Chapter 11: Acoustics

Nomenclature
a coefficient of absorption
A total acoustical absorption
c velocity of sound
f frequency of sound
I sound intensity
I0 min sound intensity audible to the human ear
IL sound intensity level
NR noise reduction
P acoustic power
R distance from the source
S area of barrier or component between rooms
t coefficient of transmission
T reverberation time
TL transmission loss
V room volume
w wavelength
W power

DEFINITIONS

• Amplification: increased intensity of sound by mechanical means

• Articulation index: a measure of speech intelligibility calculated from the number of words read
from a selected list that are understood by an audience
- Low articulation index (.15) desirable for speech privacy
- High articulation index (.6) desired for good communication
• Attenuation: reduction of sound
• Decibel: 10 times the common logarithm of the ratio of a quantity to a reference quantity of the
same kind
- IL = 10log(I/I0)
• DBA: unit of sound intensity measurement that is weighted to account for the response of the
human ear to various frequencies
• Frequency: number of pressure fluctuations or cycles occurring in 1sec, expressed in Hz
• Hertz: unit of frequency, one cycle per second equals 1hz
• Impact insulation class (IIC): rating of a floor-ceiling’s impact sound transmission performance
• Intensity: amount of sound energy per second across a unit area
• Intensity level: (see decibel)
• Noise: unwanted sound
• Noise criteria (NC): set of single number ratings of acceptable background noise corresponding to
a set of curves specifying sound pressure levels across octave bands
• Noise insulation class (NIC):
• Noise reduction (NR): difference in decibels between the intensity levels in two rooms separated
by a barrier of a given transmission loss
- Dependant on the transmission loss of the barrier, area of barrier & absorption of the surfaces in
the receiving room
• Octave band: range of frequencies in which the upper frequency is twice that of the lower
• Phon: unit of loudness level of a sound equal to the sound pressure level of a 1000Hz tone judged
to be as loud
• Reverberation: persistence of sound after source has stopped
• Reverberation time: time it takes sound to decrease 60dB after source has stopped
• Sabin: unit of absorption, theoretically, 1ft2 of source having an absorption coefficient of 1.00
• Sabin formula: relates reverberation time to a rooms volume and total acoustical absorption
- T = (.05)(V/A)
• Sound: small compressional disturbance of equilibrium in an elastic medium which causes
sensation of hearing
 • Sound absorption coefficient: ratio of sound intensity absorbed by a material to the total intensity
reaching the material
• Sound power: total sound energy radiated by a source per second, in watts
• Sound transmission class (STC): single number average over several frequency bands of a
barriers ability to reduce sound
- Higher = better ability to control sound
• Transmission loss (TL): difference in decibels between sound power incident on a barrier in a
source room and the sound power radiated into a receiving room on the opposite side of the barrier

FUNDAMENTALS OF SOUND AND HUMAN HEARING

Qualities of Sound
• Basic components:
- Velocity (c): depends on the medium in which it is traveling and the temp
- Frequency (f): number of cycles completed per second, measured in Hertz (Hz)

- Frequency & velocity are related through the equation where:

f = c/w

where: c = velocity
f = frequency
w = wavelength

- Power: quality of acoustical energy as measured in watts b/c point source emits waves in a
spherical shape in free space
- Sound intensity (watts per unit area):

I = P/4
r2

Inverse Square Law

• Sound intensity (I) is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source:
- Also said as doubling the distance cuts the intensity of light/sound to 25%

I1/I2 – r22/r12

Sound Intensity
• Decibel: a measure of sound intensity & named after Alexander Graham Bell

IL = 10logI/Io

Where:
- IL = sound intensity level
- I = sound intensity heard (watts/cm2)
- Io = minimum reference intensity (lowest sound that can be heard by human ear)
- Human ear range: from 10-16 W/cm2 to 10-3 W/cm2
• Zero decibels is the threshold of human hearing and 130dB it the threshold for pain
- 20 – 30dB = whisper
- 40 - 50dB = general office noise
• In open space, when distance is doubled between receiver and sound source intensity level (IL)
decreases 6dB
- Sound intensity (I) (different from intensity level) will decrease to 1/4
• Doubling the mass = 6dB decrease
• Doubling number of sound sources of equal intensity = increase of 3dB
Sound Power
• Measures power at the source & converts it into a logarithmic scale

PWL = 10log (W/W0)

Where: PWL = sound power level

W = power at source, measured in watts
W0 = reference wattage, 10-12 watts

Sound Pressure Level

• Measure of pressure exerted by sound wave on a surface
• Sim to “sound Intensity” but varies with change in barometric pressure

SPL = 20log (P/P0)

Where: SPL = sound pressure level

P = pressure at measured point (Newtons per meter2)
P0 = reference pressure, 2 x 10-5

Loudness
• Is subjective
• Spending to modify a partition to increase its sound transmission class by 3dB would not be worth
the expense b/c hardly noticeable
• Common sound intensity levels:
- 140dB plane at takeoff
- 130dB gunfire
- 120 dB HEAVY METAL……FUCK YEAH!
- 110 dB motorcycle accelerating
- 100 dB horn @ 10’
- 90 dB loud street noise, blender
- 80 dB noisy office, factory
- 70 dB avg street noise, radio
- 60 dB average office,
- 50 dB conversation
- 40 dB quiet home, private office
- 30 dB quiet conversation
- 20 dB whisper
- 10 dB rustling leaves, soundproof room
- 0 dB threshold of hearing

Table 11.2 subjective change in loudness based on dB level change

Change in Intensity level (dB) Change in apparent loudness
1 almost imperceptible
3 just perceptible
5 clearly noticeable
6 change when distance to source in free field
is doubled or halved
10 twice or half as loud
18 very much louder or quieter
20 four times or 1/4 as loud
 Addition of Decibel of Uncorrelated Sounds
• Since decibels are logarithmic, they cannot be added directly
- For two decibel values use the table 11.3

Table 11.3 Addition of Decibels

When difference between two values is: add this value to higher value
0 or 1dB 3 dB
2 or 3 dB 2 dB
4 to 8 dB 1 dB
9 dB or more 0 dB

- For three or more sources, first add two and then add the result to the third, etc.
- Example I: Find combined intensity level of two office machines one generating 70dB and the
other 76dB

Via Table 11.3, the difference between the two is 6dB
add 1 dB

- Example II: What would the sound level be in a room of eight typewriters each at 73 dB

ILtotal = ILsource + 10log(# of sources)

ILtotal = 73 dB + 10log8
= 82dB

Human Sensitivity to Sound

• Although subjective & varies due to age, physical condition and background, normal ear can hear
sound in range of 20Hz to 20,000Hz and is most sensitive to frequencies in the 3,000Hz to 4,000Hz
range
- Speech = 125Hz – 8,000Hz
• Measurement & analysis divided into eight octave frequency bands identified by center frequency
- 63Hz, 125 Hz, 250 Hz, 500 Hz, 1000 Hz, 2000 Hz, 4000 Hz & 8000 Hz
• Wide range of sound variations perceived by human ear
- Range with 1 = minimum audible sound is 1:10,000,000,000
• Human ear most sensitive to sounds in the middle range

SOUND TRANSMISSION

Transmission Loss and Noise Reduction

• Transmission of sound is primarily retarded by the mass of the barrier & stiffness
- Less stiff will perform better
• Concepts:
- Sound transmission class (STC): single number rating used where the higher the STC rating,
the better the barrier is (theoretically) in stopping sound
- 47 & above is a good rating
- Transmission loss (TL): difference in decibels between sound power incident on a barrier in a
source room and the sound power radiated into a receiving room on the opposite side of the
barrier
- Noise reduction (NR): difference in decibels between the intensity levels in two rooms
separated by a barrier of a given transmission loss
- Dependent on the transmission loss of the barrier, area of barrier and absorption of the
surfaces in the receiving room

NR = TL+10log(A/S)

A = total acoustical absorption (sabins)

S = area of barrier
 • Formula shows NR can be increased by increasing the TL of the barrier by increasing the absorption
in the receiving room
• When partition comprised of two or more constructions (door or glass panel in a wall), the combined
transmission loss can be found:

TLcomposite = 10log (total area/
tS)

t = coefficient of transmission
S = area of barrier

• Finding the value of ‘t’, if the value of the transmission loss of individual materials is known, the
following formula can be used:

T = 10

• Example I: A conference room and an office are separated by a common wall 13’ long by 9’ high
with an STC rating of 54.

Use NR = TL+10log(A/S)

=54+10log(220sabins)/(9’)(13’)
=54+10log1.88
=54+2.7
=57dB

• Example II: What is the combined transmission loss of a wall 9’ high and 15’ longg with a 3’ by 7’
door? Assume TL of the wall is 54dB and the door with full perimeter seal is 29dB

Total wall area: (9’)(15’) = 135ft2

Area of door: 21ft2
Area of partition: 135ft – 21ft = 114ft2
T of partition = 10-5.4
T of door = 10-2.9

TLcomposite = 10log[135/(10-5.4) + (10-2.9)(21)]

=10log5012
=37dB

Noise Criteria Curves (NC)

• People are more tolerant of higher levels of low frequency sound than of high frequency sound
- Values consolidated into a set of noise criteria (NC) curves relating frequency in eight octave
hands to noise level
- These curves are noise criteria rating for various types of space and listening requirements
• Can be used to specify:
- Max amount of continuous background noise allowable in a space
- Min amount of noise desired to help mask sound
- Evaluate existing conditions
• Preferred noise criteria (PNC): modification of the NC curves

Rules of Thumb
• Transmission loss thru a barrier tends to increase with frequency of sound
• Wall with 0.1% open area 9cracks, holes) will have a max transmission loss of approx 30dB
- A wall with 1% open area = max 20dB
• Hairline crack will decrease partitions transmission loss by 6dB
- 1in2 opening in 100ft2 gyp board partition can transmit as much sound as entire partition
• Although fibrous insulation in wall cavity increases STC rating density of the insulation is not a
significant variable
SOUND ABSORPTION

Fundamentals
• Sound intensity level decreases approx 6dB for each doubling of distance from the source in free
space
- Not the case in a room or enclosed space where sound level decreases near the source
• Absorption of a material is defined by coefficient of absorption (a) which is the ratio of the sound
intensity absorbed by the material to the total intensity reaching the material
- Max absorption = 1 (free space)
• Material with coefficient below .2 is reflective
• Material with coefficient above .5 is absorbing
• Coefficient of absorption varies with the frequency of sounds
• Frequencies should be checked for critical applications, but for convenience a single number noise
reduction coefficient (NRC) is used
- NRC is the average of a materials absorption coefficients at four frequencies
- 250, 500, 1000 & 2000Hz rounded to the nearest multiple of .05
• Total absorption of a material depends on coefficient of absorption and the area of the material

A = Sa
A = S1a1 + S2a2 + S3a3 + ….Snan

A = total acoustic absorption

S = area of barrier
a = coefficient of absorption

• Example I: find the total absorptivity of an empty room at 1000Hz. The room is 20’ x 30’ x 10’ tall.
The floor is carpet over concrete, one wall is glass, other three are GWB and ceiling is plaster.

Total absorption of the room is:

Floor: (1)(30’)(20’) =(600ft2)(.37) = 24sabins

Walls (Gypsum board):
(2)(20’)(10’) =(400ft2)(.04) = 16sabins
(1)(30’)(10’) =(300ft2)(.04) = 12sabins
Walls (glass)
(1)(30’)(10’) =(300ft2)(.03) = 9sabins
Ceilings: (1)(30’)(20’) =(600ft))(.04) = 222sabins
= 283sabins

• Example II: what would absorptivity be if we provided drapes across glass window surface?

Floor: (1)(30’)(20’) =(600ft2)(.37) = 24sabins

Walls (Gypsum board):
(2)(20’)(10’) =(400ft2)(.04) = 16sabins
(1)(30’)(10’) =(300ft2)(.04) = 12sabins
Walls (glass w/ drapes)
(1)(30’)(10’) =(300ft2)(.72) = 216sabins
Ceilings: (1)(30’)(20’) =(600ft))(.04) = 222sabins
= 490sabins
Noise Reduction Within a Space
• Increasing sound absorption within a space will result in noise reduction according to the formula:

NR = 10log(A2/A1)

A1 = total original room absorption in sabins

A2 = total room absorption after increase of absorption

• Example: a room 15’ by 20’ with a 9’ ceiling has a carpeted floor with a 44oz carpet on pad (a =
.40), gypsum board wall and ceiling (a = .05). What would be the noise reduction achieved by
directly attaching acoustical tile with a given NRC of .70 to the ceiling?

Original total absorption of the room is:

Floor: (15’)(20’) =(300ft2)(.40) = 120sabins

Walls: (2’)(15’)(9’) =(270ft2)(.05) = 14sabins
(2’)(20’)(9’) =(360ft2)(.05) = 18sabins
Ceilings: (15’)(20’) =(300ft))(.05) = 15sabins
= 167sabins

Absorption after treatment is:

Ceiling:(15’)(20’) =(300ft2)(.70) = 210sabins

Subtracting 15 from old value of 167sabins and adding 210sabins as new value, the net
total is 362sabins

NR = 10log(362/167)
= 10log2.17
= 3.4dB

Increasing the absorption by this amount helps a little but difference would be just
perceptible

Reverberation
• Reverberation time: time it takes the sound level to decrease 60dB after the source has stopped

TR = .05 (V/A)

TR = reverb time
V = room volume
A = total acoustical absorption

• Example: What is the reverberation time of a room with and without the drapes (from example
above)

TR = .049(V/A)
= .049[(20’ x 30’ x 10’)/283]
= 1.04 seconds before drapes

TR = .049(V/A)
= .049[(20’ x 30’ x 10’)/490]
= 0.60 seconds after adding drapes

• Shorter times best for smaller spaces

• Longer times work best for larger spaces
• Auditorium: design for approximately 100ft3 per person
 Recommended reverberation times

Space time (sec)

Auditoriums 1.5 – 1.8
Churches 1.4 – 3.4
Classrooms .6 - .8
Lecture/conference rooms .9 – 1.1
Offices .3 - .6
Opera halls 1.5 – 1.8
Symphony halls 1.6 – 2.1

Room Acoustics
• Determine he approximate ceiling height relative to TR (reverb time)

H = 20TR

Where: H = Height in feet

TR = Reverb time

Rules of Thumbs
• Average absorption coefficient of a room should be at least .20. An average absorption above .50
is usually not desirable
• Each doubling off the amount of absorption in a room results in a noise reduction of only 3dB
• Each doubling of absorption in a room reduces reverberation time by one half
• Additional absorptive material is added to a room the total absorption should be increased ad least
three times (amounting to a change of about 5dB which is clearly noticeable)
• In adding extra absorption, an increase of 10 times is about the practical limit. Beyond this
(representing a reverberant noise reduction of 10dB) more absorption results in a decreasing amount
of noise reduction and reaching the practical limit of .5 total average absorption coefficient
• Ceiling treatment for sound absorption more effective in large rooms, whereas wall treatment is
more effective in small rooms
• Absorption increases with an increase in thickness of a porous absorber, except for low frequency
situations that require special design treatment
• Absorption of a porous type of sound absorber such as fiberglass or mineral wool is dependent on
- Materials thickness
- Materials density
- Materials porosity
- Orientation of the fibers in the material

SOUND CONTROL

Control of Room Noise

• Reducing level of sound source
• Modifying absorption of the space
- Useful when problem has a large percentage of hard surfaces
• Introducing nonintrusive background sound mask unwanted noise
• White sound (random noise acoustical perfume): used in open offices to provide speech privacy
• Low frequency control usually requires allowance for thicker partitions
- Panel resonator: absorbs low frequency energy while reflecting mid & high frequency energy
- Helmholz resonators consist of a large air space with a small opening
- As sound strikes resonator, air mass inside resonates at a particular frequency where
the absorption is very great
- However, absorption above and below the particular frequency droops off rapidly at
higher and low frequencies
- Common type of cavity resonator is a concrete block type with narrow slits in face
 • Gaps in the barrier must be sealed.
- Edges caulked,
- Penetrations avoided (but can be sealed)
- Outlets staggered and in separate stud spaces
• Pipes & ducts provide a path for sound and mechanical vibration
• Doors placed in an otherwise well-built sound wall are a common problem
- Perimeters should be sealed with weatherstripping designed for sound seal
- Threshold or automatic door bottom at the sill
- Door itself as heavy as possible (solid core)
• Laminated glass provides more mass and plastic interlayer improves damping characteristics
• Measures used to evaluate open office acoustics:
- Articulation class (AC): gives a rating of system component performance and does not
account for masking sound
- Articulation index (AI): measures the performance of all elements of a particular configuration
working together
- Can be used to compare the relative privacy between areas
- Used to evaluate how changes in open office components affect speech privacy
- Measures speech privacy objectively for correlation with subjective responses
- Predicts the intelligibility of speech for a group of talkers and listeners
- Result of test is a rating room 0.0 (being completely private) to 1.0 (no privacy)
• Both privacy in areas divided by full height partitions achieved by sound loss thru the partitions & to
lesser extent by use of sound absorbing surfaces
• Factors in designing for speech privacy in an open area
- Ceiling must be highly absorptive
- “Clear sky” condition so sounds are not reflected
- Space dividers that reduce the transmission of sound from one space to the adjacent
- Other surfaces such as floor, furniture, windows and light fixtures arranged to minimize
reflection
- Activities distanced to take advantage of normal attenuation of sound with distance
- Properly designed background masking system

Control of Impact Noise

• Impact noise: sound resulting from direct contact of an object with a sound barrier
- Can be any surface but typically floor and ceiling assembly
• Impact insulation class (IIC): rating of a floor-ceiling’s impact on sound performance.
- Given construction is analyzed over 16 third-octave bands and results are compared with a
reference plot
- IIC value increased by adding
- Carpet
- Resiliently suspended ceiling below
- Floating a finish floor on resilient pads over structural floor
- Providing sound absorbing material in the air space between floor and finish ceiling

Control of mechanical Noise

• Mechanical noise transmitted by:
- Rigidly attached equipment
- Airborne noise
- Noise transmitted through ductwork
- Movement of air or water trough ducts and pipes
• Controlled by:
- Equipment mounted on springs or resilient pats (isolators)
- Connections between equipment and ducts made with flexible connectors
- Ducts should be lined or provided with mufflers
- Located away from quiet occupied spaces
- Walls, ceiling and floors of mechanical rooms designed to attenuate airborne noise
- Systems designed to minimize high velocity flow
ROOM ACOUSTICS

Reflection, Diffusion and Diffraction

• Reflection: if a surface is greater than or equal to four times the wavelength of a sound striking it,
the angle of incidence will equal the angle of reflection
• Can be useful for reinforcing sound in lecture rooms and concert halls and for directing sound where
it is wanted
- Echoes occur when a reflected sound reaches a listener later than about 1/17 sec after the
direct sound
• Speed of sound = 1130ft/sec
• Echo will occur whenever reflected sound path exceeds the direct path by 70’
• Diffusion: random distribution of sound from a surface when the surface dimension equals the
wavelength of the sound striking it
• Diffraction: bending of sound waves around an object
• Total incident sound energy: reflection, absorption of sound waves and transmission of sound
vibration through various materials
• Sound absorption: dependent upon physical properties of a material, object or space and sound
source.
- Sound energy is absorbed, dissipated and then transmitted
• Sound insulation: the reduction of sound energy levels within a space and is dependent upon the
sound insulating qualities of the construction materials
- Can reduce sound transmission but not prevent it

Room Geometry and Planning Concepts

• Plan similar areas next to each other
• Buffer spaces such as closets and hallways
• Locate noise producing area such as mechanical rooms (away from ‘quiet’ areas
• Stagger doorways in halls and other areas
• Locate operable windows as far from each other as possible
• Minimize area of the common walls between two rooms
• Avoid room shapes that reflect or focus sound such as barrel vaults
• Avoid parallel walls with hard surfaces in a small rooms
- Flutter echoes: repeated echoes
- Higher frequencies perceived as buzzing