Resistance and Resistivity

When the voltage is applied across a bar or a wire made out of

conducting material, the current flows through it.
The current I is related to the voltage V as:

1
I = ×V
R
This is the most common form of the Ohm’s Law

Resistance R characterizes the ability of a sample

to resist the current flowing through it. Units: Ohm (or Ω)
 Resistance and resistivity
1 The higher is the resistance R the lower is the current at a
I = ×V
R given voltage.

L
R= ρ A and L describe the geometry of a sample or a wire.
A
The larger is the cross-section A the smaller is R, the higher is
the current.
The longer is the length L, the higher is R, the smaller is the
current;

L ρ is the resistivity of the material. Units: Ohm*m

R=ρ
A ρ describes the electrical properties of the material itself,
independent of the shape of the bar or wore.
The higher is ρ, the higher is R and the lower is the
current
 Ohm’s Law using conductance and conductivity.
I=G×V
This is just another form of the same Ohm’s law
G is the conductance of a bar or a wire.
Units: Siemens or S
A
G =σ
L
σ is the conductivity of the material. Units: Siemens/m or S/m
σ describes the electrical properties of the material itself, independent of the
shape of the bar or wore.
The higher is σ, the higher is G and the higher is the current

G and R are related simply as

G = 1/R
σ and ρ are related simply as
σ = 1/ρ
 Mobile charges concentration and mobility

Material parameters that determine the conductivity are

1) mobile charge concentration, n and
2) mobile charge mobility, µ

σ=qnµ
Correspondingly, ρ = 1/(q n µ)

The difference in electrical conductivity (or resistivity)

between different materials arises from different n and µ
 Semiconductor materials
The Origin of Electric Conductance

• Free electrons can freely move along the crystal (colliding with the atoms)

• Their kinetic energy comes from the lattice vibrations

• In equilibrium, free electrons move randomly inside the crystal.

• In electric field, free electrons drift toward positive electrode creating
electric current
 Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors
σ =qnµ
The mobility in different materials differs around 1000 times.
The concentration of free electrons n in different materials differs

around 1023 times!

Metal: Insulator: Semiconductor:

~ 1023 atoms per 1 cm3 ~ 1023 atoms per 1 cm3; ~ 1023 atoms per 1 cm3;
Every atom donates 1 free No free electrons: Some atoms donate free
electron: electrons
n ~ 1023 cm-3 n~0 n ~ 1010 - 1019 cm-3
 Metals

In metals, the atom-to-atom interactions free up one electron from each atom.
The metal crystals have as many free electrons as they do atoms.
Atom concentration N ~ 1023 atoms per 1 cm3. Free
electron concentration, n ~ 1023 cm-3
The metal conductivity is very high.
 Silicon crystal
Silicon (Si) is the most important semiconductor material

Si crystal lattice structure, showing the valence electrons associated with each bond.

Note that each silicon atom now has eight valence electrons in the
neighborhood,
but that they are all shared, two with each of its four neighbors.
No free electrons!
 Silicon crystal under illumination

The photons – elementary particles of light can break the bonds and
create free electrons in the Si crystal
 Silicon crystal at elevated temperature

If the temperature is high enough the crystal lattice vibrates and delivers
extra energy to electrons
 Free electrons in semiconductors

The lattice vibrations supply extra energy to the electrons

Some of the electrons acquire high enough energy to become free electrons.

The term “free” means that the electrons can move around the crystal
 Free electron concentration in semiconductors
• The probability for an electron to acquire the energy high enough
to break the atomic bonds is very low
• This probability is a very strong function of the temperature
(at higher temperatures the lattice vibrations are stronger)

The energy required to produce a free electron in a crystal is called

the bandgap energy, ∆EG
In the metals, the bandgap energy is equal to zero.
In dielectrics, the bandgap energy is much higher than in semiconductors.
∆EG
−
n = N 0 × e 2 kT
k = 1.38 × 10-23 J/K, is the Boltzmann constant,
T is the crystal temperature, in Kelvin (K)
N0 ≈ 2×1019 cm-3 for most semiconductor materials
 Electron - Volt

∆EG
−
n = N 0 × e 2 kT
The energy unit used in micro-world - Electron-Volt:
1 eV = 1.6 ×10-19 J
Using the eV-units,
k × T ≈ 4 × 10-21 J ≈ 0.026 eV (at room temperature, T ≈300 K)
In most semiconductors,
EG ≈ (2…10)× 10-19 J = 1 – 3 eV;
In Si, EG = 1.1 eV.
Note, kT << ∆ EG.
 Free electron concentration in Silicon
∆E
− G
n = N 0 × e 2 kT
for Si,
N0 ≈ 2×1019 cm-3
At room temperature: kT0 = 0.026 eV;
∆EG = 1.1 eV
∆EG/(2×kT) = 21.15; e -21.15 = 6.5× 10-10
n20C = 1.3×1010 cm-3
At 100 oC: kT = kT0×(397K/300K)
= 0.026 × 1.323 eV = 0.034 eV;
n100C = 1.9×1012 cm-3;
n is much smaller than the Si atom concentration NSi y1023 cm-3
 Free electron concentration in Silicon
∆EG
−
n = N0 × e 2 kT

4.50E+14
4.00E+14
3.50E+14
3.00E+14
n, cm-3

2.50E+14 n(t) for Si

2.00E+14
1.50E+14
1.00E+14
5.00E+13
0.00E+00
0 100 200 300 400
o
t, C
 Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors

When the electron leaves the Si atom, the latter is lacking one electron.
The bonds lacking an electron behave as free POSITIVE charges: holes

In electric field, the hole “moves” toward negative electrode

 Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors

In pure (also called intrinsic) Si, free electrons and holes appear in PAIRS

EG

Electrons have negative charge and move toward positive electrode;

Holes have positive charge and ”move” toward negative electrode
Any electron that leaves the atom creates a “hole” in the valence orbit.
• The 'hole' is an abstraction; it has no substance and does not actually move itself, but
movement of electrons in the opposite direction is perceived as the hole moving.

• In an ideal (intrinsic) semiconductor crystal, ni = pi

• Hole mobility is usually lower than electron mobility.
 Electron mobility

Equilibrium condition, no electric field (voltage) applied

Free electron experiences very frequent collisions with atoms in the metal.
As a result it moves randomly (with the velocity of around 105 m/s).
On average, the electron does not go anywhere!
Average electric current is equal to zero
(There is a flicker charge transfer, or the NOISE current though)
 Electron mobility

Electric field applied:

There is an electric force exerting on any free electron.
Electron still experiences very frequent random collisions.
However, after each collision the electron’s velocity has a component toward the
positive electrode (against the field direction)
On average, the electron drifts from negative electrode toward positive.
There is a current flowing through the metal.
 Electron mobility

Let us ignore the

random collisions
and only monitor
the drift in the
electric field

Ignoring the collisions, which are completely random, we can say that
average electron velocity (drift velocity) is proportional to the electric field E:
v~E
v=µE
µ is called the electron mobility: µ = v/E [(m/s)/(V/m) = m2/(V.s)]
 Electron mobility example

The electron mobility in silicon (Si) is 1000 cm2/(V-s).

What is the electron drift velocity if the voltage across the sample is
5V and the sample is d =1 mm thick?

Solution. Assuming uniform electric field in the sample, the electric

field and the voltage are related as: E = V/d, where d is the distance
between the electrodes.

E = V/d = 5V/10-3 m = 5.103 V/m

vdr = µ E; µ = 1000 cm2/(V-s) = 1000 × 10-4 m2/(V-s) = 0.1 m2/(V-s).
vdr = 0.1 m2/(V-s) × 5.103V/m = 500 m/s
Compare this to the electron “thermal” velocity: vT ≈ 105 m/s >> vdr
 Resistance of Silicon sample
How much would be the resistance of the (1 cm×1cm× 1cm) Si sample?
The electron mobility in Si, µ = 1000 cm2/(V ×s).
Consider room temperature:

σ = qnµ ; n = 1.3×1010 cm-3

L 1 L µ = 1000 cm2/(V ×s)
R=ρ = × q = 1.6 ×10-19 C
A σ A
σ = 1.6 ×10-19 C × 1.3×1010 cm-3 × 1000 cm2/(V ×s)
σ = 2.08 × 10-6 (Ohm × cm)-1
ρ = 4.8 × 105 Ohm × cm
R = 4.8 × 105 Ohm × cm ×1 cm /(1cm ×1cm) = 4.8 × 105 Ohm
The resistance is too high for most practical purposes.

Due to very low intrinsic electron and hole concentrations,

ideal (intrinsic) found very limited applications in electronics.
 Thermistor - the semiconductor temperature sensor

Semiconductor
I
R1
∆EG I = V / R;
− Temperature
n = N0 × e 2 kT increases
4.50E+14
4.00E+14
3.50E+14 R2
3.00E+14
n, cm-3

2.50E+14 n(t) for Si

2.00E+14
1.50E+14
1.00E+14 ∆I
∆V
5.00E+13
0.00E+00
0 100 200 300 400
o
t, C

R = ∆V/∆I R1 < R2 V

T increases ⇒ n increases ⇒ R decreases ⇒

Current increases
 Thermistor as a solid-state switch:
Effect of self-heating on semiconductor thermistor

Initially, the thermistor temperature = room

temperature
When the voltage is applied, the current flows
through the thermistor: I = V/R;
The current generates the Joule heat: P = V ×I = I2 R
The Joule heat increases the device temperature T
At higher temperature the thermistor resistance R
decreases

As R decreases, the current through the device increases

 Thermistor as a solid-state switch:
Effect of self-heating on semiconductor thermistor

As I increases, the power, i.e. the Joule

heat further increases as P = V ×I = I2 R

The device temperature T increases even more

The device resistance decreases further

The device current further increases

Effect of self-heating on semiconductor thermistor

V
 Thermistor I- V Characteristics
at different temperatures
0.25
Current - Voltage
0.2
t=27 C
t=77 C
Current, A

0.15 t=127 C

0.1

0.05

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Voltage, V
 Photoconductors
The current through the sample is
Under the illumination, the
concentration of electron and hole
pairs consists of the equilibrium
(dark) concentration and that of the
photoexcited carriers:
n = n0 + nph; p = p0 + pph;
Correspondingly, the current has
two components:
I = ID + Iph
ID – the “dark” current; IPh – the “photo” current
 Photoresistor - the semiconductor light sensor

I
R1
I = V / R;
Light intensity
increases

R2
Semiconductor

∆I
∆V

R = ∆V/∆I R1 < R2 V

Light intensity increases ⇒ n increases ⇒ R decreases ⇒

Current increases