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Spin
Review of Harmonic Oscillator
Harmonic Oscillation is common for equilbrium systems that have been slightly disturbed from
equilibrium
Example is oscillation of magnetic field in a cavity or a wave guide; equilibrium for EM field is
vacuum with no oscillations, give it a knock by eg sending in microwaves -> will oscillate, oscillation
describes a collection of photons
1 ℏω
H=ℏω(N + ) the being the ground state
2 2
[a+ ,a- ] = 1
Can only have a floor if the bottom state is annihilated by a- , if you dont get to zero on the right
hand side there would be another state with one unit lower energy
ℏω
Ground state is
2
p2 ω 2 x2
Time independent Schrödinger Equation (ref H = + )
2 2
1 ⅆ2 1 2 2
- ψ(x) + ω x ψ(x) = E ψ(x)
2 ⅆx2 2
This is a second order differential equation; can always solve for any value of E but most values of
E will give solutions where the wave function doesn’t go to zero at inifinity ie is not normalisable.
There are definite values of E that will have square integrable wave functions - these Es are the
eigenvalues; use these and throw away the ones that blow up
Use the fact that the lowering operator on the ground state gives 0 to help us find the ground state
(p - iωx)ψ(x)=0
ⅆ
(-i - i ω x) ψ(x) = 0
ⅆx
ⅆef (x)
+ ω x ef (x) = 0
ⅆx
ⅆf (x)
ef (x) + ω x ef (x) = 0
ⅆx
ⅆf (x)
+ ω x= 0
ⅆx
ω x2
f(x) = - + constant
2
ω x2
-
ψ(x)= constant e 2
+∞ 2
We could normalise to find the constant ∫-∞ ψ0 (x) dx = 1 but just ignore it for now
He says “Can go back and check original Schrödinger Equation is satisfied” so let’s try
1 ⅆ2 1
- ψ(x) + ω2 x2ψ(x) = E ψ(x)
2 ⅆx2 2
ω x2 ω x2
1 ⅆ2 - 1 -
gives - e 2 + ω 2 x2 e 2 =0
2 ⅆx2 2
ωℏ
Not sure what happened to the ground state energy constant ? We’ve been simplifying all over
2
the place so guess it was lost as a result. Will leave for now.
1.0
0.8
ψ (x) is Gaussian
0
2
0.4
0.2
-4 -2 2 4
ⅆ
ψ1 (x) is proportional to (p + iωx) ψ0 (x) = ( -i + iωx) ψ0 (x)
ⅆx
ω x2
ⅆ -
= ( -i + iωx) e 2
ⅆx
ω x2
-
= ( +i wx + iωx) e 2
ω x2
-
= 2iωx e 2
Note:
- odd, ie reflection in x or y changes sign, anti-symmetric
- square of the wave (probability) is symmetric
- goes through origin, probability at x=0 is zero
- ground state had no nodes, this first excited state has 1 node
- each time you act with a+ you make a higher order polynomial and add a node
0.3
0.2
0.1
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
As go higher the bulk gets pushed out further and it oscillates more rapidly toward the centre
- more wiggles means more momentum
- far from origin -> Potential Energy
- more and more PE and momentum as move out to higher levels
x2
HermiteH[n, x] ⅇ- 2
ψ[n_, x_] :=
2n n ! π
0.4
0.2
-20 -10 10 20
-0.2
-0.4
0.4
0.2
-20 -10 10 20
-0.2
-0.4
To see classical behaviour you need to take wave packets, superpose many energy levels
Time dependent Schrödinger equation has every energy level oscillating with a different frequency.
In wider class of wave functions that are not square integrable waves a+ and a- wouldn’t be
hermitian
Spin
Half spin - electron, proton
Electron at rest would have no centre of mass momentum (r x p) but would still have spin
2 states usually choose up and down then define left, right, in and out in terms of up and down
3 components connected with x, y and z, could have connected them with something else
0 1 0 -i 0 -i 0 1
[σx ,σy ]= -
1 0 i 0 i 0 1 0
i 0 -i 0 2i 0
= - = =2i σz
0 -i 0 i 0 -2 i
ie [σx ,σy ]=2i σz etc similar to the angular momentum ones but a factor of 2 out
1
0 1
σz 2
= -1
-> eigenvalues ±
2 2
0
2
1
These are the multiplets that start from ± and are raised/lowered by integers
2
1 1
If total angular momentum is then the multiplet only contains ±
2 2
Every particle has a spin property though it can be zero eg Higgs, Deuteron
1
Here we’ll look at spin particles eg muon neutrino, electron, quark
2
Total is the sum of them and is a vector- there are maths rules for the sum but didn’t go into them
J = L + S for a particle
L is the r x p orbital angular momentum, includes r so is relative to the origin which for an atom is
usually picked to be the nucelus
total 1+3+5=9
2
1 total 1+3=4
total 1
0
1 3 5 7 9 degeneracy for l
0
1 2 3 4
l
Hydrogen has one electron in the ground state
For Lithium might expect the next electron to go in the ground state too, but it goes in the first
excited state. It would have had lower energy if it went in the ground state.
Pauli had idea that no 2 electrons could go into same state, exclusion principle.
BUT we have put 2 in the ground state -> electron needs another property with 2 values to make
these states different -> spin
1:12:59
Next energy state (1) has 4 states - see above, which with spin give 8 combinations
Can check the pairs of up/down by putting particle in a magnetic field, spin angular momentum +
the charge makes it behave like a magnet ie in magnetic field electrons would align along or against
the field and have 2 different energy levels?
2 kinds of particle
1. Cannot put 2 in same state - > Fermion
2. Can put 2 or more in same state (is preferential) -> Bosons
Photons are bosons. Laser works by creating lots of photons in the same state. Electrons cant be in
same state so couldn’t create an ‘electron laser’
Note: when atom has many electrons, the effect of the inner electrons on the outer ones is quite
significant. If there is one outer valence electron, atom likely to have some ‘hydrogen like properties’
In classical statistical mechanics the first picture with 2 identical items in the same section counts as
one configuration but if we put one particle in a separate section do we now have one configuration
or two? If they were labelled A and B could have AB and BA, but if no experiment could detect the
label are they different? Usually assume this is one configuration
Large number of Particles N - assume if we interchange 2 particles it doesn’t change the configura-
tion
In Quantum Mechanics - definitely can interchange two identical particles without altering the
configuration
For two electrons we have a function of 2 variables ψ(x1 ,x2 ) = < x1 , x2 | ψ >
if the particles had names maybe this would mean something but
S2 = I
All transformations on the space of states are unitary so S is unitary and doesn’t change probabili-
ties or dot products
To be continued in Lecture 5