Tilapia Farming Guide

Tilapia Farming Guide
NPH Haiti / Fondazione Rava

II Revision
AMIGO was a blue tilapia (Oreochromis aureus)

native to the freshwater rivers of Africa, but it was born on the Space shuttle
By Gianluigi Negroni
May 2013
Tilapia farming introduction
Table of content
Foreword 3
Introduction 3
The Tilapia natural reproduction 4
Tilapia systematic 5
Farmed species
Advantage of Tilapia 5
Hatchery 6
Fry production
Nursery 9
Growout 9
Extensive
Semi-intensive
Intensive
Super – intensive
Earthen ponds
Concrete ponds
Raceways
Floating cages
Recirculation systems
Aeration
Tilapia feed and feeding 13
Food conversion ration (FCR)
Growth rate
Feeding system
Feed in pond culture
Feeds
Feeding try
Predation 18
Storms 18
Harvest and transport 19
Management 19
Tilapia farming economics 20
Production costs 21
Financial projections 22
Current price estimates 22
Legislative and legal aspects 23
Possible problem 23
Pollution
Disease
2
G. Negroni Tilapia specialist
New Tilapia farm construction 25

Fish farming sites
Sites with a river boundary
Sites bordering a lake
Sites on Water Springs or Bore-holes
Tilapia culture pros and cons 29
Special consideration 29
Strategies for Tilapia farming 32
Conclusion 34
Annex
Annex I Tilapia anatomy 35
Annex II Management standard practices to be developed 38
Annex III Financial projection 40
Annex IV Planned visit 41
Annex V A checklist for the feasibility study 41
Bibliography 44
Foreword
Tilapia is the common name for a vast number of freshwater fishes of the family Cichlid. This is
one of the largest families of fishes, containing more then 1 800 members, some of them in use
in aquaculture. Members of the family range from very small ornamental species used in the
aquarium industry to large food-size species rose in the fish-farming industry. Tilapia culture and
production, mainly of food fish, has been well documented over the years and appears in ancient
documents, is drawn on old cave walls, and is part of the Biblical story.
The cichlids, tilapias included, are distributed around the world on both sides of the equator.
However, our interest is in the species originating from Africa and the Middle East. In both more
recent history and in Biblical days, tilapia is mentioned as the “fish of the miracles” or the “fish
for the people”. Simultaneously and independently, the culture of tilapia as a common and basic
food staple has been developed in various parts of the world.
Compared to other cultured species, tilapia culture and consumption are the most widely spread
worldwide. Tilapia is produced and consumed in over 100 countries and is a staple food for very
poor people around the world; however, nowadays, it has also become a staple cuisine in the
most expensive restaurants in luxury markets.
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Introduction
A Tilapia farm is an aquaculture business for the cultivation of tilapine fishes for human
consumption. As all the business it has economical and technical challenges that must all be
solved for a successful farm development.
Tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus
Tilapia has become the third most important fish in aquaculture after carps and salmonids, (FAO
2009). Because of their large size, rapid growth(3 to 7 months to grow to harvest size), and
palatability, a number of tilapine cichlids are at the focus of major aquaculture efforts,
specifically various species of Oreochromis, Sarotherodon, and Tilapia, collectively known
colloquially as tilapias.
Like other large fish, they are a good source of protein and a popular target for artisanal and
commercial fisheries. Originally, the majority of such fisheries were in Africa, but accidental and
deliberate introductions of tilapia into freshwater lakes in Asia have led to outdoor aquaculturing
projects in countries with a tropical climate such as Central Africa, South east Asia and
Caribbean. In temperate zone localities, tilapine farming operations require energy to warm the
water to the tropical temperatures these fish require. One method involves warming the water
using waste heat from factories and power stations.
History
The culture of Nile tilapia (O. niloticus) can be traced to ancient Egyptian times as depicted on
bas-relief from an Egyptian tomb dating back over 4000 years, which showed the fish held in
ornamental ponds. One recent estimate for the FAO (2009) puts annual production of tilapia at
about 1.5 million tonnes, a quantity comparable to the annual production of farmed salmon and
trout. Unlike salmon, which rely on high-protein feeds based on fish or meat, commercially
important tilapiine species eat a vegetable or cereal-based diet.
The production of Tilapia in impoundments, ponds, raceways, cages and tanks, got started in the
early 1960s, and production grew steeply, particularly to match the market demands.
Today several tropical countries has little and large tilapia farms.
The Tilapia biology and natural reproduction

Tilapias are cichlids that breed readily with females carrying 160-1600 (consider 600-800 for our
porpoises) eggs at one time. After the eggs are fertilized, tilapia female will hold the fertilized
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eggs in her mouth until the hatch, which is known as mouth brooding.
Tilapiines are also among the easiest and most profitable fish to farm. This is due to their
omnivorous diet, mode of reproduction (the fry do not pass through a planktonic phase),
tolerance of high stocking density, and rapid growth. In some regions the fish can be put out in
the rice fields when rice is planted, and will have grown to edible size (12–15cm, 5–6inches)
when the rice is ready for harvest.
Some points will help to understand the Tilapia natural cycle:
 The male makes a nest (or defends an area on the bottom of a tank or even a fine meshed
cage) and attracts ripe females to the nest with courtship displays.
 The female lays eggs in the nest, where they are fertilized by the male, and immediately
picked up in the mouth of the female.
 The male will continue to court other females, while the female, which has just spawned
retreats away from the nest to incubate the eggs.
 The eggs hatch in the mouth of the female after about five days (depending on
temperature) and the hatchlings remain in the mouth while they absorb their yolk sac.
 Gradually the fry start swimming out of the mouth to feed, but return to the mouth at any
sign of danger
 Once the fry have become too large to fit in the female’s mouth, they become totally
independent and swim to warm, sheltered water such as the edge of a pond
 The eggs of a female are stimulated to develop once the previous batch of offspring are
released, so after a period of recovery, she will return to spawn within 4 weeks.
Being a maternal mouth brooder, the number of eggs per spawn is small in comparison with
most other pond fishes. Egg number is proportional to the body weight of the female. A 100 g
female will produce about 100 eggs per spawn, while a female weighing 600-1.000 g can
produce 1.000 to 1.500 eggs. The male remains in his territory, guarding the nest, and is able to
fertilize eggs from a succession of females. If there is no cold period, during which spawning is
suppressed, the female may spawn continuously. While the female is brooding, she eats little or
nothing. Nile tilapia can live longer than 10 years and reach a weight exceeding 5 kg.
Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) is are a popular culture and experimental animal because
they grow fast, are efficient users of natural aquatic foods including plankton, will consume a
variety of supplemental feeds, they have a herbivorous nature, and are resistant to diseases and
handling. When kept in captivity tilapia reproduce easily and will tolerate a wide range of
environmental conditions.
Tilapia systematic
'Tilapia' are fish species that are fresh water cichlids but some species are described as being
eurhyaline. a term which means that they can tolerate and adapt to different water salinity levels.
Tilapia are indigenous to freshwater but are euryhaline fishes. That is, they can survive, grow
and some can even reproduce in water with a salinity as high as 40ppt. Grow condition in saline
water change according with species.
There are some 80 species of tilapia where almost all of them are of African origin although a
few species come from the Israeli and Jordanian geographic regions. From all of these species,
only a few tilapia species possess the characteristics required for interest in commercial fish
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fanning. It should be noted that the scientific classification confers to 'tilapia' several different
species names, notably Sarotherodon and Oreochromis.
Tilapia is also identified under a number of different generic names; it can be called "carpe" in
West Africa, "St Peter's Fish" in Israel, "bream" in Southern Africa, "mojarra" in Latin America
and, of course, under many different local names.
The biology of many individual tilapia species is now well known and the interest in using these
species for fish farming has led to considerable developments in recent decades.
Farmed species
Although there are many species of farmed cyclid, only a few of the larger ones are actually
cultivated, Large-scale commercial culture of tilapia is limited almost exclusively to the culture
of three species: Oreochromis niloticus, O. mossambica and O. aureus. Of the three tilapia
species with recognized aquaculture potential, the Nile tilapia, O. niloticus, is by far the most
commonly used species in fish farming. Selected hybrid could be more reddish and whitish
color, this is important for marketing porpoises.
 Advantage of Tilapia
The principal practical reasons for farming tilapia are:
 simple reproduction/breeding processes;

 rapid growth rate;
 good tolerance to high stocking densities and intensive rearing conditions;
 resistance to physical handling.
It is therefore a robust performer that reduces many of the general risks encountered in fish stock
farming. Tilapia has also a very good reputation with consumers, usually available at a reasonable
price which, combined with the high quality of its flesh, allows it to occupy a good place in most
markets.
Hatchery
The hatchery can be high tech for industrial porpoise or less capital and technological intensive
in more simple structures. The reproduction of tilapia is best achieved in ponds, arenas or in
'hapas'('hapa' is a small net cage that can be immersed in a pond or shore-line conditions), as
described below but the basic principles that are used for breeding remain identical in all cases:
 Brood fish are stocked together and at the ratio of 3 females for 1 male:
 Stocking density may vary from 1 to 4 fish per m2.
Spawning occurs naturally when the female arrives at the stage of maturity; the female lay eggs
in a nest that is built by the male (for Oreochromis sp.). The female lays the eggs in the nest
where external fertilisation by the male ensues. The female then incubates the fertilised eggs in
her mouth. The fry develop during this period of buccal incubation until the complete re-
absorption of the yolk sac of the fry and, often, even later.
6
Tilapia farming cycle with sex reversal; other system use all male offspring
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The occurrence of tilapia breeding is influenced mainly by water temperature where breeding
activity will ensue at temperatures around and exceeding 22°C; below this temperature, the
breeding process is inhibited. In practice, according to the geographical zone, a period of non-
breeding or low reproductive activity will probably occur (even in tropical zones) due to the
incidence of low cyclical temperatures (winter). Fry production needs to be planned according to
these criteria.
1. Where breeding is done in ponds, the parent brood fish will be left together for +/-40
days (up to a maximum of 2 months), before being harvested from the pond with large
mesh nets, in order to capture the brood fish but to leave the fry in the pond.
2. The fry will remain in the pond for another month so that they can be grown to a
sufficient size to be harvested without damage (where the individual body weight should
be >5 g.).
3. Fry can also be harvested daily: A shallow net is usually used, allowing broodstock fish
to escape underneath, while new-born fry, which swim on the surface of the water, will
be caught.
4. When breeding arenas are used, fry must be harvested daily, in order to avoid
cannibalism (bigger fry acting as predators on the newborn).
5. Following harvest, fry will be counted and reared thereafter in small tanks or ponds.
For all tilapia species, the male is bigger than the female and has higher production performances
for farming (growth speed and food conversion ratio). Different methods can be used to obtain,
theoretically, 100 % male populations in order to make best use of these characteristics. In
commercial fish fanning, the following are the principal techniques applied in order to obtain
mono-sex populations: hormonal sex reversal of fry, hybridisation through inter-species breeding
genetic manipulation, optical sexing.
The main advantage of working with mono-sex populations is to avoid the problems of
uncontrolled over-breeding that can be problematic for good stock-control procedures. It must
also be recognised that efforts geared to the production of high quality; healthy fry are invariably
rewarded by better growth and productivity for the adult fish.
Fry production
Earthen ponds
Earthen ponds are the most commonly used system for tilapia fry production. Ponds of 200 to
300 m2 are preferred; this size eases the collection of fry while being, at the same time, highly
productive. The average depth should be around 1 metre. If concrete walls are envisaged (to
reduce the effects of long term erosion), it is important to remember that square ponds are better
than long narrow ponds, due to the relation between surface area and perimeter. It is prudent to
foresee the use of an aeration system, if possible, so the wiring for electricity distribution should
be foreseen at the time of construction.
Breeding arenas
Arena tanks are usually circular concrete tanks, the edges of which are very shallow and which
allow, when the water level is dropped slightly, to harvest the fry that prefer the shallow, warmer
areas, along the edges. The diameter of these tanks varies, but rarely exceeds 5 meters. Special
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“angles” with different orientation provide privacy to the tilapia couples and avoid fight between
males.
In this type of facilities, fry are collected daily using a small mesh, scoop net after dropping the
water level by a few centimeters. The fry can be induced into the channel by feeding or more
comfortable temperature. .
Hapas
Hapas are small cages made of fine mesh (e.g. mosquito netting), generally suspended on stakes
that are fixed in the bottom of the pond. Hapas are usually installed in shallow areas either in
ponds or in protected areas alongside a lake. Brood fish are stocked in the hapas and fry are
collected regularly, applying an appropriate harvesting technique (very common in Asia).
Hatchery
A modern hatchery with the following phases can be used in a large fry production: brodstoock
selection, parent breeding, eggs incubation, different stage fry development (see Tilapia farming
cycle figure before)
Nursery
Fingerling production requires specific facilities that are adapted to this stage of farming and if
controlled management of the production scenario is to be successful. In a more simplified
methods it is possible to select fry and fingerlings from the grow out pond.
Fingerlings can be produced in ponds, concrete tanks (round, square or D-end) or floating cages.
The main point, particularly if high rearing densities are to be applied, is that the feeds
administered must be of high quality.
Moreover, if the possibility exists, fry and fingerlings will always benefit from a longer residence
time, at low stocking densities, in a pond that has 'natural' feed production. Residual mortalities
that occur at this stage are usually linked to the stocking density (too high) and the natural
physical or genetic vigour of the fry in question.
Grow out
This phase is the production of marketable fish, the commercial size of fish varies according to
local and international market demand and the price obtained per kg is usually a direct function
of the individual size of the fish.
Globally, the market size for tilapia varies between 200 (150 for the developing countries) to 800
g.. Local markets often have outlets for a wide range of sizes while export markets require the
production of larger fish because they are more likely to be sold as individual fillets of 100 to
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140 g. (corresponding to a fish of 600-800 g.).

It is important to remember that is always easier to produce smaller fish for economical and
technical reasons but that the market is king. Globally, the average growth of O. niloticus is
between 0,8 and 1,2 g. per day in good farming condition (depending on individual size and
growing conditions). This estimate constitutes a prudent average, referring to data for an semi-
intensive / intensive growing system for a mixed sex population reared at a suitable temperature
(> 25 °C).
Better growth performance is achieved when 100 % male populations are used as the stock and
also when improved genetic strains are reared. In these extremely good situation, some fish
farmers can obtain growth of 4 g. per day, for fish >350 g. individual size under such
circumstances.
For this stage of production, as for the others, different types of rearing can be used: extensive -
semi-intensive - intensive and done in ponds, tanks, raceways or cages. These possibilities are
summarised in the following table:
FacilitiesExtensive Semi-intensive Intensive

Earthen ponds Yes Yes No
Tanks No Yes Yes
Concrete ponds No Yes Yes
Raceway No Yes Yes
Cages No Yes Yes
Definition of the terms employed:

Extensive. Growing fish in ponds of a surface area which can be more than 1 Ha, low density,
no formulated feeds (pellets), but sometimes using edible by-products or stimulating natural feed
production by applying organic or inorganic fertilisers. There is no aeration and a low water
exchange. Production to forecast with this type of system can be estimated at 2 to 5 tonnes per
hectare per year. Polyculture can be used to increase the overall production; polyculture is the
rearing, in the same facilities, several different species.
Semi-intensive. Growing fish in ponds or cages at low to medium densities (5-10 kg/m3), using
supplementary feeds (formulated feeds or agro-industry by-products), sometime at the end of the
cycle there are a daily 10 to 20 % water exchange aeration used sometimes and particularly at
night. Male tilapia are stocked at 1-3 fish/m2 and grown to 400-500 g in 5-8 months, depending
on water temperature. Normal yields range from 2-3 tonnes/ha/crop but yields as high as 10
tonnes/ha/crop are reported, where climate and water quality are ideal. Dissolved oxygen is
maintained by exchanging 5-15 percent of the pond volume daily.
Intensive. Growing fish at high stocking densities (20-120 kg/m3 for tilapia and more than 300
kg/m3 for catfish), use of high quality formulated feeds, high water exchange rates (e.g. 1 to 3
times per hour and more), and use of artificial aeration in most circumstances. Higher yields of
large fish (600-900 g) are obtained in other regions by using high quality feed (up to 35 percent
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protein), multiple grow-out phases (restocking at lower densities up to three times), high water
exchange rates (up to 150 percent of the pond volume daily) and continuous aeration (up to 20
HP/ha).
Earthen ponds
Earthen ponds are more commonly used in tropical fish farming and represent the oldest fish
farming facility. A good pond will show the following characteristics:
 A well designed water supply but also easy drainage. This means a slight slope (0,5 %) of
the pond floor from the water inlet to the drainage point.
 Good water quality
 The drainage outlet (standpipe or monk) must be studied with care.
 Water inlet and outlet will be at opposite ends in order to ease water exchange within the
pond.
 Good impermeability of the pond as a whole and strength/integrity of the pond's walls
and edges.
 Clay soil quality
 Access and possibility to work around the pond which must be accessible to vehicles
(tractors/trucks & trailers etc.).
 Size of ponds must be adapted to the species but also be easy to manage. If the width
exceeds 50 meters, it becomes difficult to pull nets for harvest (e.g. 3 to 4 men on each
side are necessary to pull a 60 m. net) rendering the ponds impractical.
Concrete ponds
Concrete ponds are used for intensive fish farming; concrete walls/banks eliminate
erosion due to currents caused by mechanical aeration, waves generated by the wind and
fish activity (notably nesting behaviour). This type of pond is more expensive to build
and, therefore, should be made profitable by a higher production per volume utilised.
Conversely, the firmer walling reduces maintenance and re-building costs that will be
necessary after a few years of operation.
This type of pond is smaller than earthen ponds and should not exceed 1,000 m2 surface
area. The bottom can also be in concrete but for reasons of construction costs, only if the
pond size does not exceed 200 m2. Brick or stone walls must have strong foundations
and, if they are built with bricks or blocks, they must be plastered, in order to avoid the
effects of erosion.
Raceways
Raceways are concrete canals that can be partitioned with screens. This type of facility is often
used for trout farming but is not as suitable for tilapia that prefers the calmer waters of a pond.
One must note that is necessary to aerate the water along the entire length of a raceway because
the oxygen can often be totally consumed by the fish that are sited at the beginning of the
raceway. The complete drainage of a raceway is often difficult because different batches of fish
are grown simultaneously in the different sections and the whole of the raceway must be
completely empty of fish.
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Raceway, top view
Floating cages
There are many possibilities for obtaining floating cages for growing fish, from locally-made
ones (usually cheaper but more fragile) to high technology cages (more expensive and more
robust) which are usually used in exposed sites. The selection can only be made according to the
overall practical considerations concerning the site, the production targets, and the project's
economics.
While the optimal size for a tilapia cage is unknown, one should consider that the bigger the
cage, the cheaper it costs in both material and equipment elements. Choice will be determined by
considering the ease of management and the final production cost.
It appears that a cage of a dimension of 100 m2 is a good compromise. Concerning the depth of
the nets, the. technical possibilities and maintenance expertise will determine the choice. If the
net is deep, special diving equipment will be required for daily checking of the nets and eventual
repairs. If the depth does not exceed 3 to 3,5 m., repairs & maintenance can be made through free
diving.
Mooring systems Good care must be paid for the mooring (anchoring) system. This will be
selected following the speed of the current, winds and any effect that could move the cage and
require a special study. Note that mooring systems for square cages are cheaper than those for
round cages.
Locally made cages can be constructed out of metal or polyethylene floats, on top of which some
walkways will be fixed, in order to obtain a square floating structure from which nets will be
hung. The size of the cage will be adapted according to the material's strength and the physical
constraints faced (waves, storms, and wind).
Industrial cages are made from different materials and components. High-density polyethylene is
often used for the retaining structure, this material offering the advantages of strength and
longevity. Cage structures can be square or circular and of many different sizes. Circular cages
are invariably cheaper to buy (relation between diameter and surface) while square cages are
easy to assemble and facilitate work and fish handling tasks.
Nets are the subject of very careful selection. Their quality must be beyond reproach since the
security of the fish stocks depends largely on the net strength. Mesh size must be adapted to the
fish size and. must not allow the fish to trap itself by the gills. On the other hand, small size mesh
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is subject to fouling which restricts the water flow through the cage. Nets are sold by weight and,
therefore, those with a small size mesh are more expensive. Large farms will also invest in net-
washing equipment, which imposes the need to have cages with adequate net-removal facilities.
Recirculation systems
In temperate regions, recirculation systems have been developed to culture tilapia year-round
under controlled conditions. Although the design elements of recirculation systems vary widely,
the main components of recirculation systems consist of fish rearing tanks, a solids removal
device, a biofilter, an aerator or oxygen generator and a degassing unit. Some systems apply
additional treatment processes such as ozonation, denitrification and foam fractionation. Rearing
tanks are generally circular to facilitate solids removal, although octagonal tanks and square
tanks with rounded corners provide a suitable alternative with better space utilization.
Drum filters are widely employed for solids removal although other devices (bead filters, tube
settlers) are often used. Methods used for ammonia removal consist of a flooded moving bed
filter, trickling filter, fluidized sand filter or rotating biological contactor. In oxygenated systems,
a stage is provided for vigorous aeration to vent carbon dioxide into the environment. Rearing
tank retention times are relatively short (e.g. one hour) to remove waste metabolites for treatment
and return high quality water. Most recirculation systems are designed to replace 5 to 10 percent
of the system volume each day with new water. This amount of exchange prevents the build-up
of nitrates and soluble organic matter that would eventually cause problems.
Production levels in recirculation systems range from 60 to 120 kg/m3 of rearing tank volume, or
more. However, the final standing crop is not the best indicator of system efficiency; the
maximum daily feed input to a system is a better indicator of both productivity and efficiency.
Feed input and other factors that promote production are captured by the production to capacity
ratio (P/C), the ratio of system output to maximum carrying capacity. For tilapia, P/C ratios of
>4.5 are possible and ratios of >3 may be necessary for profitability. Intensive stock
management practices, such as multiple cohort culture with regular partial harvests and
restocking, are needed to reach high P/C ratios.
Aeration. Tilapia farmers use river flow and diesel pumps to maintain stable water quality
conditions and to renew the dissolved nutrients that sustain healthy algal blooms in their
extensive and semi-intensive ponds. This process introduces freshly oxygenated water and helps
flush out wastes.
To further increase oxygen levels, some semi-intensive farms and most intensive farms use
paddlewheel and aspirating aerators, electrical/mechanical devices that add oxygen to the water.
They are used at night and early in the morning when oxygen levels are at their lowest.
Paddlewheels slap, beat and churn oxygen into the surface of the water; aspirators inject an
oxygen-rich stream of water below the surface.
Paddlewheel aerators have many moving parts and a lot of down time; aspirators have few
moving parts. The above mentioned system are normally used in intensive system and has high
costs.
Tilapia feed and feeding

Prepared feeds are often too expensive for the production of tilapia sold in domestic markets in
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developing countries; however, manures and agricultural by-products are used to produce tilapia
cost effectively. In developing countries without a tilapia export market, farmers rely exclusively
on manures and agricultural by-products, as prepared feeds are not available.
Feeds, in a commercial fish farm, represent the most important single item in the costs of
production. It usually corresponds to at least 50% of the global production cost and can reach as
much as 60-70%.
On the other hand, feed prices range between 0,32 to 0,90 US$/Kg (2011) in the developing
countries where it is available, price changes being dependent on the availability of local
components and the value of imported items (usually quoted in US$ prices). While recognising
that the feed conversion ratio of tilapia is variable, a value of 1,2 / 2 can be used for the purposes
of calculation with average feed.
The tilapia species that are commonly used in aquaculture (O. aureus, O. niloticus, O.
mossambicus, etc.) are microphage species and, consequently, have a small stomach and a
narrow oesophagus. Feeding methods must then be adapted to these physiological characteristics
which necessitate frequent feedings during the day.
Feeding trials have shown that both the food conversion ratios and the growth rates are improved
if feed rations are distributed during the day. The use of more than feed rations has not shown
any real improvement under experimental conditions (except in the case of fry). Nonetheless, it
is likely that increased feeding periods (>4 per day) that are combined with well-determined
ration size, which would be variable following the individual size of the fish, could improve
production significantly under commercial conditions.
As mentioned previously, tilapia fry are more demanding in their diet than the adults, notably in
respect of dietary protein requirements. A formulated (milled) meal, containing a 45 % protein
level, satisfies the energy requirements of tilapia fry. Tilapia can be grow on plankton alone until
more than 80 gr. without problem. It is important to note that the protein content must be
partially of animal protein origin and that the use of vegetable materials as the unique source of
dietary protein is not adequate. I this case the growing is slower against the concentrated feed.
Appropriate animal protein sources include abattoir by-products (e.g. blood, bone and meat
meals) and fishmeals and oils can be integrated as well. Vegetable-based complements such as
soya meal, maize meal, wheat bran, rice bran, groundnut, beans, peas, roots, cottonseed cake
etc. can also be used according with local availability and costs. Where possible, the
incorporation of a vitamin complex is recommended in order to account for specific dietary
requirements.
 Feeding rates also depend on different parameters such as:

 Age and size of the fish.
 Feed composition and its energetic value.
 Temperature and oxygen levels of the water
 Water turbidity
 Rearing system used (intensive, semi-intensive, etc.)
Feeding rates are usually calculated as a percentage of the biomass concerned in the individual
rearing units, relating to the average body weight of the fish population but can be adapted
relative to the other rearing parameters.
The goal of all feeding strategies is to get the maximum amount of feed into the fish without
14
losses; consequently the feed type, composition and manner of distribution is of key importance
to the success of any commercial fish farm.
The use of automatic feeders can assist avoiding use of these approximate calculations (different
parameters can be difficult to appreciate and to integrate but influence the fish appetite; in many
cases such considerations are the decision of the fish farmer and based on personal experience).
Fish try also is a good system to control the feeding assumption of fish. Finally in extensive
system it is possible to feed Tilapia exclusively with plankton with some available local by
product with good production results.
Food conversion ratio (FCR)

This phrase expresses the amount of feed used for the production of fish biomass and is a
numeric value; for example, a FCR of 1,8 means that 1,8 kg of food has been used to produce 1
kg of live fish.
Logically, a precise scientific conversion ratio should also take the water content in account,
which is around ± 10 % in fish feed and ± 70 % in fish (according to species) but in commercial
fish farming, the scientific conversion ratio is rarely if ever used. Note: In commercial fish
farming, the economical food conversion ratio is the more important.
It accounts for all of the conditions encountered including losses (due to mortality, predation,
escapees, etc.) in order to give the real economical result of the farm. It is obviously interesting
to know how fish perform in 'experimental' conditions that indicate, for example, the
performance of a specific batch of fish in a specific tank.
However, it is essential to know how the whole of the fish stock of the farm is going to perform
in commercial facilities, including all risks and constraints.
Growth rates
In fish fanning, the growth rate is expressed in individual weight gain per day (e.g. 1,2 g./day). It
can also be expressed as a % of the body weight gain of the fish per day (e.g. 1.5% for a fish of
25 g.). Globally, the average growth for tilapia species (in extensive and semi/intensive system),
between fry up to 200 g., is considered to be ± 1 g./day for a mixed sex population. Obviously,
small fish grow at a rate of some milligrams per day while bigger fish grow at more than 1 g. per
day; the growth curve at early stages can be exponential but this stabilises at later stages. In
intensive system it is possible to have very high daily grow rate but with selected strain, high
protein feeding and high water quality.
Optimal feeding rate:
This is the feeding rate, expressed as percentage of body weight, which allows the lowest
(therefore, the best) food conversion ratio. The fish receives the amount of food necessary for the
maintenance of normal vital functions (swimming, respiration etc.) as well as encouraging
growth.
Maximal feeding rate:
This is the feeding rate that allows the highest growth speed. The FCR is usually not as good as
that obtained with the optimal feeding rate since the fish are induced to consume more food than
is necessary, which leads to waste.
Maintenance feeding rate:
The 'maintenance' feeding rate is used to keep the fish at the same body weight where only the
food necessary for sustenance is given. This is generally applied to adult fish and is not
recommended for young fish. Tilapia, in case of environmental problems such as oxygen
15
depletion or an abrupt drop in temperature, spontaneously adopts the maintenance rate. Managed
administration of this rate is applied when fish have been manipulated (e.g. grading or treatment
for disease). Generally, the normal feeding of fish that are stressed results in very poor food
conversion.
The demand feeder is a very simple mechanical unit composed of a pellet feed reservoir
equipped with a pendulum system, which drops pellets into the water when the fish hits the
shank of the pendulum. The fish feeds as desired, ad libitum. This significantly reduces feed
wastage and encourages a feeding rate between optimal and maximal. This system is also labour
saving because the reservoir need only be filled once per day compared to manual feeding of
each unit 4 times per day.
Pressed or extruded pellets are the usual forms of presentation of commercial feeds. Extruded
feeds, usually termed 'high-digestibility' due to the manufacturing process, are often considered
to be the best option. These feeds can also be fully or partially floating pellets, which allows a
higher stability of the pellet in the water rather than dissolving and being lost to the fish.
Pellet size is also important and must be adapted to individual fish size, in order to ease physical
ingestion (due to the small oesophagus). Pellets that are too large can only be 'nibbled' and cause
significant waste.
Feed quality is not only related to the formula of composition but also to the physical particle
size of the raw materials employed. Small particle size will facilitate digestion of the food while
poorly milled materials (particularly of hard components such as corn) can create health
problems.
Feeds usually constitute the most important operating cost for any farm and efficient growth and
food conversion are the main keys for profitability. It is therefore important to understand the
key analytical tools that are used by all farmers in order to analyse and understand how a fish
farm is performing.
Feeding system
While extensive farms mainly rely on the natural productivity of the ponds, more intensively
managed farms rely on artificial feeds, either exclusively or as a supplement to the organisms
that naturally occur in a pond. A food chain is established in the ponds, based on the growth of
phytoplankton. Fertilizers and mineral conditioners are used to boost the growth of the
phytoplankton to accelerate the growth of the shrimp. Waste from the artificial food pellets and
shrimp excrement can lead to the eutrophication of the ponds.
Artificial feeds come in the form of specially formulated, granulated pellets that disintegrate
quickly. Up to 70% of such pellets are wasted, as they decay before the shrimp have eaten them.
They are fed two to five times daily; the feeding can be done manually either from ashore or
from boats, or using mechanized feeders distributed all over a pond.
The feed conversion rate (FCR), i.e. the amount of food needed to produce a unit (e.g. one
kilogram) of shrimp, is claimed by the industry to be around 1.2–2.0 in modern farms, but this is
an optimum value that is not always attained in practice. For a farm to be profitable, a feed
conversion rate below 2.5 is necessary; in older farms or under suboptimal pond conditions, the
ratio may easily rise to 4:1. Lower FCRs result in a higher profit for the farm.
16
Feed in pond culture

Pond culture of tilapia is conducted with a variety of inputs such as agricultural by-products
(brans, oil cakes, vegetation and manures), inorganic fertilizers and feed. Annual fish yields
using tilapia in poly culture with carps, high levels of agricultural by-products and good stock
management can reach or exceed 5 Ton/Ha. In monoculture tilapia systems, animal manures
provide nutrients that stimulate the growth of protein-rich phytoplankton, which is consumed by
filter feeding Nile tilapia. The nutrient content of manures varies. Water buffalo manure has
much lower nutrient levels compared to duck and chicken manure. Obtaining sufficient nutrient
levels from manures poses a danger of oxygen depletion from excessive loading of organic
matter. Therefore, a combination of manures with inorganic fertilizers is used in low-input
production systems. In Thailand, applying chicken manure weekly at 200-250 kg DM (dry
matter)/ha and supplementing it with urea and triple super phosphate (TSP) at 28 kg N/Ha/week
and 7 kg P/Ha/week produces a net harvest 3.4-4.5 Ton/Ha in 150 days at a stocking rate of 3
fish/m² or an extrapolated net annual yield of 8-11 Ton/Ha.
Similar yields are obtained solely with inorganic nutrients if alkalinity, a source of carbon, is
adequate. In Honduras yields of 3.7 Ton/Ha are obtained at a stocking rate of 2 fish/m2 with
weekly application of chicken litter at 750 kg DM/ha and urea at 14.1 kg N/Ha. There is
sufficient natural phosphorus. Fertilization strategies produce fish to a size of 200-250 g in 5
months. Formulated feeds are necessary to produce larger fish and obtain a higher market price.
Feeds. As farms evolve from low to high stocking densities, the quality of feed becomes very
important. Most extensive farms (low stocking densities) don't feed at all; shrimp feed on
naturally occurring food organisms in the pond. Other extensive farms use small amounts of feed
and fertilizer to stimulate a natural food chain. On semi-intensive farms, with many more fish
searching for feed, most of the feed is consumed by the fish and less is available to serve as a
stimulant to the natural food web. Therefore, the quality of the feed is more important because
the fish get most of their nutrition from it. On super-intensive farms, where bacterial flocs
develop, the fish graze on the flocs, so the protein levels in the feeds can be reduced.
Different sizes: crumbled and pellet Different protein content Pellet
Ideally, fish in semi-intensive and intensive farms should be fed four or five times a day, with at
least three hours between feedings. High-quality feeds offer several advantages over lower
quality feeds: better feed conversion, faster growth, lower mortalities and improved water
17
quality.
Feed and feeding practical trick

Feeds can represent over 50% of the production costs on intensive tilapia farms, and they make a
mighty contribution to the sludge on the bottom of the pond. Consequently, farmers believe
better feeds and feeding strategies could save them a lot of money. The waste either accumulates
on the pond bottom, or is discharged into the environment. Instead of increasing pellet stability
beyond a couple of hours, feeds should include attractants so they are consumed immediately.
Because the feed market is highly competitive, most feed manufacturers produce feeds with
excessive nutrient levels to assure that their products are well received in the marketplace.
Consequently, some feeds tend to contain a considerable volume of fishmeal, usually 30 to 35%
of the total.
Some farmers especially in the more intensive farming system use dry, commercial feeds, while
for the less intensive system utilize farm-made feeds and natural foods, such as trash fish,
seafood by-products and various mollusks and crustaceans, a practice which can encourage the
spread of disease and adds to the organic load in the pond. Moreover to incentive the production
of plankton is recognized to feed appropriately the more extensive system.
Feeding tray: Most fish farmers broadcast feeds from the pond bank or from small boats. Then
they lower feeding trays--small (about 1/2 square meter), circular or rectangular, mesh-bottomed
baskets containing feed--into the pond to monitor consumption. Labor cost is high with this
technique. At least two employees are required for every 10 hectares of ponds. But, because feed
conversion ratios are so much lower when feeding trays are used, labor, construction and
equipment costs are easily covered by reduced feed costs. In addition, feeding trays offer the
following advantages:
• Less pollution and cleaner pond bottoms

• Reduced stress, fewer disease problems and faster growth
• An invaluable source of data on what is going on in the pond
• Early detection of disease
• Controlled administration of medicated feeds
• Reduced pumping and aeration costs
• Less pond maintenance between harvests
• Better harvest estimates trays.
Predation
Predation risks must also be studied, where these can be birds, aquatic animals and human (the
most dangerous). Dependent on the predator species, a physical barrier may need to be installed
to avoid contact with the 'rearing' net. Strong nylon nets can be fixed at a distance of about 50
cm. from the rearing net. For birds, light nets (large mesh) are stretched above the water surface,
trees branches can also be used.
Theft is a problem that exists in almost every fish farm in the world and in-depth reviews of the
security aspects of individual farms must be considered case by case; a control system must
normally be organized with one or more guard.
18
Storms
Climatic conditions causing floods are seen as the most dangerous. Sometimes, atmospheric
conditions can create additional serious problems; e.g. a rapid drop of atmospheric pressure
lowers the water surface tension and therefore causes oxygen depletion in the water. This
phenomenon can lead to substantial fish losses. Fortunately, tilapia is particularly resistant to
these conditions and, providing that rearing densities allow it, the fish will be able to take oxygen
from the water surface (richer in 02) during a few hours.
Of the major fish farming nations, only Peru, Brazil and Ecuador in the Western Hemisphere and
Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia in the Eastern Hemisphere escape powerful cyclical storms.
These storms are called cyclones in India and Bangladesh, typhoons in China and the Philippines
and hurricanes in the Western Hemisphere. It's the huge amounts of rain and the surge of water
that precedes these storms that do the most damage, easily flooding out an entire shrimp farming
region overnight.
The wind also tears buildings and hatcheries apart. These storms hit with enough regularity that
fish farmers beyond the safe countries should be prepared to deal with at least one every ten
years, or so. In addition to the physical punishment, they drop enough water to change the pond
chemistry, shocking the shrimp into weakness and often death. Tropical storms lack the punch of
the cyclical storms, but they have a similar effect on water quality.
Harvest and transport

In tropical regions, any fish handling is tricky due to the high ambient temperatures. When the
fish is harvested, its body temperature is the same as the water temperature (often >25°C.) and
the air temperature is usually the same or higher. It is therefore very important to chill the fish as
quickly as possible and to maintain it at a low temperature. It is recommended that, following
harvesting, the fish are stocked on ice for immediate transportation to the processing plant which,
ideally, will be as close as possible to the fish farm on-growing installations).
Ideally the processing factory would be air conditioned in order to keep the ambient temperature
below 15°C the processing industry needs a more detailed project to be analyzed.
Harvesting techniques
Extensive and semi-intensive ponds are harvested by draining the pond opening the gate through
a bag net installed in the outlet sluice gate. The water can be also pumped out, in some larger
farms. Intensive ponds may be harvested similarly and small 2–6 man seine nets are dragged
around the pond to corral tilapia to the side of the pond from where they are removed by cast or
dip net or perforated buckets.
Partial harvesting is common in intensive culture after the first 3 months. Artificial sluice gates
are temporarily installed inside one corner of the pond to harvest closed system ponds. Tilapia is
then trapped in nets attached to this temporary gate when the pond is pumped out. Tilapia could
be sold also alive.
Management
Planning of production programme is important because The breeding periods must be
identified in addition to the number of fry required, in order to start and reach the final
production targets (calculations should include an allowance for mortalities and other sources of
loss). A good forecast of realistically obtainable growth rates and knowledge of the facilities
available will aid the accuracy of the production targets.
Potential project promoters must be careful when using theoretical projections which may only
19
be valid in a different context and not necessarily transferable to the site under assessment. It is
always advisable to adopt a prudent and conservative approach by allowing adequate security
margins on the production forecasts.
Stocking and follow up

Before stocking a pond or a cage, the number of fish, the average individual weight and the total
biomass of population must be known. Initial stock control followed by regular controls will
allow reliable projections and a professional follow up. Regular follow up of stock populations,
their evolution and growth, is essential. These controls will be done at least monthly and
sometimes twice a month for certain batches. These controls will also account for feed
consumption and feed conversion ratios. Data will then be analyzed and compared to general
reference standards.
Options for rearing can then be decided for the following time period (e.g. increase/decrease of
feeding rates, grading, harvest, etc.). Every fish batch needs to be followed individually. For
those farms with adequate computer facilities (PC), specific stock management programme exist
which are very useful for eliminating paperwork and providing up-to-date information on stock
performance.
Optimal use of Growing Facilities

Based on productivity values, expressed in weight gain (grams) per unit of facility volume (or
surface) (expressed in m3 or m2) and per day, production standards can be established.
Production objectives will take into account some additional factors such as the time necessary
for maintenance (where tanks/ponds cannot be used for growing), grading (where growth is lost
due to stress), mortality rates, etc. In fact, any factor that has a direct effect on the growth
obtained within a given production unit.
The principle objective is to keep the farm's facilities at an optimal level of use, accompanied by
the highest daily productivity, during the whole of the year in order to obtain the best annual
production possible.
Tilapia farming economics

Some general parameters used for economic assessment will be presented in this section and
which can be considered as indicators of the potential for commercial fish farming within the
context of preliminary project study. See Annex III for more details.
Tilapia farm feasibility

The economic budget is generated by charging market rates for all resources needed for
production. It helps answer the question "Is this enterprise profitable?" The bottom line
represents a return to labor and management.
The cash flow budget is an estimate of the out-of-pocket cash needed to run the enterprise,
including not only direct costs but indirect cash costs such as principle and interest payments,
insurance and taxes. It helps answer the question "Can I make meet my cash obligations if I go
into this enterprise?" Total cash expenses are subtracted from total cash receipts to calculate the
net cash which is available for family living and other needs.
Investment
Each project, dependent on the physical terrain, its accessibility, slope and vegetal cover etc.,
20
needs to be studied in detail for assessing structural capital investment. However, on the basis of
our experience in the field, the following are some guidelines used to evaluate the investments
required for tilapia farming projects.
Experience in the industrial farm construction could provide some indication to understand the
magnitude of the investment needed
In 1995, in Gabon, a study of a fish-farming project (300 Ton per annum) with a small
processing factory, vehicles and buildings, indicated an investment of about 1.000.000 Euro or
3.333 Euro/ton of fish produced.
In 1995, in Southern Africa, a fish farm of 2,000 tons production potential (in cages), with a
processing factory, equipped with a filleting line and meeting European hygiene standards, had
an investment value of 3,000,000 Euro or 1.500 Euro/ton.
Bigger projects benefit from the economy of scale and give a lower investment figure per ton
produced. One should also note that specific construction items are highly variable in value
between individual countries and that extreme care must be taken when cross-referencing to
similar projects.
Also, cage culture, even if it represents a lower initial capital investment, will have to be
depreciated (amortized) over a shorter period (5-6 years) than either ponds (20 years) or concrete
structures (15-20 years).
For rural Tilapia ponds the situation is different as the main cost of construction is done by the
rural family and the cash cost is only for pipe, slice gate concrete and dam. So the cost per Ha of
farm could be easily divided by ten.
Production costs
Following the market study for the fish concerned by the project, the costs of production give the
best indication of the feasibility and hence the profitability of the potential venture. All the
indication presented are variable and need to be validated in situ.
 Labour In developing countries, this item should represent between 10 to 12 % of the

global production cost. Sometimes, one must allow for the presence of an experienced
expatriate technician or manager for a 2-3 year period; this item will obviously affect
significantly the personnel costs.
 Feed. This point is highly variable as it is possible to maximize the use of green water or
the use of pellet in the extensive and semi-intensive system. Anyway the ocsy of feed is
under one USD per Kg for the grow out.
 Disinfectant and Vet medicine Very few of this item is used in extensive and semi
intensive system with low level production. The main cost is the disinfectant used during
pond drying.
 Depreciation of both capital investments should not exceed 10% and the total is usually
around 5% of the total production cost.
 Overheads This item comprises all consumable goods (i.e.. chemicals, small equipment,
staff obligations etc.), diverse operating expenses (such as bank charges, taxes, telephone
21
etc.) and other administrative costs. These items, within the 'Overheads' label should
represent maximum 10% of total production costs.
 Repairs & maintenance These costs should be a maximum of 5 % of production costs but
highly depends from the type of farm .
Tilapia is produced most economically in tropical and subtropical countries, which have
favorable temperatures for continuous growth. These countries achieve production costs
as low as USD 0.55-0.65/kg, (FAO 2007)
Financial projections
Two factors (which are inter-connected) have to be considered:
 Fish farming, as for nearly all agricultural activities, does not generate immediate sales
on the day after starting the business. According to the species and the time that it takes
to obtain the market-size fish, the venture will have to invest and operate without any
income for a certain period. In the case of tilapia, dependent on the time required for
construction and equipping the project and then reaching the commercial size of the fish,
a period of 6 to 10 months (from the seeding day) of self-sufficiency will be needed and
must be allowed for.
 The second point concerns the building up of live stock fish. The 'permanent or working
stock' required represents about 50 % of the yearly production of the farm i.e. a fish farm
that produces 200 Ton of fish per annum needs, at the beginning of the year, a 'permanent
stock' of about 100 Ton of live fish of different sizes. This should remain the same at the
end of each year if the farm is in a state of steady-state operation.
 The permanent stock is the fish stock level that is carried over each year and forms the
basis of the production stock for the year to come.
This stock must be financed at the beginning of the activity and will eventually be
recovered when the farm closes down or if the venture is sold. Building up such a stock
of fish must also be considered as the establishment of an important company asset.
These two parameters have to be studied and integrated correctly within the financial
projections where it is worth contacting a local accountant as to the rules concerning
stock valuation and the means of incorporating 'start-up' expenses within the overall
financial structure of the company.
Local markets
Tilapia's reputation in tropical countries does not need any major promotion; the fish is
well distributed and commonly accepted as a preferred fresh water fish. However, prices
are very variable according to the country (see below: Actual price estimates). It is,
however, strongly recommended to complete, first of all, a market study that will
demonstrate:
 The importance of tilapia on the local market

 The main commercial products (whole fish, fillets, fresh, frozen, etc.)
22
 Realistic volumes of production that can be envisaged by the project (without causing
market disruption)
 General market prices for competitive products (from aquaculture and fisheries
activities).
 Competition in the market from other producers or farmers and, especially, imports
Current price estimates

On local markets, as was indicated previously, the sales values of tilapia can vary considerably
dependent on the country. Export markets concern tilapia fillets mainly. While this product is
already well introduced on the US market, it has only recently been available on European
markets. Tilapia fillet is marketed as a fresh or frozen product, the fresh fillet having a higher
sales value. Regular prices for tilapia fillets on the European market remain to be established due
to the variability in supply and the lack of consumer knowledge concerning the product.
For the US market, the CIF price for fresh fillet is about 7 US$/Kg and about 6 US$/Kg for the
frozen product (2009).
In Haiti it is estimated a retail market price of 4-5 USD / Kg for 150/200 gr fish size in the urban
centers (2012).
Legislative and legal aspects

Before the implementation of a fish farm, it is absolutely necessary to obtain all of the permits
concerned by the construction and operation of the activity. Operating permits, water regulation
rights (input and output-drainage), construction permits etc. This aspect is particularly important
because, in many countries, several months (sometimes, even years) are necessary to obtain all
of the permits required.
A stronger and important recommendation is to envisage the achievement of an environmental
impact study (EIA), a study which shows that the promoter is conscious of environmental
matters and has taken this particular aspect into consideration. Obviously, demonstration that
there is no negative impact on water resources or other local environmental matters is a desirable
position.
In Haiti the legislation require a declaration of starting of aquaculture activity (Control).
Possible problem
Pollution
During the investigations for the suitability of an aquaculture project, it is important to identify
any potential sources of pollution; these may be of organic, chemical or physical origin. Sites
exposed to any major pollution risk must be rejected. It is also important to evaluate auto-
pollution risks for the project. The fish farm must be adapted to the environment within which it
is to be implemented in order that the project itself not be considered as a source of pollution.
Whenever large numbers of semi-intensive and intensive Tilapia farms concentrate on the same
river, estuary or bay, their rich effluents, primarily waste products, uneaten feed and dead algae
and bacteria, lower the quality of the surrounding water, overwhelm the environment and create
conditions which favor pathogens.
The depuration of farm effluent is always a good practice to preserve the environment and to
avoid spreading of diseases; for large farm there is normally a decantation pond to. For extensive
and semi-intensive system water is changed few times for year. Pond water can be used for
irrigation porpoises without problem.
23
Diseases
Diseases often occur when rearing conditions deteriorate (poor tank/cage maintenance, pollution
incidence, too high stocking densities, etc.). A good maintenance programme will reduce
considerably the risks and incidence of disease. The tilapia species used for fish farming are
generally very robust fish but poor sanitary conditions will inevitably lead to a decrease in
productivity with the possibility of mortalities.
Numerous types of fish diseases can occur which can be of bacterial, parasitic or viral origin. It
is advisable in all cases to obtain expert advice and take rapid action.
Holding a large variety of different species within the same fish farm will also increase the risks
significantly.
The introduction of fish from other fish farms or wild fish to the fish farm must be severely
controlled before entry and mixing with the fish population on the farm (e.g. quarantine,
disinfecting the new stock...). Diseases represent one of the biggest obstacles to the future of
intensive Tilapia farming. Farms and hatcheries have few defenses against rampaging protozoa,
fungi and bacteria, but it's viral diseases that pose the greatest threat. They have caused major
crashes in farm.
With their high mortality rates, diseases represent a very real danger to farmers, who may lose
their income for the whole year if their ponds are infected. Since most diseases cannot yet be
treated effectively, the industry's efforts are focused on preventing disease outbreak in the first
place.
Active water quality management helps avoid poor pond conditions favorable to the spread of
diseases, and instead of using larvae from wild catches.
To avoid introducing diseases into such disease-free populations on a farm, there is also a trend
to create more controlled environments in the ponds of semi-intensive farms, such as by lining
them with plastic to avoid soil contact, and by minimizing water exchange in the ponds.
Hatcheries, which maintain concentrated stocks of live feeds and developing larvae, are
particularly susceptible to diseases, which can be introduced with each new batch of wild
broodstock, a known source of pathogens.
In the extensive system the pathogen problems are reduced becoming not so dangerous as in the
more intensive system.Diseases can often be avoided by maintaining a high quality environment
and reducing handling stress. The major disease problems affecting Nile tilapia are included in
the table below (FAO 2009). In some cases antibiotics and other pharmaceuticals have been used
in treatment
DISEASE AGENT TYPE SYNDROME MEASURES

Loss of equilibrium; KMnO4 at 2-4 mg/litre
lethargic swimming; indefinite immersion
gasping at surface; or 4-10 mg/litre for 1
Motile haemorrhaged or inflamed hour; antibiotics (need
Aeromonas
Aeromonas fins & skin; bulging eyes; 'extra-label use permit'
hydrophila & Bacteria
Septicaemia opaque corneas; swollen in the USA), e.g.
related species
(MAS) abdomen containing Terramycin® in feed
cloudy or bloody fluid; at 50 mg/kg fish/d for
chronic with low daily 12-14 d, 21 d
mortality withdrawal
24
Vibrio Same as MAS; caused by

Vibriosis anguillarum &
Bacteria stress & poor water Antibiotic in feed
other species quality
KMnO4 as with MAS;
Frayed fins &/or irregular
indefinite immersion
Flavobacterium whitish to grey patches on
Columnaris Bacterium with CuSO4 at 0.5-3
columnare skin &/or fins; pale,
mg/litre, depending on
necrotic lesions on gills
alkalinity
Few external symptoms;
bloody fluid in body
Edwardsiella
Edwardsiellosis Bacterium cavity; pale, mottled liver; Antibiotic in feed
tarda
swollen, dark red spleen;
swollen, soft kidney
Lethargic, erratic
swimming; dark skin
pigmentation;
Antibiotic in feed, e.g.
exophthalmia with opacity
Erythromycin at 50
Streptococcus & haemorrhage in eye;
mg/kg fish/d for 12 d
Streptococcosis iniae & Bacteria abdominal distension;
(requires 'extra-label
Enterococcus sp. diffused haemorrhaging in
use' permit in the
operculum, around mouth,
USA)
anus & base of fins;
enlarged, nearly black
spleen; high mortality.
KMnO4 or CuSO4
treatments; use 1
Lethargic swimming; mg/litre of CuSO4 for
white, grey or brown every 100 mg/litre
Saprolegnia
Saprolegniosis Fungus colonies that resemble alkalinity up to 3.0
parasitica
tufts of cotton; open mg/litre CuSO4;
lesions in muscle formalin at 25 mg/litre
indefinite immersion
or 150 mg/litre for 1 h
Ichthyophthirius
multifiliis; Protozoan KMnO4, CuSO4 or
Ciliates Occurs on gills or skin
Trichodina & parasite formalin treatments
others
Dactylogyrus
Monogenetic spp.; Protozoan Occurs on body surface,
Same as for ciliates
trematodes Gyrodactylus parasite fins or gills
spp.
New tilapia farm construction

Fish farming sites
The requirements of a fish farm have particular constraints, which limit the possibilities and
choice considerably. Water is, of course, the main consideration, where quality and quantity are
25
the prime factors. In addition, sites must present geological qualities (soil, topography, etc.).
geographic qualities (demography, roads network, electricity network, etc.) and economic
qualities (production costs, access to markets, etc.).
The evaluation of all of these parameters will guide the investor to the final selection for
realising the project. In the tropical regions, a lot of sites have excellent technical characteristics,
but are not suitable for the development of a commercial farm due to difficult access, lack of raw
material suppliers, lack of personnel and essential support services, distance to markets etc..
Indeed, total assessment of the advantages and constraints has to be done in order to avoid costly
mistakes. It is recommended a detailed topographic study, including levels to clarify all the
important details of the farm as: inlet-outlet water levels, land slope, fish farm boundary and
surface, concrete construction, water availability, road access, and any other project needs.
Sites with a river boundary

The following characteristics need to be considered:
Topography. It is recommended a detailed topographic study, including levels to clarify all the
important details of the farm as: inlet-outlet water levels, land slope, fish farm boundary and
surface, concrete construction, water availability, road access, and any other project needs.
 It is particularly interesting to identify sites where the natural topography allows water
supply and drainage to be done by gravity. This situation presents the major advantage of
being much cheaper to operate and is also more secure (i.e. no power cuts). However, the
site must be safe from floods and drought .
In some cases, pumping will be considered if cost-effective energy is available (public
electricity or generator); in these cases, intensive or semi-intensive fish farming will
probably be envisaged.
Altitude is also very important in the tropics; at heights over 1.000 meters; it is unusual to
find tilapia farms due to low seasonal temperatures. At these altitudes, carp, bass and
other temperate water fish can be reared and, over 1.500 m., trout farming may become
possible.
 Surface area. Sites with only a small surface area have obviously more constraints
because they imply that intensive (high density) fish farming has to be considered
otherwise production potential is severely limited.
In extensive fish farming, usually the productivity is around 1 to 2 tonnes per hectare per
annum, consequently the surface required for profitable economics is usually large (>10
hectares)
In a semi-intensive system, involving complementary feeding and sometimes aeration,
annual productivity of 5-10 tonnes/hectare can be achieved.
In an intensive system, with feeding and aeration, production is estimated rather in g./m3.
day (e.g. 150 to 250 g./m3.day), this measurement being a function of the volume of the
installations (Tank, cage) rather than the land or water surface which is the alternative
benchmark.
 Soils Clay soils are particularly suitable for pond building due to their impermeability.
The ideal composition for a 'pond' soil is clay that mixed with some sand (sand acting as
a binding agent). Clay alone cracks when drying in the sun while sandy soils are
permeable; the mixing of these two elements offers the best material. Soils that are rich in
26
organic material must be avoided due to their permeability and unstable physical nature.
If intensive farming is foreseen in concrete structures, the soil nature is less important,
although the ground upon which they are built must be stable and compacted prior to
construction. An easy test to appreciate the soil's impermeability is to dig a hole (>1m
deep), to fill it with water and to observe if the water seeps away and how quickly. The
test must be repeated in different places around the potential site. Taking a handful of soil
and moistening it will also allow evaluating its behavior in contact with water.
In certain cases, it is prudent to proceed to a detailed chemical analysis of the soil,
particularly if the presence of potentially noxious chemical substances is suspected
(metals, hydrocarbon, etc.).
 Water chemical analysis The preliminary precaution is to obtain a chemical analysis of
the water source at the site. The simplest test is to check whether fish and even the target
species are present in the river or in adjacent water bodies. If the specimens captured are
systematically small and/or rare, this could indicate an environmental deficiency that is
important to identify.
When the aquatic environment is naturally poor (oligotrophic), this is not necessarily a
negative consideration, especially if artificial feeding is envisaged. In the case of
extensive fish farming, supplementary fertilization of ponds has to be foreseen.
All potential sources of pollution of the water source of a site must be identified and
assessed for impact; this can be domestic or industrial pollution, including other fish
farms or agricultural activity upstream.
 Water Physical analysis Water Temperature, water temperature is a very important
criterion for the assessment of potential fish farming sites. Weekly/monthly temperature
data must be available in order to allow the formulation of projections for the growth
potential of the fish as well as for the planning of breeding programme.
For the farming of tilapia, a permanent water temperature of 27°C would be described as
an ideal situation. These conditions are rare in real situations. However, the temperature
must not drop below 18°C (except for a very short period) and must not exceed 34°C
(dependent on stocking densities). Lethal extremes of temperature for tilapia (dependent
on species and stocking densities) are around 12°C and 42°C. The objective therefore is
to identify a site where the water temperatures range between 24 and 30°C for most of the
year (i.e. >10 months per year).
 Water turbidity Turbidity (cloudiness) has an effect on fish appetite, feeding and,
therefore, on growth. Turbidity due to plankton production is, on the contrary, rather
beneficial to tilapia and especially for the microphagous species (O. niloticus, O. aureus),
providing a complementary diet in this natural food.
For juvenile production, 'green water' is appreciated because it constitutes a natural food
that will benefit the fry, principally by avoiding deficiency in some essential nutriments.
Fry and fingerlings produced in these conditions are often more robust. When the water is
very rich in phytoplankton, it is important to check regularly and often the levels of
dissolved oxygen in the water, particularly during the night. One must also note that not
all algae are 'good' and some species are even toxic upon consumption by fish.
Water turbidity due to the presence of mineral materials (sediments and silt) are always
unfavourable for tilapia resulting in poor growth, disease and other pathological
symptoms leading to fish losses.
27
This does not mean that tilapia cannot tolerate turbid water, but that sites which present
this condition regularly or permanently must be avoided.
 Quantitative aspects of water supply The lowest levels of water availability, and their
frequency, will determine the quantitative possibilities of the production as well as
influencing the type of production system that should be used (extensive, semi-intensive,
etc.).
Minimal and maximal water flows have to be known, evaluating the possibilities of
drought and flood risks. Once these have been established, the consideration of 'water
flow/surface area available' will determine the type of farming to be applied, integrating
the aspects of the other production parameters (temperature, oxygen...).
It is very difficult to establish a universal equation that allows a consistently reliable
means of choice; it is more of a case-by-case study that is needed. Globally, one can
estimate that 5 m3 (to 100 M3) of water per hour are required for the production of 1 Ton
of fish per year in an intensive farming system (depending from the density and the
aeration system). For the extensive system the consideration is about the evaporation and
seepage from the ground.
In an extensive system (or semi-intensive), 0,01 m3/hr/Ha. is necessary to produce one
Ton of fish per year, remembering that this is only a rough (conservative) estimation.
Sites bordering a lake

Tilapia farming can also be done within floating cages, more often on lakes, but also on rivers.
Even if cage farming is envisaged, a site on land is also needed for the production of fry and
fingerlings. It is possible to breed tilapia in cages or 'hapas' (small mesh cages), but fry
production is usually better in earthen ponds where the development of natural feed is
encouraged. Moreover, for physiological and behaviour purposes, tilapia species breed better in
conditions where a natural floor substrate is available (sand, clay, etc.) due to the nesting
procedures of reproduction.
Note: As mentioned previously, cage farming can also be done on river sites. However, selection
must be made with care in order to avoid site cages in strong currents which tilapia do not like
and to be protected from flood conditions.
Characteristics of suitable sites:
 Surface area. To operate in optimal conditions, large water bodies must be selected; they
offer more security from the points of view of water quality & quantity. The bigger the
lake, the better is its capacity to absorb the environmental effects of the fish farming
activity. In addition, the thermal inertia (less temperature fluctuation) of a large water
body is an interesting factor. For a fish farm of commercial scale, it is recommended to
investigate lakes that exceed 10 km2.
 Depth. Preference is usually given to the sites that are deepest since this factor decreases
the negative effects of sedimentation of fish waste and uneaten feed that can accumulate
underneath the cages. A bottom depth of more than 5 meters from the bottom of the cage
is recommended. A depth of 20/25 meters is ideal since this allows a good dispersion of
waste but does not present major difficulties for the installation of the anchoring system
that is needed by floating cages.
 Water Currents. Ideally, one wants to provide shelter from storms by choosing a
protected area while allowing a constant water flow through the cages to assure a good
28
water exchange rate. This provides more constant water quality and good oxygen levels
within the cages. Water exchange in the water body is an important parameter,
particularly on small reservoirs where a good water exchange rate can compensate for a
smaller surface area. The consideration of the feed weight/fish weight/water exchange in
the water body can provide a very interesting parameter for the maximum “charge” of the
considered water body.
 Temperatures. As for the river conditions described, the temperature cycles of the lake
must be known throughout the year. In remembering that the thermal inertia of big lakes
is an important factor, the temperature fluctuations are reduced and the amplitude of
variation reduced.
 Urban/industrial pollution, agriculture pollution, other fish farm presence, or red tide
must also be considered
Note: Other aspects like site security (including theft), proximity of the processing factory, etc
require study for site selection approval.
Sites on Water Springs or Bore-holes

Globally, sites that have access to a water spring, a natural resurgence or a well/bore-hole in the
water table offer the advantage of using pollution-free water, at more constant water
temperatures.
Care must be taken that in respect of water tables that are close to the land surface since these
can be polluted through agricultural activities. Additionally, borehole water must be checked for
the presence of heavy metals and, notably, for iron-containing salts. These can precipitate, once
oxygenated, causing material and pathological problems.
On the other hand, de-gassing of this type of water is often necessary in order to eliminate the
presence of super-saturated gases (e.g. nitrogen) and to oxygenate the water. For the other
conditions, the considerations for these sites are the same as river sites.
Tilapia culture. pros and cons

Tilapia is one valuable fish product traded internationally and represents a major source of
employment, tax revenues and foreign interest earnings for developing nations which produce
the majority of the farmed world tilapia.
At the same time, fish farming has been criticized for polluting coastal and not coastal waters,
destroying ecosystems and spreading diseases and invasive alien species.
Yet just few of tilapia aquaculture comes from large-scale, export-oriented 'industrial
aquaculture' operations. The bulk of production involves plant-eaters low on the food chain, like
tilapia, occurs on small-scale farms in developing countries -- particularly in Asia -- where it
meets pressing food and nutrition needs.
Finally Tilapia fish farming can be considered of low environmental impact
Special Considerations
Potential disadvantages to producing tilapia in Haiti include the need for warm water and the
lack of nearby production experience. The need for warm water suggests that combining a tilapia
fish farm and an industry with warm water as a waste product could be beneficial.
Lack of producer experience will be less of a problem as interest in aquaculture increases. Also,
because tilapia are extremely hardy they can withstand a relatively greater amount of disease and
29
temperature variability than catfish or trout.

Here are key factors for starting a successful tilapia farming business:
 A viable market
 Quite social condition to develop the business
 Well trained technicians
 Easy transport for aquaculture inputs
 Appropriate site and soil quality
 Appropriate water quality and availability
 Financial backing
 Consistent product inspection
 Disease control and availability of therapeutics
 Appropriate stock quality
 Appropriate feed quality and price
Main issues
Tilapia grow rapidly on formulated feeds with lower protein levels and tolerate higher
carbohydrate levels than many carnivorous farmed species. They can also accept feeds with
a higher percentage of plant proteins. They can well graze on plankton substrate saving
precious feed. It is easy to breed tilapia and culture them intensively and economically.
They are relatively resistant to poor water quality and disease. Their ability to over-
reproduce in ponds requires the use of male mono sex populations. Their hardiness and
adaptability to a wide range of culture systems has led to the commercialization of tilapia
production in more than 100 countries. Their widespread consumer appeal will fuel the
expansion of the tilapia industry for years to come.
Responsible aquaculture practices at the production level should be practised in accordance with
the main principles of environmental and ecological protection - see Article 9 of the FAO Code
of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries
Hatchery
30
Pond grow out in Korea
Farmers transferring fry from the tanks on the truck to a growout pond.
Fish pond with paddlewheel aerators in Indonesia. The pond is in an early stage of cultivation;
plankton has been seeded and grown (whence the greenish color of the water); fingerling are to
be released next.
A one-horsepower paddlewheel aerator.
31
The intake of a two-horsepower "turbo aerator", which paddles one meter below the water
surface. To avoid stirring up pond sediments, the water depth should be at least 1.5 m.
Strategies for Tilapia
farming
Growout strategies for tilapia
range from the simple to the
very complex. Simple strategies
are characterized by little
control over water quality and
food supply and by low fish
yields. As greater control over
water quality and fish nutrition
are imposed, the production
cost and fish yield per unit area
increases. Across this spectrum,
there is a progression from low
to high management intensity.
In traditional pond culture of

tilapia, proper environmental
conditions are maintained by
balancing the inputs of feed
with the natural assimilative
capacity of the pond. The
pond’s natural biological
productivity (algae, higher
plants, zooplankton and
bacteria) serves as a biological
filter that converts the wastes
through natural biological
processes.
Increasing stocking densities places increasing demands on the production system. Additional
energy inputs in the form of labor, water exchange, aeration and feeds are all required to sustain
the intensive system. As pond production intensifies and feed rates increase, supplemental
aeration and some water exchange are required to maintain good water quality. For densities
32
above 1.5-kg per square meter, aeration is usually required. There is a point where the
incremental returns are not worthy of the additional inputs and risks. Increasing the intensity of
the system does not necessarily reflect an increase in profitability.
The major drawback of pond

culture of tilapias is the greater
risk of uncontrolled
reproduction, which will occur
if certain measures are not
taken to minimize this
possibility. Ponds are used in
extensive, semi-intensive and
intensive tilapia production.
Pond culture is by far the most
common method being
employed throughout Latin
America because it is the
cheapest method and also is
one of the best.
In aquaculture, no two situations are alike. Each project must be carefully crafted to meet the
expectations of the owners, while giving diligent consideration to the limitations and strengths
inherent in the proposed venture.
Hapa, a typical Asian system
Appropriate management strategy

To reduce production cost for domestic market in developing countries, two strategies are
33
followed: delayed feeding and supplementary feeding.
 In Thailand, tilapia are stocked at 3 fish/m2 and grown to 100-150 g in about 3 months
with fertilizer alone, and then given supplemental feeding at 50 percent satiation until the
fish reach 500 g. Net harvest averages 14 T/ha, which is equivalent to a net annual yield
of 21 T/ha.
 In Honduras, a yield of 4.3 T/ha can be obtained with weekly application of 500 kg
DM/ha of chicken litter and feed application of 1.5 percent of fish biomass for 6 days a
week. However, this management regime is less profitable than the use of chicken litter
and urea.
Conclusion
This brief note about Tilapia farming try to present as more as possible a real picture of the
farming activity for newcomer in the sector. The paper present some general issue on the tilapia
world aquaculture with specific regards to tropical Tilapia farming. The above thanks the
pluriennal consultancy experience of the undersigned in the Tilapia farming.
Practically speaking, the presentation is not enough to evaluate or project any tilapia farm. Every
farm must be analized from the technical, environmental, social and especially economical point
of view with a detailed feasibility study (normally a bankable study) to provide the client the
needed tool to analyze and judge the situation.
To have a working farm is very important to choose the right place for the Tilapia farming
technology illustrated in the above chapters. The selection of a suitable site for aquaculture must
take all of the parameters for safe and sure operation into account. Up to this point, only the
technical aspects have been presented. In many tropical countries, many sites can be deemed as
being suitable technically because they offer, for example, good water flows, good temperatures
and land availability.
The limiting factors are more often the availability of fish feeds, local support services
(electricity, telephone, qualified technical staff...), the distance to the market and other logistical
considerations. Intensive fish farming can only be envisaged if formulated feeds of high quality
are available or, at least, the raw materials required for the manufacture of such feeds.
In terms of volume, tilapia is already one of the most important fish produced in the world. There
is no doubt, that, in the near future, this fish will have an important position on the market place
in Europe, due to its diet, physical and gustatory characteristics (white flesh, no bones, and light
taste).
However, commercial aquaculture is a highly specialised field that requires a particular
expertise. This activity, as for all agricultural projects, is also very demanding and requires a
high level of motivation at all level if success is to be achieved.
Finally the main motivation for a tilapia farm must be the “economic” of the business correlated
with the customer that must be available to pay a price.
34
Annex I Tilapia anatomy
35
36
FAO description O. Niloticus
Body compressed; caudal peduncle depth equal to length. Scales cycloid A knob-like
protuberance absent on dorsal surface of snout. Upper jaw length showing no sexual
dimorphism. First gill arch with 27 to 33 gillrakers. Lateral line interrupted. Spinous and soft ray
parts of dorsal fin continuous. Dorsal fin with 16 - 17 spines and 11 to 15 soft rays. Anal fin with
3 spines and 10-11 rays. Caudal fin truncated. Colour in spawning season, pectoral, dorsal and
caudal fins becoming reddish; caudal fin with numerous black bars.
Bio floc intensive system
Hapa system
37
Annex II Management standard practices be developed
A standard practices must be created as operating manual of all production steps. The following
is a general list of items included. Operation procedures are prepared for the specific
requirements of each fish farming project. It includes all, or some of the following items:
BASIS OF DESIGN
Production capacity of all ponds and water surface area
Production strategy
Production schedule
Output yield distribution
REQUIRED BASIC INPUTS: WATER AND ENERGY

Water requirements, schedules and quality for all production steps
Electricity required for all production steps
REQUIRED BASIC MATERIALS

Feed: types of feed required, formulations, feeding tables, methods of transportation, storage
and application
Drugs and chemicals: specifications, amounts and distribution
BROODSTOCK
Number of male and female brood stock required
Maintenance of brood stock
HATCHERY
Description of the function and system
Spawning schedule
Preparation of the spawning ponds
Stocking procedures
Feeding strategies and procedures
Water management and pond ecology
Transfer of brood stock
Harvest, maintenance and counting of fry
Storage of excess fry
Pond preparation for re-stocking
Disease prevention and treatment
38
NURSERY
Preparation of the pond

Stocking of fry
Sampling procedure and analysis
Harvesting and size sorting procedure
Fingerlings transfers
Disease prevention and treatment
GROWOUT
Preparation of the ponds

Stocking procedures
Sampling procedure and analysis
Size sorting procedures
Testing for off-flavor
Harvesting and selective harvesting
Transfer of fish to processing plant
WORK FORCE ORGANIZATION

Description of tasks and job allocation
FEED
Formulation based on local ingredients
Particle structure: palletizing versus extrusion

Storage methods and facilities
Spoilage prevention
Distribution alternatives
DISEASE CONTROL
Description of typical syndromes
Identification
Prevention procedures
39
Treatment procedures
PRODUCT PROCESSING
Detailed operating manuals for product processing, packaging and preparation for marketing
are provided with the supply of the processing plant. HACCP plan included.
Annex III Financial projection

The following table will able you to understand the trend of different type of Tilapia farming,
including cost of infrastructure and management related to intensive, semi-intensive and
intensive system. This is just some hypothesis belonging to the experience of the undersigned in
Peru and other farming state around the world.
Construction cost for grow out

Pond construction
 Pond ground work (1 m deep)
 Sluice gate
 Inlet pipe
Farm construction
 Dam or water reservoir (it is not considered a water pumping)
 Inlet / outlet channel
 Decantation pond
 Inter pond road
 Laboratory and personnel building
 Workshop and warehouses
 Aquaculture equipment
Industrial infrastructure (acquisition / construction) cost financial hypothesis for the Haiti
reality, it is considered through a specialized construction company
N Structure Cost USD*
1 Hatchery (5 million fry /year for 150 Ha semi-intensive) 100.000
2 Nursery pond (for 150 Ha semi intensive farm) 20.000
3 Grow-out extensive per Ha 3.000 Ha
4 Grow out semi-intensive per Ha 8.000 Ha
5 Grow out intensive /Hyper intensive per Ha 10.000/20.000 Ha
6 Processing plant (1 ton / day) 50.000
7 Feed mill 10 T / day 100.000
*Costs are extrapolated on Haiti existing farm, must be validated in the field, using your own
machinery, technicians and manpower the cost can be considerably less
Forecasted hypothetical Cost for 1 Kg of Tilapia for different industrial grow out system Haiti to
be validated in situ (two cycles for year)
N Item Cost Extensive C. Semi-Intensive C. Intensive
40
1 Feed / fertilizer 0,20 0,40 1,50

2 Seed 0,10 0,15 0,20
3 Personnel 0,05 0,10 0,20
4 Energy 0,05 0,15 0,20
5 Disinfectant Veterinary 0,01 0,04 0,10
6 Overheads* 0,10 0,15 0,20
7 Plant depreciation cost 0,07 0,10 0,15
8 Maintenance 0,05 0,10 0,15
Total USD
Farming Risk Very low Medium High
Forecasted production Ha / Year / Kg 800 Kg 4500 5.000/10.000
All in USD, Oreochromis. Niloticus
*assurance, telecommunication, transport, maintenance, technical analysis, accounting,
consultancy, other…
Operational production costs vary depending on many factors:
 Operational costs for seed production

 Feed cost
 Labor cost
 Energy
 Disinfectants and veterinary cost
 Maintenance cost
 Depreciation
 Overhead cost
Annex IV Planned visit from to of November
Date Activity/visit Contact person

25/11 - 30/10 Organization and kick off meeting G. Negroni
01/12 Field visit
02/12 Field visits
03/12 Field visit
04/12 Stakeholders discussion
05/12 Field visit
06/12 Wrap up meeting and conclusion
Annex V- A CHEACK LIST FOR THE FEASIBILITY STUDY

The cheacklist is utilized for an industrial farm and can be simplified for a little plant.
Complete and detailed information on the state of aquaculture and fisheries in the country
concerned by the study is necessary. A detailed study should show:
41
 A brief description of the history of these activities, in the country describing successes
and failures and analyzing the causes for their incidence.
 The actual situation of both the aquaculture and the fisheries sectors (industrial and
artisanal); annual production, species, markets, imports, exports etc..
 An outlook and forecast for these sectors.
Moreover, it is necessary to answer the following questions:
A. Technical information
1. Fish Species
o Which are the endemic fish species?
o Which are the targeted species for fish farming, species that are already farmed in
the region and the possibilities of supply for fry and/or broodstock?
2. Potential Sites
1. Land
 What is the soil composition?
 What is the nature of vegetal cover?
 Establish the site topography (particular for drainage and flood risk)
2. Water
 Measurements required:
 Water quality; both physical analysis (temperature graph,
conductivity) and chemical analysis (pH, nitrite, ammonia, etc) are
essential.
 Water volumes available (annual graph, m3/sec. etc.) Water supply
by gravity, pumping? Seasonal variation?
 National legislation, Riparian Law?
 What is the human or industrial activity upstream and downstream?
3. Geographical situation
 Site description (localisation on map, altitude, etc.)
 Road networks (+ railways).
4. Climate
 What is the type of climate, temperatures and monthly/annual rainfall?
B. Economic information
1. Markets
1. Local markets:
 Types of product consumed and requested/desired?
 Quantification of the market by product?
 Estimation or records of product values (ex-farm, wholesale, and retail)?
 Evaluation of competition (local producers, imports, fisheries)?
2. Export markets:
 What is the actual situation?
 What is the export potential?
2. Potential in fish feed supplies
42
o Are there any fish or animal feed processing factories?

o Appraisal of the interest and motivation of the existing factories to produce fish
feeds?
o What are the raw materials available for the manufacture of fish feeds?
o Estimation of formulated feeds costs and raw material costs?
Civil engineering, construction
o What are the possibilities for
 Earth works?
 Construction (concrete, buildings etc)?
 Supply of requisite materials (Cement, PVC pipes, etc.)?
Labour
o What is the availability and cost of labour and personnel (workers, employees,
management)? #*Documentation on social regulations, employees rights and
company obligations.
Services
0. Electricity:
o Has the site accessibility to supply and what is the cost of electricity?
o Appraisal of electricity supply security?
o Transport:
o Possibility and cost for transport of goods (including refrigerated transport);
roads, railways, air.
o Fuel:
o Availability and cost of different fuels (diesel, petrol, and gas.)?
o Telecommunications, post, banks, insurance and different services.
o Availability and cost?
o Repairs & maintenance
o Service stations, mechanical engineering, electricians, etc.
Current economical situation
Inflation - average rates and forecasts.
0. Interest rates (overdraft - short, medium and long term loans) applied by local
banks.
1. Currency stability towards reference currencies (US$).
2. Potential for access to local and international financial assistance programmes or
investment incentive schemes
C. Information on legislation
1. Company registration
o Collect all useful information on this topic.
2. Exploitation/Operating permits
o Which are the local administrative offices concerned and what are the permits
required for construction and operation?
o What is the legislation concerning the import and production of exotic species?
3. Immigration
43
o What are the conditions for expatriate personnel regarding residence and work
permits?
4. Taxes
Collect documentation on custom duties (equipment imports), personal and corporate taxation.
Taxes on vehicles, boats, service use etc.
Bibliography
 G. Negroni, FAO Report project Tilapia 007/88

 G. Negroni, Tilapia Feed and feeding Haiti, 15/05.2013
 Abdel-Fattah, M. El-Sayed. 2006. Tilapia culture. Edited by CABI Publishing,
Cambridge, USA.
 Balarin, J.D. & Haller, R.D. 1982. The intensive culture of tilapia in tanks, raceways and
cages.In J.F. Muir & R.J. Roberts (eds.), pp. 265-355. Recent Advances in Aquaculture.
Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, USA.
 Beveridge, M.C.M. & McAndrew, B.J. (eds.). 2000. Tilapias: Biology and Exploitation.
Fish and Fisheries Series 25.Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
505 pp.
 Bolivar, R.B., Mair, G.C. & Fitzsimmons, K. (eds.). 2004. Proceedings of the Sixth
International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture, September, 2004. Manila,
Philippines.Bureau of Fisheries & Aquatic Resources, Manila, Philippines. 682 pp.
 Costa-Pierce, B.A. & Rakocy, J.E. (eds.). 1997. Tilapia Aquaculture in the Americas,
Vol. 1.World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA. 258 pp.
 Costa-Pierce, B.A. & Rakocy, J.E. (eds.). 2000. Tilapia Aquaculture in the Americas,
Vol. 2.World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA. 264 pp.
 Fishelson, L. & Yaron, Z. (eds.) 1983. Proceedings of the First International Symposium
on Tilapia in Aquaculture.Tel Aviv University, Nazareth, Israel. 624 pp.
 Fitzsimmons, K. & Carvalho Filho, J. (eds.). 2000. Tilapia Aquaculture in the 21st
Century: Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,Ministério de Agricultura, Departmento de Pesca e Aqüicultura,
Brasilia, Brazil. 682 pp.
 Fitzsimmons, K. (ed.). 1997. Tilapia Aquaculture: Proceedings of the Fourth
International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture, Orlando, Florida, USA. Northeast
Regional Agricultural Engineering Service-106, Ithaca, New York, USA. 808 pp.
 Pullin, R.S.V. & Lowe-McConnell, R.H. (eds.). 1982. The biology and culture of
tilapias.International Centre for Living Aquatic Resource Management, Manila,
Philippines. 432 pp.
 Pullin, R.S.V., Bhukaswan, T., Tonguthai, K. & Maclean, J.L. (eds.). 1988. Proceedings
of the Second International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture, Bangkok, Thailand,
ICLARM Conference Proceedings 15, Department of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand and
44
International Centre for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Manila, Philippines, 623
pp.
 Watanabe, W.O., Losordo, T.M., Fitzsimmons, K. & Hanley, F. 2002. Tilapia production
systems in the Americas: technical advances, trends, and challenges.Reviews in Fisheries
Sciences 10(3-4):465-498.

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Tilapia Farming Guide

NPH Haiti / Fondazione Rava

AMIGO was a blue tilapia (Oreochromis aureus)

New Tilapia farm construction 25

Tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus

The Tilapia biology and natural reproduction

 simple reproduction/breeding processes;

140 g. (corresponding to a fish of 600-800 g.).

FacilitiesExtensive Semi-intensive Intensive

Definition of the terms employed:

Raceway, top view

Tilapia feed and feeding

 Feeding rates also depend on different parameters such as:

Food conversion ratio (FCR)

Feed in pond culture

Different sizes: crumbled and pellet Different protein content Pellet

Feed and feeding practical trick

• Less pollution and cleaner pond bottoms

Harvest and transport

Stocking and follow up

Optimal use of Growing Facilities

Tilapia farming economics

Tilapia farm feasibility

 Labour In developing countries, this item should represent between 10 to 12 % of the

 The importance of tilapia on the local market

Current price estimates

Legislative and legal aspects

DISEASE AGENT TYPE SYNDROME MEASURES

Vibrio Same as MAS; caused by

New tilapia farm construction

Sites with a river boundary

Sites bordering a lake

Sites on Water Springs or Bore-holes

Tilapia culture. pros and cons

temperature variability than catfish or trout.

Pond grow out in Korea

A one-horsepower paddlewheel aerator.

In traditional pond culture of

The major drawback of pond

Hapa, a typical Asian system

Appropriate management strategy

followed: delayed feeding and supplementary feeding.

Annex I Tilapia anatomy

FAO description O. Niloticus

Bio floc intensive system

Annex II Management standard practices be developed

REQUIRED BASIC INPUTS: WATER AND ENERGY

Electricity required for all production steps

REQUIRED BASIC MATERIALS

Maintenance of brood stock

Preparation of the pond

Preparation of the ponds

WORK FORCE ORGANIZATION

Particle structure: palletizing versus extrusion

Annex III Financial projection

Construction cost for grow out

1 Feed / fertilizer 0,20 0,40 1,50

Operational production costs vary depending on many factors:

 Operational costs for seed production

Annex IV Planned visit from to of November

Date Activity/visit Contact person

Annex V- A CHEACK LIST FOR THE FEASIBILITY STUDY

Moreover, it is necessary to answer the following questions:

o Are there any fish or animal feed processing factories?