To understand the phase noise characteristics, let’s consider the key elements of a phased-locked-loop (PLL)
based microwave signal generator, consisting of a frequency reference, the frequency synthesis block, typically
followed by frequency multipliers.
Figure 2. Simplified Block Diagram of a Signal Generator optimized for phase noise, speed and pulse
1. The Frequency Synthesizer generates the desired signal, and using the PLL technique compares the
generated signals frequency and phase with the reference to ensure frequency accuracy.
2. The Frequency Reference Oscillator generates a very stable fixed frequency that gives the PLL a signal to
compare against.
3. The low residual noise Frequency Multipliers ‘multiply’ the YTO fundamental frequencies to the desired
higher microwave frequencies. The higher the fundamental frequency, the less multiplication required.
Now taking these three elements into consideration - we can see that in Chart 1 each model of signal generators
phase noise plots relatively follows the same curve. For offset frequency less than 1 kHz (what is often referred
to as ‘Close-in’ Phase Noise) we see phase noise improves almost linearly with respect to the carrier offset. The
instruments Reference circuitry play a large part in this part of the synthesizer’s performance. For offsets greater
than 1 kHz the ‘pedestal’ of noise is caused by the frequency synthesizer itself - this pedestal extends to the loop
bandwidth followed by the noise of the free running oscillator. The latter usually drops monotonically at a rate
of 20-dB per decade until it reaches the general broadband noise of the post-YTO amplification circuitry.
13
Let’s compare this to some of the design criteria of 2500B series Microwave Signal Generators. First the reference
needs to be stable - this is the fundamental contributor to close in phase noise. This goes beyond a good circuit
or choice of Oscillator type, careful power supply filtering and mechanical design is also essential to reduce
close in sidebands.
Another interesting consideration when thinking about phase noise in the array of microwave signal generators
available in the market today is the use of different loop bandwidths when locking to an external reference.
A narrow bandwidth on the external frequency reference input can help minimize the effects of phase noise
resulting from a noisy external frequency reference signal, while a wider bandwidth will allow more stable
phase tracking of multiple signal generators - but that makes them more susceptible to phase noise from the
external frequency reference. The Giga-tronics 2500B series overcomes this trade-off limitation by providing the
capability to phase track using an internal 100 MHz oscillator with wide loop bandwidth while keeping a narrow
bandwidth on the 10 MHz external frequency reference input.
Comparing each plot, in Figure 2 we also see that the phase noise also degrades at higher frequencies. This is
largely due to the effect of the frequency doubling circuits that theoretically can increase the phase noise up
to 6 dB each time frequency is doubled. (It also decreases by 6 dB each time frequency is divided by two). The
general formula is:
L(fx) = L(fo) + 20 log n
Where L(f ) is the phase noise and n is the frequency multiplication (or frequency division) number.
Looking at the figure 2 diagram, the 2500B series Microwave Signal Generators use a wide-range 4 GHz to
10 GHz YIG-tuned oscillator. Then, 10 GHz to 20 GHz is provided by x2 multiplication, 20 GHz to 40 GHz by x4
and 40 GHz to 50 GHz by x6. What this means, and can be seen in the charts, is the 2500B series phase noise
performance at 40 GHz or 50 GHz has been kept as low as possible.
For the designer of a Doppler Radar - who needs to extrapolate slow moving targets from ground or sea
clutter, and a core design goal for the Giga-tronics 2500B family of signal generators – has been to generate
this relatively high fundamental frequency range, (4 GHz to 10 GHz), thus minimizing the amount of doubling
required to achieve >10 GHz, 20 GHz, 40 GHz and ultimately 50 GHz.
Conclusion
Doppler radar relies on detecting frequency changes. The emerging surveillance radar market requires that we
can extrapolate slow moving targets from land clutter. This means that the radar has to deal with smaller and
smaller frequency changes. Modern microwave signal generator design needs to take this evolving requirement
into account and incorporate both a very stable frequency reference combined with the ability to synthesize
signals at higher and higher frequencies thus reducing the need for frequency doubling and keeping close-in
phase noise to a minimum.
14
Frequency Switching Speed in Microwave Signal Generators
by Mark Elo, VP of Marketing
15
Agile Frequency Generation – how fast can I tune?
From calibrating Cellular receivers to agile Electronic Warfare transmitters, the ability to change from one
frequency to another and settle within a specified amplitude and frequency is a key requirement for microwave
signal generators. But what actually defines the frequency switching speed? What components in the block
diagram contribute? What is the specification trade-off with respect to architecture and technology choices? To
help answer all these questions, and hopefully generate a few more, let’s take our signal generator apart and see
what contributes, and why.
First we should define what we mean by “frequency switching speed.” For the purposes of this article we will
define it as the time it takes to move the output frequency of a synthesizer from frequency A to frequency B. By
the end of that time we will specify how close we are in Hz to the desired frequency and to within how many
dB’s of amplitude the output of the source is to the desired absolute amplitude.
Question: Why can’t it be the frequency and amplitude desired, why do we have to specify these “settling”
parameters? We’ll learn the answers in detail as we go through this paper, but for now the short answer is
that the frequency and amplitude accuracy circuits all employ some type of filtering or feedback mechanism.
These mechanisms include the associated time constants caused by filter group delay, components charging/
discharging, hysteresis functions, temperature variance and electronic switch speeds. Of course the less analog
circuitry there is the faster the instrument will be; there is an all digital method and we can show why and where
Direct Digital Synthesis works (DDS), and how it compares to VCO (Voltage Controlled Oscillators) and YTO (YIG
Tuned Oscillators)-based analog generators.
Figure 1
16
Figure 1 shows the block diagram of a conceptual signal generator. The principle of operation is straightforward:
starting with the reference - this does what it says, and generates a reference frequency for the synthesizer to
compare against or multiply (depending on the type of synthesizer architecture employed). The synthesizer
component of the block diagram generates a range of frequencies. For example the Giga-tronics 2500B
Microwave Signal Generators, which is called an indirect synthesizer (more on that later), uses what we call a
wide-range 4 to 10 GHz YIG-tuned oscillator. Then banks of switched banded multipliers provide the higher
frequencies, for example 10 to 20 GHz is provided by x2 multiplication, 20 to 40 GHz by x4 and 40 to 50 GHz by
x6. Finally to ensure the amplitude is set correctly there is usually an Output and Leveling stage, which often
utilizing a circuit that fine tunes the amplitude level automatically – referred to as the ALC, or Automatic Level
Control.
Let’s now dissect this block diagram and see how each of the components contributes to the frequency
switching speed.
The Reference
No matter the type of architecture employed all signal generators use a frequency reference. This is a fixed
frequency device and provides a very stable “reference” signal that is used to derive the microwave signals we
wish to generate. It’s a crucial element in the block diagram and a major contributor to close in phase noise –
but for the purposes of this paper, it has no impact on the frequency switching speed.
The Synthesizer
This is the heart of the instrument; here we generate what we will call the fundamental microwave frequencies.
There are essentially two methods architectures that can be employed these are often referred to as Direct and
Indirect Synthesis methods.
1. Direct Synthesis
There are a number of analog direct synthesis generators in the market today. They do exactly as advertised
and perform a series of arithmetic operations on the signal from the frequency reference to achieve the
desired output frequency. The direct synthesis approach has the advantages of permitting fine resolution
and fast switching as well as a spectrally clean output signal. As these types of generators usually use a lot
of components, they tend to be expensive and also have lower mean time between failures than an indirect
synthesis approach.
17
Recently we’ve begun to see the emergence of Direct Digital Synthesis technology (DDS). In terms of speed,
DDS is by far the fastest way to generate frequency A, then frequency B. In the microwave source world this is an
up and coming technology, which offers excellent tuning speed (sub microseconds) combined with great phase
noise. In terms of what signals can be generated to what level of spectral purity, DDS technology is limited
today to a frequency range of a few GHz with a high spurious content. So whatever speed advantages are
gained in the synthesizer, elements such as banks of switched banded multipliers to get to higher frequencies,
(more details on these later), and filters to help attenuate its spurious signals contribute to a degradation in
overall switching speed of the instrument.
2. Indirect Synthesis
Most commercially available high frequency signal generators today use either a Voltage Controlled Oscillator
(VCO) or a YIG Tuned Oscillator (YTO) approach or even a combination of both. (Some may even include
a DDS.) YTO and VCO technologies have excellent high frequency generation capability combined with
excellent spectral performance. In terms of speed this type of approach can provide very clean signals with
frequency switching speeds in orders of sub milliseconds. Both technologies are key elements and variants in
the phase locked loop (PLL) architecture used in many frequency synthesis circuits. The operation of a PLL is
fundamentally simple - the oscillator - VCO or YTO’s frequency accuracy is a function of the difference between
the generated signal and the reference signal. If the reference signal is 100MHz and the desired output signal
is 100MHz then the error is zero, which means zero Hz error and zero phase error. If the desired frequency is
100MHz and the oscillator output is 100.1MHz, then we have a 0.1MHz error, which will translate into a phase
comparison error; ultimately after filtering this translates to a correction voltage. Of course the desired signal
is rarely the reference signal, so a frequency division circuit is used to reduce the generated signal frequency
to that of the reference frequency, plus of course the frequency error. As you can see, the feedback mechanism
employed has a time associated with the how quickly the desired frequency can be obtained. The Giga-tronics
2500B series of signal generators use a patented Accumulator High Frequency Feedback (AHFF™) technology
delivers to ensure feedback times are kept minimal.
VCO’s in this type of circuit have the reputation of being second in the speed race after DDS. However the
noise performance can be a limiting factor especially in terms of phase noise, around 1kHz t0 1MHz. There are
techniques that can reduce this and synthesizers exist in the market with comparable low phase noise.
The YIG tuned oscillator approach yields the highest spectral purity but does have a reputation of being slower
than the VCO approach. However instruments such as the Giga-tronics 2500B have a unique design with respect
to the YTO employed in the synthesizer. By reducing the number of turns on the YIG main coil and using a high
voltage to induce a high EMF, the tuning speed of the system can also be dramatically improved.
So far, we’ve learned that if we can generate a frequency in the low GHz range utilizing a DDS with sub
microsecond speed, but with a high spurious content, then higher and more spectrally pure frequencies can
be generated using a PLL utilizing either a VCO or a YTO with sub millisecond speed. VCO’s have the reputation
of being faster and but less spectrally pure, while YTO’s have the reputation of being slower but with excellent
spectral purity. By searching through various patents you’ll find techniques for fast YTO circuits (an example
18
being the Giga-tronics 2500B) and excellent phase noise VCO circuits.
Frequency Multipliers, Filters and above all Switches
Say we want to multiply our 1 GHz DDS, or 10 GHz YTO signal? To do this we need to employ a frequency
doubling circuit. In the analog realm, frequency multiplication is usually done by creating a harmonics by
rectifying, or in some cases distorting the signal; both methods require a bandpass filter (or a bank of filters) to
attenuate everything but the desired harmonic. The largest timing elements that come into play here is that the
multipliers and filters are usually multiplexed using switches. Each switch has a time associated with both the
driver circuit employed and the bias circuit. If the switch is electronic then the timing could be negligible (say
10’s of nano seconds); however this switch time needs to managed, i.e. set within the tuning and setting of the
PLL, or the translation time from the setting of the frequency word to the actual generation of the signal in a
DDS.
The Output Stage
Absolute amplitude accuracy can be crucial, especially if you are using the Signal Generator to calibrate the
flatness of a receiver. However, maintaining absolute amplitude accuracy over a range of varying operating
conditions over time requires a feedback loop to measure the actual amplitude and correct for the desired
amplitude. As with the PLL, this is another operation within the instrument that can add further timing delays.
Many instruments offer an option to not use the ALC, which may be possible if the generator is not being used
to calibrate a receiver or the temperature can be controlled.
Control Considerations
We can split this into two types of speed - Deterministic speed, i.e. we know the absolute speed of the
transaction and Non-Deterministic speed, i.e. the speed will vary based on other factors such as how many
instruments sharing the control interface. LAN and PCI (used in PXI instrumentation), are example of the latter
as they primarily rely on a serial interface. To overcome interface speed deficiencies, many instruments have a
facility to program a set of instructions within the instrument; these are sometime referred to as lists. The list
stored within the instrument would contain a list of frequencies and amplitudes for example; each list element
may be incremented by either a defining a dwell time for a single list element, or have the list increment by
using an external trigger. The 2500B series of instruments comes with an easy-to-use piece of software called
Automation Express to ease the creation of lists. Some high speed direct frequency synthesizers employ highly
deterministic interfaces, as sometimes the next frequency the instrument has to tune to may not be known.
19
Conclusion: The moving bottleneck
In conventional high performance instruments, the speed bottleneck today is the synthesizer. As DDS
technology matures we may see the bottlenecks move from the synthesizer itself to the switches that select
the multipliers and even, in some extreme cases, to the group delay of the filters. As with every engineering
problem, we are presented with a number ways of solving this problem, each having a specific set of trade-
offs. DDS technology, while being extremely fast, requires filtering and a many stages of multiplication, not
only introducing more switching time losses across bands, but also a degradation in phase noise for every
multiplication. The work horses of the industry today are YTO based or YIG based synthesizers, offering sub
millisecond switching times with excellent spectral purity. Finally, regardless of the synthesizer approach an
instrument uses, don’t forget to take into account the final two bottlenecks: (1) The output circuitry required for
accurate absolute amplitude accuracy, and (2) Determining the best choice of how the instrument is controlled:
either by using direct control across LAN or PCIe, or by utilizing an internal list.
20
Introduction to Phase Noise in Signal Generators
by Leonard Dickstein, Marketing Manager
21
Phase Noise is an Attribute of All Real World Signals
Phase noise is the result of small random fluctuations or uncertainty in the phase of an electronic signal. We
specify and measure phase noise because it is a fundamental limitation in the performance of systems, limiting
dynamic range. This shows up in radar and communications as loss of sensitivity, in imaging as lack of definition
and in digital systems as higher bit error rate. While this discussion will focus primarily on phase noise in the
frequency domain, phase noise can also be quantified as jitter in the time domain.
Most electronic signals derive from oscillators.
V(t) is the oscillator output in volts versus time at the oscillator frequency.
We can describe an ideal signal as V(t) = Ao sin 2πfot where Ao is the nominal amplitude and fo is the nominal
frequency.
In the frequency domain, an ideal sine wave signal is shown as a single frequency in the spectrum.
22
We can describe a “Real-world” signal as V(t) = [Ao + E(t)] sin [2πfot + Ø(t)] where E(t) is the random amplitude
fluctuations and Ø(t) is the random phase fluctuations.
In the frequency domain, this signal now appears as the familiar spectrum of carrier with sidebands.
It is important to point out that the amplitude noise and phase noise are small perturbations. The goal in signal
generator design is to have these as small as possible, from at least 40 dB less than the carrier to as much as 170
dB less than the carrier, limited only by the kTB thermal noise floor.
23
Phase Noise in Signal Generators
Phase noise is quantified in the unit of measure L(f ) called “script L of F”, where
L(f) = single sideband power referenced to the carrier
• In a 1 Hz bandwidth at a frequency f Hz away from the carrier

• Divided by the carrier signals’ total power
L(f) = Pn (dBc/Hz) – Ps (dBm) where Ps is the carrier power.

L(f) has units of dBc/Hz.
Measured directly on a microwave spectrum analyzer, L(f) is the ratio of the noise power in a 1 Hz
bandwidth, at a specified offset from the carrier, to the carrier signal power.
24
In the literature, the term SΦ(f ) is often used to describe the two-sided “spectral density” phase noise. There
are other terms, but these two are the most common. In product performance specifications, the L(f) single
sideband phase noise is the industry standard. The two are related by the equation:
L(f ), the single sideband (SSB) phase noise, is graphed as amplitude versus the frequency offset.
25
The above example is a typical log-log plot of signal generator phase noise, as measured on a phase noise test
set. The vertical axis is amplitude relative to the carrier, which is not shown. The horizontal axis is frequency
offset from the carrier. The scale will vary depending on both phase noise test set limitations and on what the
signal generator manufacturer wants to highlight.
This example is for one frequency of the carrier, but it is common to see multiple traces for different carrier
frequencies shown on one graph. You read the value of phase noise from the curve as the value at the offset
(at that carrier frequency). From this example, the phase noise is -110 dBc/Hz at 100 kHz offset (at that carrier
frequency).
In the literature, it is common practice to refer to the values of phase noise as “close-in” for the frequency offset
range of 1 Hz to 100 Hz. That is, “close in phase noise” refers to the phase noise close to the carrier, less than 1
kHz away. Similarly, “far out” phase noise commonly refers to values 1 MHz or more from the carrier. That is, “far
out phase noise” refers to the phase noise far from the carrier, more than 100 kHz away. The mid-range region,
1 kHz to 100 kHz offset, especially for signal generator phase noise, is sometimes referred to as the pedestal
region.
The example above also is shown with spurious signals (in red). These spurious signals are not phase noise. They
are not random, but systematic of any given signal generator. While many phase noise test sets will measure
both phase noise and spurious signals together, most often the phase noise measurements are shown without
the spurious signals. While spurious signals are always present in every signal generator, they have separate
specifications, behave differently and removing them from the phase noise plot is a means of separating
deterministic from non-deterministic artifacts.
A side note: while consistently shown as the upper sideband, it is generally agreed that the noise of the upper
and lower sidebands are equal. 1
1 “Correlation Between Upper and Lower Noise Sidebands” by F.L. Walls, NIST, 1998
26
Measured phase noise plotted without spurs
The above example is measured phase noise performance of the

Giga-tronics 2500B Microwave Signal Generator, with curves for
six different carrier frequencies, plotted without the spurious
signals. Note that the phase noise increases as the carrier
frequency increases, while holding the same general shape of the
curve.
27
Phase Noise Limits in Signal Generators
Thermal noise, something referred to as “white noise” is broadband and flat with frequency, and is expressed by
the formula:
NT = kTB where k = Boltzman’s constant, T = temperature in Kelvin and B = bandwidth
For T = 290K (~ 17 °C), NT = -174 dBm/Hz
In the literature, it is generally agreed that this is equally phase noise and AM noise, with the phase noise level
and AM noise level = -177 dBm/Hz
Note that there may be other factors besides kTB that will raise this lower limit. As an example of how easily this
number increases at microwave frequencies, look at the noise level out of a microwave amplifier with 10 GHz
bandwidth (100 dB), 40 dB of gain and 10 dB of noise figure:
NT = -174 + 100 + 40 + 10 = -24 dBm
Now, going back to our phase noise definition, L(f ) = Pn (dBc/Hz) – Ps (dBm) , the thermal noise limits phase
noise as the power of the carrier drops:
Ps (dBm) L(f) (dBc/Hz) limit
0 -177
-10 -167
-20 -157
This is why oscillator designers try to get as much power out of the oscillator as possible, since subsequent
amplification will not improve the phase noise.
While thermal noise is flat (f0) with frequency, “real-world” noise is not. Random noise in electronic systems
increases near the carrier. “Flicker” noise or “pink” noise has a slope of f-1 versus frequency. This “1/f” or “one over
f” noise is attributed to electron motion and is a naturally occurring phenomena not limited to electrical noise.
(There are many papers in the literature focused on 1/f noise).2, 3
2 See “Bibliograph on 1/f Noise” by Wentian Li, www.nslij-genetics.org/wli/1fnoise

3 See “1/f noise: a pedagogical review” by Edoardo Milotti
28
Fc is called the corner frequency and varies depending upon the technology.
This noise power characteristic applies to transistors and other active devices. When a transistor or other active
device is incorporated into a feedback oscillator circuit, the f0 and f-1 phase fluctuations convert to frequency
fluctuations, and the buffer amplifier adds its own f0 and f-1 noise to the signal. The frequency fluctuations
exhibit f-2 and f-3 behavior. 4
These noise factors combine to form the familiar signal curve shape seen on a spectrum analyzer.
These various slopes have been given names:

f 0 = White phase noise
f -1 = Flicker phase noise (10 db/decade)
f -2 = White FM (Random walk PM) (20 dB/decade)
f -3 = Flicker FM (30 dB/decade)
f -4 = Random walk FM (40 dB/decade)
4 “Characterization of Clocks and Oscillators” by D.B. Sullivan, D.W. Allan, D.A. Howe and F.L. Walls, NIST Technical Note 1337, 1990
29
The design of a low phase noise microwave signal generator requires careful attention to all the factors that may
contribute to the noise, from the active circuitry and choice of components to filtering power supplies, isolating
and shielding circuits, and shock mounting fans.
Regarding AM noise, from our definition, V(t) = [Ao + E(t)] sin [2πfot + Ø(t)] where E(t) is the random amplitude
fluctuations, we can define NAM(f ) = single-sideband AM noise in dBc/Hz:
AM noise is the power spectral density of amplitude noise in a one Hertz bandwidth relative to the carrier
power. AM noise does not peak around the carrier as phase noise does, so is negligible close to carrier. Far from
carrier, at offsets typically greater than 1 MHz, AM noise starts to dominate. The broadband noise floor far from
carrier (> 10 MHz offset) is primarily AM noise power, sometimes express as dBm/Hz rather than in dBc/Hz.
Effect of Frequency Multiplication on Phase Noise
Most microwave signal generators use frequency multiplication (and division) to achieve their wide frequency
range. What is the phase noise of frequency multiplied signals?
F0 is the carrier frequency and n is the multiplier or divider value, normally an integer.
Fx is the desired multiplied (or divided) frequency, equal to n times f0.
Starting with our definition, V0(t) = sin [2πfot + Ø(t)], then Vx(t) = sin n[2πfot + Ø(t)].
Δf is the frequency fluctuation of V0(t) and n Δf is the frequency fluctuation of Vx(t).
30
The result, L(fx) = L(f0) + 20 log n, is not completely general, but is widely accepted for signal generator phase
noise, where frequency multiplication and division is common practice.
The phase noise increases when a signal is frequency multiplied, +6 dB for every doubling.
The phase noise decreases when a signal is frequency divided, -6 dB for every division by 2.
A note of caution, the effect on AM noise is a function of the multiplier circuit, and more importantly, the
multiplier circuit may contribute AM to PM noise. In addition, there may be some small amount of residual noise
added as well. The result is that the true phase noise may be slightly higher than predicted by the equation.
Relating Amplifier Noise Figure to Phase Noise
Most microwave signal generators use power amplifiers to achieve their output power performance. Or external
microwave power amplifiers are added to boost output power. What is the phase noise of amplified signals?
An amplifier with gain G and noise figure defined in terms of signal-to-noise ratio:
31
The noise power at the output of the amplifier can be calculated if the gain and noise figure are known.
apply a carrier signal with Pin = Ps (dBm). Lin(f ) is the phase noise of the applied signal Pin. Lout(f ) will be the
phase noise of the amplified signal.
Lout(f) = Lin(f) + Na (dBm/Hz) - Pout (dBm)
Lout(f) = Lin(f) + {NF (dB) + G (dB) + kTB (dBm/Hz)} - {Ps (dBm) + G (dB)}
Lout(f) = Lin(f) + NF (dB) + kTB (dBm/Hz) - Ps (dBm)
The phase noise is increased by the noise figure of the amplifier, but the effect of the gain cancels out. That is to
say, an ideal amplifier would amplify both the signal and phase noise equally, while a “real-world” amplifier will
add noise to the signal. The phase noise is directly proportional to the thermal noise at the input and the noise
figure of the amplifier. 5 , 6
5 “Design and Characterization of Low Phase Noise Microwave Circuits” by Jason Breitbarth, PhD thesis, University of Colorado, 2006
6 “Noise Figure vs. PM Noise Measurements: A Study at Microwave Frequencies” by Hati, Howe, Walls and Walker, NIST, Proc IEEE Intl
Frequency Control Symposium, 2003
32
Another way to state the result is:
Lout(f) = Lin(f) + SNR + Lresidual(f) (dBc/Hz)
Where SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio and Lresidual(f) is the amplifier’s residual phase noise. (SNR is flat with
frequency).
Absolute vs Residual Phase Noise in Signal Generators
Signal generator phase noise specifications are for absolute phase noise. Absolute phase noise is the phase
noise of the RF output signal from the signal generator. Residual phase noise is the amount of phase noise that
is attributable to the signal generator after the phase noise of the frequency reference oscillator is subtracted.
This makes it possible to predict the degree to which the reference oscillator impacts the total system phase
noise when used in conjunction with an external frequency reference, each of which contributes its own phase
noise to the total. The phase noise of the external frequency reference usually dominates the close-in phase
noise. Mathematically, when there are multiple contributors to phase noise, the total is the square root of the
sum of squares (RSS) of the individual contributors. Below is a graph of the 2500B residual phase noise. Note that
because the phase noise of the frequency reference has been removed, the close-in phase noise is much lower
than it is on the absolute phase noise plots.
33
Introduction to Leeson’s Equation
Suppose that you are designing an oscillator for low phase noise. How would you model the phase noise?
The usual practice today is to use an equation developed by Dr. David B. Leeson just prior to founding California
Microwave in the 1968 and reproduced with minor variations in the literature. 7 8 It was also widely presented
by Dieter Scherer and others in the Hewlett-Packard Microwave Symposiums in the late 1970’s and 1980’s. 9
Leeson’s equation is particularly useful for computer simulation to compare theoretical results to measured
data, because it linear and a closed form equation. It also provides an intuitive understanding of the
mechanisms contributing to the phase noise.
Leeson’s equation:
Where:
F = active device noise factor
Pin = RF power applied to the resonator (W)
QL= resonator loaded Q-factor
fm = offset frequency (Hz)
f0 = oscillation frequency (Hz)
fc = active device 1/f3 (flicker FM, 30 dB/decade) corner frequency (Hz)
The first term (FkT/2Pin) represents the noise floor.
The second term (f02/4fm2QL2) refers to the loaded Q factor. Unloaded Q = Qu = f0/bandwidth.
1/QL = 1/Qu + 1/QE where QE is dominated by the coupling and the device gain (gm).
The third term (fc/fm) refers to phase perturbations and the flicker effects.
7 “A Simple Model of Feedback Oscillator Noise Spectrum” by D.B. Leeson, Proc IEEE, 1966
8 “Frequency Synthesizers: Concept to Product” by Alexander Chenakin, Artech House, 2011
9 “Design Principles and Test Methods for Low Phase Noise RF and Microwave Sources” by Dieter Scherer, HP RF and Microwave Measurement
Symposium, 1978
34
The result is a model of the oscillator phase noise with three linear regions. The 1/f noise is not included,
assumed to be dominated by the 1/f2 noise.
From the model (Leeson’s equation), it can be seen that the phase noise of an oscillator can be reduced by the
following:
1. Lowering the noise floor by choosing an active device with lower noise factor (noise figure) and
driving the signal levels at the resonator as high as possible. Post amplifiers (buffer amplifiers) should
be low noise also.
2. Lowering the f0/2QL corner frequency by increasing the Q of the resonator and minimize coupling
(loading) of the resonator. The literature offers circuit topographies such as the “Push-Push” oscillator
that claim no load on the resonator at the resonant frequency. 10, 11
3. Lowering the active device 1/f3 (flicker FM, 30 dB/decade) corner frequency by choice of the active
device (low noise figure and low flicker noise) and optimizing how it is biased.
10 “Wideband Low Phase Noise Push-Push VCO” by Marco Gris, Applied Microwave & Wireless
11 “Practical considerations on Low-Phase-Noise oscillator Design” by R. Cignanai, et al, CSCC 2002
35
Conclusion
The literature on phase noise is vast, (much of it quite esoteric) and too numerous to list. This introduction to
phase noise is a compilation with the intent of providing an intuitive understanding of phase noise as it applies
to microwave signal generators. Additional papers and application notes on phase noise relating to microwave
signal generators are available on the Giga-tronics website, www.gigatronics.com.
36
Comparing Spectral Purity in Microwave Signal Generators
by Leonard Dickstein, Marketing Manager
37
Introduction
An ideal signal has no phase noise, harmonics nor spurious frequency components associated with it.
Unfortunately the ideal signal does not exist in the real world, and these factors degrade the spectral purity of
all real world signals to some degree. High-performance microwave signal generators are designed to maximize
spectral purity, with very low levels of phase noise, harmonics and spurs, while maintaining general purpose
flexibility. The levels of spectral purity performance are one of the key differences between high-performance,
mid-range and low-end or entry-level signal generators. This paper discusses the factors that make up spectral
purity specifications to help you make more informed comparisons of microwave signal generator performance
for test and measurement applications.
Phase Noise
Phase noise refers to short-term, random fluctuations in the phase of the signal, and is usually expressed as
value normalized to a 1 Hz bandwidth and at some offset frequency away from the signal frequency and relative
to the amplitude of the signal. It can be expressed as a number (such as -100 dBc/Hz at 10 GHz and 10 kHz
offset), but is also shown as a graph of phase noise versus offset frequency for one or more signal frequencies.
While the actual spectral density is double sided around the signal or carrier frequency, as you would observe
on a Spectrum Analyzer display, the phase noise of microwave signal generators is typically shown as a graph of
only one side, called single side band (SSB) phase noise. See Figure 1.
The vertical axis is the phase noise to carrier ratio in dBc/Hz where a smaller value is better. The horizontal axis is
the offset from the carrier frequency in Hz where offsets from 1 Hz to 100 Hz away from the carrier are referred
38
to as “close-in” and offsets from 100 kHz to 10 MHz away from the carrier are referred to as “far out”. Phase
noise close in to the carrier presents a problem in applications where the signal is used as a local oscillator and
could limit the receiver’s sensitivity or when the signal is used as a clock and could limit the bit error rate (BER)
performance. Phase noise far out from the carrier presents a problem in wideband communications systems
raising the noise floor and limiting the systems ability to recover weak signals. Close-in phase noise is often
critical for Aerospace and Defense applications such as high-resolution radar, while the far-out phase noise is
often critical for broadband digital wireless communications.
When comparing microwave signal generator phase noise performance, it is important to realize that datasheet
specifications can be misleading when you are just comparing the phase noise numbers. For example, Figure
2 shows a comparison of measured data for three competing high-performance microwave signal generators,
taken at the same carrier frequency:
Notice that the performance of the three different synthesizers overlap and that no one is significantly better
everywhere. All three products show very good phase noise performance. It is important to note that while
the 10 kHz offset from carrier is typically used for comparison, it may not be a critical difference for many
applications, where either the close-in or far-out phase noise dominates. A signal generator manufacturer may
optimize their phase noise performance for an impressive specification at 10 kHz offset, while compromising the
performance in both the close-in and far-out regions, as with “Synthesizer 2” in the example. Although all three
companies in the example can claim the lowest phase noise at some point, what is most meaningful is to take
into consideration the entire range and how it applies to your specific test scenarios.
39
Some times you may see a vendor advertise frequency synthesizer phase noise at 100 kHz offset rather than
10 kHz offset just to make their phase noise performance appear better or they present phase noise without
specifying the carrier frequency or the offset which is ambiguous and of dubious value.
As indicated in Figure 1 with the five traces for the five different carrier frequencies, the phase noise in most
microwave signal generators increases as the carrier frequency increases. This is attributed to the fact that
almost all modern microwave signal generators use frequency multiplication to generate the higher frequency
ranges, and the phase noise increases as 20 log N where N is the multiplication factor. What this means is
that one signal generator that multiplies less than another to provide the same final frequency will probably
have lower phase noise at the higher frequency. It is important to note that while 10 GHz (and 10 kHz offset)
is typically used for comparison for microwave signal generators, better performance at 10 GHz does not
necessarily mean better performance at 40 GHz or 50 GHz, because of possible differences in multiplication
factors.
The majority of microwave signal generators used for test and measurement applications are designed around
YIG-based microwave oscillators, rather than VCO based. There are several reasons for this fact and phase noise
performance is one of the key reasons. First, YIG oscillators have a very wide tuning range. This means that the
multiplication factors can be smaller, resulting in lower phase noise at the higher frequencies. And second, the
phase noise of YIG-based oscillators drops off more rapidly far out from carrier than it does in VCOs, so the total
integrated phase noise with YIG-based oscillators tends to be lower.
Phase noise is a function of the internal oscillator and any external frequency reference used. Different
microwave signal generators use different loop bandwidths when locking to an external frequency reference.
resulting from a noisy external frequency reference signal. A few companies use a wider bandwidth to allow
more stable phase tracking of multiple signal generators, but that makes them more susceptible to phase noise
from the external frequency reference. Other companies overcome this trade-off limitation by providing the
capability to phase track using an internal 100 MHz oscillator with wide loop bandwidth while keeping a narrow
bandwidth on the 10 MHz external frequency reference input.
Occasionally, in a microwave signal generator datasheet, you will find that phase noise plots are provided for the
absolute phase noise (the phase noise performance of the signal generator) and residual phase noise (the phase
noise performance with the contribution from the internal frequency reference removed). This residual phase
noise information is only useful when an external frequency reference is used, and is added to the phase noise
of the external frequency reference. The residual phase noise information is needed because of that specific
synthesizer’s sensitivity to the phase noise of the external frequency reference, and the fact that its phase
noise performance is potentially degraded by using a noisy external frequency reference signal. Typically the
differences between absolute and residual show up only in the close-in phase noise region.
40
Harmonics and Spurious
When comparing harmonics and spurious performance note that all frequency synthesizers create harmonic
and spurious signals. Depending on your application, these harmonics and spurious signals may or may not be
a problem. It is important to note that different applications may be sensitive to spurious at different amplitudes
and frequencies, and while one synthesizer may have a problematic spur in one specific application and another
synthesizer does not, the opposite will be true in a different application or in even the same application at
different frequencies. It is incorrect to generalize that any of the top performing microwave signal generators are
consistently better or worse than any other, when it comes to harmonic and spurious performance.
A microwave signal generator can meet and exceed its spurious specification and still exhibit a problematic
spur if it just happens to fall in a sensitive region in any specific application. But with that caveat, it is true that
the better the spurious specs, the less likely that you will encounter this issue. Microwave signal generators
with poor spurious specifications are probably unusable for some applications, such as testing radar and ECM
receivers and EW systems where the high level of spurious will appear as ghost (false) signals or threats. In
wireless communications systems, high levels of spurious can be a problem when they fall inside the channel.
It’s often difficult to understand spurious performance, because the spurious content is usually removed from
the graphs of phase noise shown in most datasheets. This is not done to be devious, but rather to separate and
distinguish the different phenomena. Figures 1 and 2 show phase noise with the spurs removed and for phase
41
noise comparison purposes, that is useful.
If you visualize Figure 3 as if it were displayed on a spectrum analyzer, then you would recognize the spurs as
sidebands around the carrier. In Figure 3, the phase noise is shown in blue, while the spurious signals are shown
in red. If the spurious performance specification was -50 dBc or better, then that instrument at that frequency
would be meeting its specification. The highest spur appears to be occurring at 120 Hz off the carrier, probably
an artifact from the power supply. But the next largest spur appears to be 200 Hz off the carrier, and it may be
very difficult or impossible to determine its origin.
Figure 4 shows a set of phase noise measurements at 40 GHz. The phase noise is quite consistent, but the
spurious signals vary. Figure 4 illustrates one of the most annoying properties of spurious signals and that is the
fact that spurious signals vary as a function of both manufacturing variations and the external environment,
and may also vary with the output power level and other settings. Slight variations on gasket sealing or device
parameters will influence the level of spurious signals, and many spurious signals are a result of external electro-
magnetic interference, both conducted and radiated. Factors like heavy I/O bus activity may also have an effect,
as noise can couple from the I/O bus into the analog and microwave hardware, so minimizing remote control
communications during sensitive testing is a best practice.
While spurious signals in microwave signal generators are not always a function of output power level,
harmonics are. When comparing harmonic specifications, be sure to check what output power level applies
for the specifications. Note that for most microwave signal generators with a high power option, the harmonic
levels increase, sometimes substantially, with the addition of the option. There is a strong argument for using
external microwave power amplifiers rather than high power options as increased harmonics is only one
drawback of the microwave signal generator high power option. See Giga-tronics’ application note AN-GT111A
“Boosting RF Output Power – Signal Generator High Power Options versus External Power Amplifiers” for a more
detailed discussion of the advantages of using external microwave power amplifiers.
42
Conclusion
Spectral purity is one of the most important specifications to consider when selecting a microwave signal
generator and is one of the more difficult set of specifications to fully understand. When comparing phase
noise performance, it is important to realize that datasheet specifications can be misleading when you are just
comparing the numeric values and that you also need to look at the phase noise plots and consider how they
would apply to your specific application. In addition, harmonics and spurious signals are problematic, and
that while one microwave signal generator may have a spurious signal in any specific measurement scenario
and another microwave signal generator does not, the opposite will be true in a different application or even
in the same application at a different setting. Lastly, be aware that the harmonics specifications may degrade
significantly with the addition of a high output power option, and the use of external power amplifiers is often a
better solution when higher output power levels are required.
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Ten Things about the Giga-tronics 2500B series Microwave Signal
Generators
High-Performance Microwave Signal Generators
The fast frequency switching of the Giga-tronics 2500B series Microwave Signal Generators pays dividends in
any test environment where large amounts of data are collected or where frequency hopping is required for
signal simulation applications. The high signal purity with ultra-low phase noise and exceptional narrow pulse
performance are critical for Radar and EW testing. The following ten reasons demonstrate why the Giga-tronics
2500B series Microwave Signal Generators are the best solution for meeting your most demanding analog signal
generator needs.
44
Generators
#1 Fast Switching Speed and High Signal Purity
If you are calibrating high-performance EW or Radar receivers or simulating an agile Radar signal, the 2500B
series Microwave Signal Generators provide industry leading frequency switching speed with no compromise
in phase noise and harmonics performance.
Giga-tronics knowledge of advanced YIG-tuned oscillator (YTO) design enables VCO tuning speed with
the better spectral purity of a YTO. The heart of the signal generator is the Accumulative High Frequency
Feedback (AHFFTM) Technology. This patented technology was developed by Giga-tronics engineers to
overcome the limitations of fractional-N synthesizers. The AHFF technology achieves low N numbers and fine
resolution in a single loop by making use of a high frequency reference source with a variable component to
drive the PLL. Additionally, the PLL uses high frequency, fractional frequency pre-scaling to allow the ratio
for the reference frequency to the output frequency to be quite low compared to traditional PLL synthesis
methods (see Figure 1).
Since every component in the frequency synthesis PLL can have an effect on the phase noise, the phase-
frequency detector (PFD) and pre-scaling circuitry are Giga-tronics proprietary low-noise designs, and careful
power supply filtering and mechanical shielding is also essential.
The frequency synthesis phase-locked-loop is optimized to maximize frequency switching speed. This
includes the YTO, the loop filter, and the tuning algorithms. A fast “List Mode” engine steps frequency and
amplitude from an embedded table eliminating bus transfer delays. The ALC loop is optimized for fast
amplitude switching speed.
45
Generators
As shown in Figure 2, the frequency switching speed depends on the frequency change ΔF, where ΔF is defined
as:
∆F = | (F stop x N stop) – (F start x N start) | where N is the value in the 2500B Frequency Band Table
46
Generators
The significance of this is that in the higher frequency bands, from 10 to 50 GHz, the YTO moves less for the
same size frequency change, resulting in faster switching speed for the same step size. Conversely, the switching
speed may be slower for the same step size in the divided bands below 4 GHz.
For example, a 100 MHz step in the fundamental 4 to 10 GHz band typically takes 400 µs, while a 100 MHz step
between 10 and 20 GHz would typically take only 200 µs, but between 2 and 4 GHz would typically take 800 µs
(still much faster than most other signal generators).
Frequency Range N value

1 to 2 GHz 4
2 to 4 GHz 2
4 to 10 GHz 1
10 to 20 GHz 1/2
20 to 40 GHz 1/4
40 to 50 GHz 1/6
Table 1. 2500B Frequency Band Table
47
Generators
#2 Phase Noise versus Frequency Range and Reference
Many applications demand a microwave signal stimulus either, CW or modulated, at 10 GHz, 18 GHz, 40 GHz
or 50 GHz. To achieve these high frequencies, microwave signal generators multiply a fundamental oscillator
to produce the required range of frequencies. As each frequency multiplication will degrade the instrument’s
phase noise, a key design criteria employed in the 2500B was to make the fundamental frequency as high as
possible. Consider the following:
Phase noise increases by 6 dB each time frequency is doubled. (It also decreases by 6 dB each time frequency is
divided by two). The general formula is:
L(fx) = L(fo) + 20 log n

Where L(f) is the phase noise and n is the frequency multiplication (or frequency division) number.
The 2500B series Microwave Signal Generators use a wide-range 4 to 10 GHz YIG-tuned oscillator. Then, 10 to
20 GHz is provided by x2 multiplication, 20 to 40 GHz by x4 and 40 to 50 GHz by x6. Comparing this to other
microwave signal generators, the 2500B series may have better phase noise performance at 40 GHz or 50 GHz,
because of lower multiplication factors. In a carefully designed signal generator, less multiplying also generates
fewer spurious and harmonic signals.
Phase noise is a function of the internal oscillator and any external frequency reference used. Different
microwave signal generators use different loop bandwidths when locking to an external frequency reference.
resulting from a noisy external frequency reference signal. Some signal generators use a wider bandwidth to
allow more stable phase tracking of multiple signal generators, but that makes them more susceptible to phase
noise degradation from the external frequency reference. Giga-tronics overcomes this trade-off limitation by
providing the capability to phase track using an internal 100 MHz oscillator with wide loop bandwidth while
keeping a narrow bandwidth on the 10 MHz external frequency reference input (see Figure 3).
48
Generators
There are many examples of why low phase noise is important. Phase noise is the limiting factor in applications
that require detecting signals that may present near the carrier. One example is detecting low speed targets
with Doppler Radar. The ability to detect and measure the Radar return signal from slow moving targets is
limited by the LO phase noise close to the carrier.
Doppler Radar works by measuring the frequency shift of the Radar return signal (echo) from the target.
Traditionally, targets were fast moving objects such as fighter jets or other airplanes. Today many targets are
slow moving ground vehicles and objects being monitored from UAVs. The Doppler frequencies have decreased
with the slower speed of these new targets. While an airplane at hundreds of mph generated Doppler shifts of
kHz frequencies, slow moving targets in tens of mph generate Doppler shifts of a few hundred Hertz or less.
49
Generators
The Doppler Radar return signal (echo) becomes impossible to detect and measure if it is obscured by the close-
in phase noise of the carrier (see Figure 4).
50
Generators
#3 External Frequency References and Phase Tracking Multiple 2500B Signal

Generators
Some applications require phase stability between multiple signal generators sharing the same frequency
reference. However reference phase errors are easily multiplied. For instance, if the phase drifts 0.1° in the
10 MHz frequency reference, then the RF phase at 1 GHz could have a drift of 10°. For this reason, the 2500B
accepts both a 10 MHz and 100 MHz external frequency reference that automatically disconnects the internal
10 MHz reference oscillator and phase locks the external reference with the 2500B’s internal 100 MHz reference
oscillator. This ability to share a reference frequency between two or more signal generators at 100 MHz rather
than at 10 MHz leads to much greater stability (over time and temperature) for phase tracking multiple signal
generators.
While it is common practice in the industry to share a 10 MHz frequency reference, when very stable multiple
signal generator phase tracking is needed, the 100 MHz reference should be used. Note that the 2500B series
has a ± 360 degree phase adjust range with 0.1 degree resolution.
There is an important caveat with the use of external references that even the most experienced engineers and
ATE system developers sometimes overlook. That caveat is this: if the external reference has excessive noise or
drift, this will degrade the performance of the 2500B. The ultra-low phase noise of the 2500B can be corrupted
by a noisy external frequency reference.
51
Generators
#4 Leveling Narrow Pulses
One of the largest challenges in any broadband Radar application is controlling the signal’s power when the
pulse widths of very short duration are used. The 2500B series Microwave Signal Generators are designed to
maintain level accuracy with pulse widths as narrow as 10 ns with typical rise and fall times of 3 ns. The ALC
circuit often becomes the limitation. Fortunately, the 2500B’s ALC circuit can level pulses down to an industry
leading 350 ns with a level accuracy of ± 0.5 dB. For pulse widths less than 350 ns, an open-loop calibrated mode
is used.
The 2500B ALC is optimized for narrow pulse level control (See Figure 5). Three ALC modes for pulse modulation
exist. In the “Always On” mode the ALC automatically maintains the pulse amplitude accuracy for pulse widths as
narrow as 350 ns over the full amplitude range, or as narrow as 100 ns at maximum leveled output power. In the
52
Generators
“Always Off” mode the ALC provides accurate power output for pulses as low as 10 ns. Whenever RF is turned
on, or the frequency or power settings are changed, the ALC turns on the RF on for 1 millisecond to calibrate
the output power. After this initial calibration leveling is completed, the RF is turned off and pulse operation
resumes. In the “Off for pulse widths < 1 us” mode the ALC automatically reengages leveling whenever the pulse
width exceeds 1 μs. This provides automatic closed loop leveling for pulse widths greater than 1 μs while still
providing accurate output power for pulse widths as low as 10 ns.
When pulse modulation is initiated in the open-loop calibrated range of operation, the circuitry performs a
closed-loop calibration of pulse amplitude adjusting the amplitude to the desired setting, then opening the ALC
loop while holding the pulse amplitude until the settings are changed. The time required to perform the closed-
loop calibration varies, from a 1 ms for the Giga-tronics’ microwave signal generators to as much as 50 ms in
competitive microwave signal generators. During this calibration time the RF output is on, and caution must be
taken to prevent this single initial calibration pulse width from damaging sensitive loads.
53
Generators
#5 2500B Step Attenuator Options
Many receiver calibration or sensitivity test applications require a signal generator with a very wide amplitude
range. The 2500B mechanical or electronic step attenuator options extend the amplitude range of the
instrument from a maximum output power of +25 dBm (with X-Band Power Boost enabled) to a minimum
power level of lower than -100 dBm.
Mechanical step attenuators have the best frequency range and response with the trade-off of slower switching
speed and a specified number of switching cycles in their lifetime.
Electronic step attenuators have an unlimited number of switching cycles with very fast switching speed, with
the trade-off of limited frequency range and response.
The mechanical step attenuator is used when a wide frequency range is required. This device is composed of
cells, each having a pair of single-throw, double-pole mechanical switches. Between one pair of switch throw
positions is a low-loss through path. Between the alternate pair of throw positions is a precision attenuator. By
cascading three or four cells, precision “steps” of attenuation can be switched in or out. A common arrangement
includes a 10 dB, 20 dB, and two 30 dB cells. By switching different combinations of cells, 10 dB steps from zero
to 90 dB can be had. Since the ALC (or AGC) network can easily adjust itself over a 20 dB range, it is now possible
to continuously adjust power or gain over a 110 dB range.
The mechanical step attenuator is the appropriate choice where the widest frequency ranges and lowest
insertion loss in the “0 dB” state is necessary. The mechanical step attenuator does have a limited lifetime,
typically 10 million cycles. By its very nature, it is prone to eventual mechanical fatigue, and ultimately failure.
Another parameter to take into account when designing a test system is the time it takes for the signal
amplitude level to settle to its final value. The mechanical switch is spring-loaded, and as such is subject to
“chatter”, or it experiences the intermittent closing and opening of the switch as it changes state. Typically,
this time interval is measured in milliseconds, and is often specified in the 10 to 20 millisecond range for high
performance mechanical step attenuators.
The electronic step attenuator, is not prone to mechanical fatigue and has very fast switching speed, in the
microsecond range, but with limited frequency range (10 MHz to 8 GHz) and with higher insertion loss resulting
in a decrease in the maximum leveled output power. The electronic attenuator is the best choice for applications
with a very large amount of attenuation switching cycles or where very fast amplitude switching speed is
required.
54
Generators
#6 2500B Power Offset, Power Slope and Power Sweep Functions
The 2500B can sweep both output frequency and output power. Frequency and power sweeps are
independent, or can be combined in List Mode where both frequency and power can be specified for each
step in the list. Frequency sweep can be set for start and stop frequencies or for a center frequency and span,
covering the full frequency range of the signal generator with frequency resolution of 0.001 Hz. Frequency
sweep is fully synthesized, meaning that the frequency is accurate (phase-locked) at each frequency step. The
2500B includes Analog Sweep mode. Analog Sweep is a very fine resolution frequency sweep, for use with scalar
network analyzers.
The Power Offset feature increases the instrument’s output power by the amount of the Power Offset setting,
without changing the power level shown in the display. This allows you to compensate for a fixed value of
insertion or conversion loss of components that are attached to the instrument’s RF output. The power offset
range is 0 to 10 dB with 0.01 dB resolution.
The Power Slope feature increases the instrument’s output power linearly as a function of the frequency. The
Power Slope function allows you to automatically compensate for insertion or conversion loss of components
attached to the instrument’s RF output that exhibit a linear loss with frequency. The power slope range is 0 to
0.5 dB/GHz with 0.01 dB/GHz resolution.
The Power Sweep feature is the steady increasing or “ramping” of the output power at a fixed frequency. Ramp
power sweep is actually a series of up to 2000 amplitude steps scaled to the power sweep time setting. The
power level is controlled by the ALC and is accurate at each step. The ramp power sweep range is 0 to 25 dB with
0.01 dB resolution. Ramp power sweep time range is 30 ms to 200 sec with 10 µs resolution.
55
Generators
#7 2500B External Cable Loss Correction “Cable Cal” Feature
The Cable Cal function on the 2500B Series Microwave Signal Generators gives you the ability to apply a level
correction table to compensate for external losses or power variations in an external signal path. This feature is
available with the 2500B series and the Giga-tronics 8560B series Universal Power Meter. (See Figure 6)
Mechanical step attenuators have the best frequency range and response with the trade-off of slower switching
speed and a specified number of switching cycles in their lifetime.
When the Cable Cal function is executed on the 2500B series Microwave Signal Generator, it will automatically
control the 8650A Series Power Meter to measure power variations at the output of the external signal path
over the full frequency range of the signal generator. The signal generator automatically puts the power meter
into a “Swift Buffered” measurement mode, which commands the power meter to store all the measured data
inside the power meter’s internal data buffer until all the measurements are finished. This allows extremely fast
measurements, versus that of the traditional measurement methods where a power meter would send each
measurement result back to the host after each measurement.
After all the measurements have been made, the signal generator reads back the power level information from
the power meter and creates a table of correction values for each frequency point. The correction table is made
up of 1001 data points (frequency/amplitude data pairs). This table is stored in the signal generator’s non-
volatile memory. It takes about 30 seconds for the entire process to run.
56
Generators
#8 Using the 2500B with External Microwave Power
The 2500B offers standard and optional power output levels. For example, the 2520B specifies +14 dBm
standard and +20 dBm with its high power option, without degradation in any of the spectral purity
specification. However, some test and measurement applications need higher power levels than are available
from the signal generator. Giga-tronics offers external microwave power amplifiers to complement the 2500B
microwave signal generators, including the GT-1000A,
GT-1040A and GT-1050A microwave power amplifiers.
These microwave power amplifiers are solid-state, very
broadband, low noise and highly reliable. The GT-1000A
covers 2 GHz to 20 GHz with up to 10 Watts of output
power. The GT-1050A covers 10 MHz to 50 GHz with ¼ Watt
at 50 GHz.
Should you choose the high power option to a microwave

signal generator or opt for an external power amplifier
instead? The trade-offs are not always obvious. While
adding the high power option to a microwave signal
generator may seem an easy solution, remember that the tradeoffs may be increased harmonics and IMD, as
well as the practical limits to how much power can be added. Choosing an external amplifier usually results in
better overall performance, with better signal purity and higher power levels available. Signal purity and very
linear amplification are critical for modulated signals and that often requires operating backed off from the
maximum power levels.
An additional advantage of that using an external amplifier is that it provides you with the ability to physically
position the amplifier closer to the device under test (DUT) or antenna. By placing the amplifier closer to the
DUT (or antenna), you may be able to reduce cables losses and achieve higher powers at the DUT. Since most
external amplifiers have relatively high gain, moving the cable loss to between the signal generator and the
amplifier rather than between the amplifier and DUT achieves the desired results. Close proximity to the DUT
(or antenna) may also reduce the magnitude of ripple and standing waves in the cabling if the impedance
match to the DUT or antenna is not good. Both the effects of cable loss and mismatch reflections become more
problematic as the frequencies increase. These effects may be minimized by moving the long cable to between
signal generator and amplifier (where the match is better, reducing reflections) and keeping the cable length
short between amplifier and DUT to minimize the standing waves.
It’s also important to consider the price-performance tradeoff. High power options to microwave signal
generators can be very expensive, over $40K in some cases, while an external microwave power amplifier
may be considerably less expensive, as well as providing higher power and lower harmonics. Harmonics
are a function of power level. While a “1 Watt” high power option to a microwave signal generator may have
57
Generators
harmonic levels of -25 dBc at +25 dBm, a less expensive “10 Watt” external microwave power amplifier could
have harmonic levels of -35 dBc at the same +25 dBm (and same frequency) because it’s operating well below its
maximum output power.
An additional consideration is safety and the prevention of high power levels causing damage to the DUT.
Using an external microwave power amplifier allows the user to activate the high power only when needed. The
signal generator can be turned on and set up prior to turning on the high power. While some microwave signal
generators try to compensate by offering a power clamp capability, it is important to remember that there may
be a delay of many microseconds before the power clamp can respond, allowing a potentially damaging pulse
to occur. Power clamps are designed for CW operation and may be of no practical use in narrow pulsed mode
applications.
58
Generators
#9 X-Band Power Boost
While external microwave power amplifiers are the best solution for many applications, especially those cover-
ing wide frequency ranges or where very high levels of power are needed, the 2500B does have a feature that
increases the output power over a select band of frequencies. X-Band Power Boost is a special feature included
in the 2520B model with high power option, and when enabled, increases the maximum unleveled output
power to +23 dBm from 4 to 12.7 GHz. This feature more than doubles the available output power over this fre-
quency range, but with higher harmonic levels. (See Figure 7).
The trade-off of power for harmonics may not be an issue when working in a banded application, such as test-
ing a narrow band receiver, or driving a high Q antenna.
59
Generators
# 10 Replacing Obsolete Signal Generators with the 2500B
Replacing obsolete signal generators with minimal changes to your Test Program Sets (TPS) is a significant chal-
lenge for engineers and managers supporting many defense automated test systems. Aging test instrumenta-
tion is a concern for engineers supporting old automated test equipment (ATE) systems. Users of these systems
are faced with the dilemma that test instruments in these aged systems are no longer available, are becoming
too costly to maintain and repair and are no longer supported by the original equipment manufacturer. One
solution is to replace the obsolete model altogether. The primary concern when replacing old test equipment is
editing the existing TPS or ATE program code. This can be a time consuming and costly solution. In some cases
it is almost impossible to reprogram the existing code because some of the TPS use older compilers that are no
longer available.
The 2500B series Microwave Signal Generators have several emulation command sets, which enable the signal
generator to emulate other manufacturer’s microwave signal generators. These command sets enable the signal
generator to accept and respond to programming commands as if they were an instrument from a different
manufacturer. These command sets facilitate the replacement of many of the most popular signal generators,
such as many Hewlett Packard signal generators, found in test systems that are still in service today. The 2500B
signal generators and the emulation modes have been successfully used to replace old and obsolete test equip-
ment.
One Giga-tronics signal generator is capable of emulating several other models of signal generator s. The ben-
efit of a single signal generator capable of replacing multiple signal generator models is that the need to main-
tain spares for each of the replacement models is reduced to one signal generator model whenever a unit is in
need of service or calibration. All the previous series of Giga-tronics signal generator command sets are stan-
dard on the 2500B signal generators. The only caution is that some features and functions of the obsolete signal
generator may not be available on the 2500B. Giga-tronics will provide engineering support for companies us-
ing the 2500B in replacement applications. Contact your local sales representative or Giga-tronics to determine
if a 2500B signal generator is the right model for replacing your obsolete signal generator.
The 2500B series Microwave Signal Generators are capable of emulating the following obsolete signal genera-
tors:
• HP 8370 Series • HP 8340 Series (compatible with the 8757D Scalar Network Analyzer)
• HP 8350 Series • HP 8360 Series • HP 8663 Series • HP 8673C/D Series
60
Generators
As an example of obsolete signal generator replacement, consider Scalar Network Analyzers. Scalar analysis of
microwave devices such as filters, attenuators, switches and amplifiers is a popular cost effective measurement
method for device characterization. As a result, a significant number of scalar network analyzers are still being
used extensively throughout the world. Many of these scalar network analyzers such as the Giga-tronics 8003
Scalar Network Analyzer and the HP 8757D Scalar Network Analyzer are still in use today. The 2500B was de-
signed for use with the Giga-tronics 8003 Scalar Network Analyzer. The 2500B operating in emulation mode can
also be used with the HP 8757D Scalar Network Analyzer.
Two common microwave signal generators that were designed to work with the 8757D are the HP 8340 and HP
8350 series signal generators. The 8757D would automatically communicate with these two signal generators
via its private IEEE 488 bus. However, these signal generators are obsolete and are no longer supported. Because
of the unique IEEE 488 communications protocol used by the 8757D, replacement microwave signal generators
must be designed to communicate like the HP 8340 or HP 8350 signal generators, which require that the signal
generators remain in “Local mode”. This enables the user to set sweep parameters of the scalar network analyz-
er/signal generator system locally by manually using signal generator’s front panel controls and not by sending
remote commands from a computer. When parameters such as start frequency or power level are changed, the
signal generator notifies the scalar network analyzer that a change has been made. The scalar network analyzer
queries the signal generator for changes and updates its display to the new instrument settings.
The Giga-tronics 2500B Microwave Signal Generators have a HP 8340 emulation mode, which causes it to be-
have like the HP 8340 signal generators. This allows it to automatically communicate with the 8757D over its
private GPIB bus. The 2500B comes standard with a ramp sweep mode. This feature also includes a power sweep
function, which can be used with the 8757D to perform gain compression measurements or swept power re-
sponses. The 2500B signal generator’s control signals include Ramp Out and Blanking. The connections for these
control signals can be found on the rear panel in a Network Analyzer connector group.
The 8757D has an AC detection mode that is used when low power measurements are required. In some cases
the broadband thermal noise present in the system is greater than the test signal magnitude. This method pulse
modulates the swept signal that is filtered and detected by the scalar network analyzer. The 8757D Modulator
Drive BNC port connects to the signal generator’s “Pulse In” BNC port and provides the drive signal to modulate
the output. To use the 8757D AC detection mode with the 2500B signal generators, order option 17B external
modulation suite, which includes pulse modulation capability.
61
References
1. Introduction to Electronic Defense Systems, Filippo Neri, Scitech Publishing, Raleigh, NC.
2006
2. Electronic Warfare Formulary, NAVSEA, NSWC - Crane, Crane, IN. August 2010
3. rfcafe.com
4. microwaves101.com
5. wikipedia.org
62
www.gigatronics.com
Phone / Email
Toll free: 800.726.4442 (USA)
+1 925.328.4650 (International)
Email: inquiries@gigatronics.com
©2012 Giga-tronics Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. All trademarks are the property of their respective owners.

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A glossary and useful reference information

for the Radar Engineer

Radar Reference EBook

Radar Glossary ................................................................................................................................ 1

Frequency Switching Speed in Microwave Signal Generators ......................................... 15

Introduction to Phase Noise in Signal Generators ....................................................... 21

Comparing Spectral Purity in Microwave Signal Generators ................................ 37

Ten Things about Giga-tronics 2500B Microwave Signal Generators ............. 44

Basic Radar Pr = power received (W)

Doppler shift Δf = vf/c v = velocity (m/s)

Pt = power transmitted (W)

Description Symbol Units dB Value

Radar Antenna Equations

Phase Shift for Ø = phase shift between successive elements

Near Field Region: Rnf = maximum distance from antenna

Antenna Gain: η = efficiency

Pulse Waveform Definitions

by Mark Elo, VP of Marketing

Dissecting Phase Noise

by Mark Elo, VP of Marketing

Agile Frequency Generation – how fast can I tune?

Frequency Multipliers, Filters and above all Switches

The Output Stage

Conclusion: The moving bottleneck

by Leonard Dickstein, Marketing Manager

Phase Noise is an Attribute of All Real World Signals

Most electronic signals derive from oscillators.

Phase Noise in Signal Generators

L(f) = single sideband power referenced to the carrier

• In a 1 Hz bandwidth at a frequency f Hz away from the carrier

L(f) = Pn (dBc/Hz) – Ps (dBm) where Ps is the carrier power.

Measured phase noise plotted without spurs

The above example is measured phase noise performance of the

Phase Noise Limits in Signal Generators

NT = kTB where k = Boltzman’s constant, T = temperature in Kelvin and B = bandwidth

For T = 290K (~ 17 °C), NT = -174 dBm/Hz

NT = -174 + 100 + 40 + 10 = -24 dBm

2 See “Bibliograph on 1/f Noise” by Wentian Li, www.nslij-genetics.org/wli/1fnoise

These various slopes have been given names:

Effect of Frequency Multiplication on Phase Noise

Fx is the desired multiplied (or divided) frequency, equal to n times f0.

Δf is the frequency fluctuation of V0(t) and n Δf is the frequency fluctuation of Vx(t).

Relating Amplifier Noise Figure to Phase Noise

Lout(f) = Lin(f) + Na (dBm/Hz) - Pout (dBm)

Lout(f) = Lin(f) + NF (dB) + kTB (dBm/Hz) - Ps (dBm)

Another way to state the result is:

Lout(f) = Lin(f) + SNR + Lresidual(f) (dBc/Hz)

Absolute vs Residual Phase Noise in Signal Generators

Introduction to Leeson’s Equation

by Leonard Dickstein, Marketing Manager

Harmonics and Spurious

noise comparison purposes, that is useful.

High-Performance Microwave Signal Generators

#1 Fast Switching Speed and High Signal Purity

Frequency Range N value

#2 Phase Noise versus Frequency Range and Reference

L(fx) = L(fo) + 20 log n

#3 External Frequency References and Phase Tracking Multiple 2500B Signal

#4 Leveling Narrow Pulses

#5 2500B Step Attenuator Options

#6 2500B Power Offset, Power Slope and Power Sweep Functions

#7 2500B External Cable Loss Correction “Cable Cal” Feature

#8 Using the 2500B with External Microwave Power