A Black-Box Approach to Interfacing White-Box
Transformer Models With Electromagnetic Transients
Programs
Bjørn Gustavsen, FIEEE
SINTEF Energy Research
Trondheim, Norway
bjorn.gustavsen@sintef.no
Abstract—The standard lightning impulse voltage wave used in
transformer factory testing does not properly cover all the
overvoltage stresses that a transformer can experience while in
service. To properly asses the internal overvoltages that can
occur in practice, we propose to interface the manufacturer's
white-box transformer model with EMTP-type simulation tools
using a black-box modeling approach. From the white-box
model we compute in the frequency domain data for the black-
box model which are fitted with rational functions, including
voltage transfer functions from external terminals to internal
nodes. The resulting black-box model is easily interfaced with
EMTP-type circuit solvers via a Norton equivalent and recursive
convolution. Application to the so-called fictitious transformer
used by CIGRE A2/C4.39 demonstrates that ground fault
initiation on a connected cable can generate internal
overvoltages that exceed those of the lightning impulse test.
Index Terms-- Transformer, white box model, black box model,
EMTP, simulation.
I. INTRODUCTION
Transformer white-box models [1-4] are used by the
manufacturers to verify the winding's ability to withstand the
standard test voltages used in the factory tests, i.e. the
standard lightning impulse voltage and sometimes also
chopped waves. These white-box models are proprietary in
the sense that they are normally not disclosed to the customer
or third parties. CIGRE WG A2/C4.39 recommends however
that the manufacturer should upon request provide the
customer with a terminal equivalent (black-box model) to
allow the inclusion of the transformer in studies of high-
frequency transient interaction between the transformer and
the power system [5]. Traditionally, the black-box models
were obtained via frequency sweep measurements on the
transformer terminals and subsequent modeling via fitting
with rational functions [6],[7]. Often, however, such
measurements are not available and so the utilization of the
white-box model becomes an attractive option.
Reference [8] shows a procedure for modeling of linear
This work was supported the consortium participants of the SINTEF-led
project "EM Transients", and by WEG Transformers.
978-1-4799-6415-4/14/$31.00 ©2014 IEEE
Alvaro Portillo, SMIEEE
WEG Transformers
Blumenau, Brazil
acport@adinet.uy
subnetworks by reducing the full nodal admittance matrix to a
set of of external terminals and by calculating the voltage
transfer functions from external to internal terminals. The
admittance matrix and the voltage transfer functions are fitted
with rational functions to obtain an EMTP-compatible model.
A similar approach was adopted in [10] for transformer
modeling starting from a transformer white-box model, but
with internal voltages calculated via the numerical Laplace
Transform.
In the present work, we apply the original procedure in [8].
We start from a white-box model description in terms of
RLCG matrices for establishing the complete terminal
admittance matrix at a set of discrete frequencies and
introduce the required connections between winding sections
via nodal analysis. This large admittance matrix is reduced
with respect to the transformer's external terminals and fitted
with a rational function approximant which satisfies the
physical conditions of stable poles and passivity. This rational
function-based model is interfaced with an EMTP-type solver
using a Norton equivalent and convolutions. In addition to
this terminal equivalent we calculate the voltage transfer
function from the transformer external terminals to selected
points along the winding which are subjected to modeling via
rational functions. That way, also the internal overvoltages
can be explored via the EMTP-type circuit simulator.
II. WHITE BOX MODELING
We consider one common type of white-box models where
the windings are subdivided into parts, the so-called lumped-
parameter type model [1-4]. Each part is represented by a
series RL branch in parallel with a capacitance (and
conductance) which represents the winding series
capacitance. These basic circuits are connected in cascade to
represent the complete winding structures, and mutual
inductive coupling is introduced between all RL circuits. This
defines a circuit with N nodes and M (inductive) branches.
Finally, capacitances and conductances are introduced
between nodes and ground to finalize the model, giving a
model in terms of matrices C, G ∈  N × N and R, L ∈  M × M .
This modeling approach can take into account frequency
dependency in the matrices if they are known.
From Kirchoff's current law we get
iC + i L + iG =
iS (1)
where iS is the specified (total) current injection from external
ground into the nodes. The capacitive and conductive iC and
iG are related to the node voltages by (2) and (3). The
inductive branch currents i are given by (4) which are related
to the total inductive current flowing into node by (5).
i C = Cv (2)
i G = Gv (3)
e Li + Ri
= (4)
i L = TT i (5)
The incidence matrix T in (5) is dependent on the internal
connections. It relates the inductive branch currents i with the
total iL of the inductive branch currents flowing out of the
branch reference nodes. It also relates the node voltages v
with the inductive branch voltages e (6),
e = Tv (6)
Combining eq. (1)-(6) we get (7a), (7b),
Cv = −Gv − TT i + i S (7a)
 Tv − Ri
Li
= (7b)
III. COMPUTATION OF BLACK-BOX DATA
A. Admittance Matrix
In the frequency domain, we get for (7),
(G + sC) v + T i =
iST
(8a)
( R + sL ) i =
Tv (8b)
Solving (8b) for i and inserting in (8a) gives the total
admittance matrix Y
Y( s ) =(G + sC) + TT (R + sL) −1 T (9)
which relates node voltages and current injection
i S ( s) = Y( s) v( s) (10)
B. Internal Connections and Groundings
In order to complete the model, we must introduce the
connections and groundings in the transformer. This is
achieved via nodal analysis by adding short-circuits
represented by small resistances. To connect two nodes i and
j with a resistor r, one adds the conductance g to elements
(i,i) and (j,j) of Y, and the conductance −g to elements (i,j)
and (j,i) of Y, where g=1/r. To ground a node i with a
resistor r, one adds the conductance g to elements (i,i) of Y.
C. Extraction of Black-Box Admittance Data
The next step is to calculate the admittance Yext defining
the relation between voltage vext and current iext at the external
transformer terminals,
i ext ( s ) = Yext ( s ) v ext ( s ) (11)
To achieve this, we invert Y to get Z,
Z( s ) = Y −1 ( s ) (12)
Next, we delete all rows and columns of Z except for those
corresponding to the transformer external terminals. The
retained (small) matrix is denoted Zext. Finally, we invert Zext
to give the terminal admittance matrix,
−1
(13)
Yext ( s ) = Z ext (s)
D. Voltage Transfer to Internal Nodes
The voltage at internal nodes is easily calculated via the
full Z in (12) when the voltage vext at the external nodes is
known. Assume that the nodes have an ordering such that the
external nodes come first,
 v ext   Z A Z B  i ext 
 v  = Z (14)
 int   C Z D   i int 
Combining (14) and (11) we get the voltage transfer given by
(15) and (16).
v int ( s ) = H transfer ( s ) v ext ( s ) (15)
H transfer ( s ) = ZC Yext (16)
IV. BLACK-BOX MODELING
E. Approximation With Rational Functions
In order to include the information of Yext and Htransfer in a
transient simulation, we calculate rational models on standard
state-space form,
) CY ( sI − AY ) −1 BY + DY + sEY
Yext ( s= (17)
) C H ( sI − A H ) −1 B H + D H + sE H
H transfer ( s= (18)
The actual computation is performed using Vector Fitting
[6] which gives a model with guaranteed stable poles. In the
case of Yext we fit all columns with a common pole set and
subject the model to passivity enforcement [7] to guarantee a
stable time domain simulation. In the case of Htransfer, we
calculate a separate model for each matrix column (19) so as
to obtain a more compact model with a given model order.
No passivity requirements exist for the model of Htransfer since
it does not interact with the system.
 H transfer = [h1 h 2  h n1 ] , Section III-C. In addition we calculate the voltage transfer to
(19) internal nodes 24, 58, 59, 72, 73, 82, 83 using the approach in
h j (s) =
d j + C j ( sI − A j )b j
Section III-D.

F. Model Interface With Circuit Simulator I. Extraction of Black-Box Model

The model (17) is conveniently interfaced with EMTP-type
circuit simulators using a Norton equivalent with a fixed
conductance matrix G and controlled current sources ihis
[8],[9], see Fig. 1. In each time step, the history current
source is updated based on past history values of the terminal
voltage, vext. The internal voltages are computed via the
convolution between the terminal voltage vext and the impulse
response Htransfer.
The 2×2 Yext is fitted with a rational model (17) using
vector fitting (VF) with N=80 pole-residue terms [6]. In this
case, the model is passive and requires no passivity
enforcement. Fig. 3 shows the elements of Yext as well as the
rational approximation. It is observed that a highly accurate
fitting has been achieved. The elements of H are also fitted
with a rational function using VF with N=80 poles (19)
giving a highly accurate result, see Figs. 5 and 6.

iext(t)
G H*(:)
vext(t) vint(t)
vext ihis(t)

Fig. 1 Transformer with external ports and computation of internal voltages.

V. EXAMPLE: MODELING OF THE FICTITIOUS

TRANSFORMER

G. White-Box Model
We consider the fictitious transformer model described in
[5], see Fig. 4. The two windings are subdivided to give N=93
nodes and M=92 branches. The winding details are shown in
Fig. 3. We wish to create a model with respect to the four
external nodes indicated in Fig. 4.

Fig. 2 Fictitious transformer with external connection points.

Matrices R, L, G and C are computed for this winding,

with R, L evaluated at 1650 kHz. Fig. 3 Winding structure.

H. Calculation of Black-Box Data

From matrices R, L, G and C we calculate the 93×93
terminal admittance Y(s) using (9) over a band of discrete
frequencies between 50 Hz and 1 MHz. We use a
combination of 1001 logarithmically spaced samples and
2001 linearly spaced samples. The grounding of nodes 1 and
48 and the short circuit between nodes 57 and 60, 70 and 71,
and between 81 and 84 is achieved by adding to Y(s) the
stamp of large conductances g=106 as described in III-B.
The terminal admittance matrix is reduced to a 2×2 matrix
Yext with respect to nodes 47 and 70 using the approach in Fig. 4 Elements of Yext and its rational approximation.

Fig. 5 Voltage transfer h47 from external node 47 to internal nodes 24, 58,
59, 72, 73, 82, 83, and its rational approximation.
Fig. 6 Voltage transfer h70 from external node 70 to internal nodes 24, 47,
58, 59, 72, 73, 82, 83, and its rational approximation.
VI. TIME DOMAIN SIMULATION RESULTS
J. Interface With Circuit Solver
The rational model (17) is interfaced with PSCAD v4.2
using the procedure described in [8],[9]. A terminal
equivalent (FDTE in [8]) is used for interfacing Yext with the
PSCAD main routine. The overvoltages on the transformer's
external terminals are used as input when calculating the
internal overvoltages using the transfer function component
(FDTF in [8]). Both blocks FDTE and FDTF are based on
recursive convolution via trapezoidal integration.
Fig. 7 User-defined components for model interface in PSCAD.
K. Cable Energization Study
One situation which can lead to high internal transformer
overvoltages is ground fault initiation on a feeding cable. The
ground fault leads to an oscillating waveform on the
transformer terminal which can lead to excessive voltages
inside the transformer if the dominating frequency component
coincides with one of the transformer internal resonances.
To study this situation, we connect a 1000 m cable to the
transformer HV terminals as shown in Fig. 8. The cable has a
800 mm2 Cu conductor, paper-oil insulation and a lead
sheath. The cable is modeled using a frequency-dependent
traveling wave type model. The LV terminal is assumed to
be loaded with a 100 nF capacitor. We apply a unit step
voltage to the far cable end and calculate the overvoltages in
PSCAD.
Fig. 9 shows the voltage at the two cable ends as well as
the transferred overvoltage on the transformer LV side. It is
observed that the transformer affects the impinging
overvoltage by its input impedance loading effect.
47
0.1 µF H.V Close @ t=0 1 p.u.
70
L.V
1000 m cable
1 48
Fig. 8 Cable ground fault initiation
Fig. 9 Voltage response on cable and transformer external terminals
Fig. 10 shows the resulting overvoltages at the internal
nodes 24, 58, 59, 72, 73, 82, 83. Clearly, a resonant condition
occurs whereby internal voltages at the LV winding midpoint
reaches 4 p.u. of the cable voltage at the instant of the ground
fault initiation.
Fig. 10 Internal transformer voltages at nodes 24, 58, 59, 72, 73 , 82, 83.
L. Overvoltages During Factory Test
The above result can be compared with the overvoltages
during the transformer factory test. The transformer is
intended for three-phase operation with 230 kV primary
voltage and insulation design for 1050 kV BIL. The peak
value of the operating voltage (1 p.u.) is
230 ⋅ 2 / 3 = 188 kV so that the peak value of the impulse
voltage test is 1050/188=5.59 p.u. During such test, the other
terminals are grounded as shown in Fig. 11.
Fig. 12 shows the resulting overvoltages. It is observed that
the voltage at note #27 in the 66 kV LV winding is limited to
below 1.5 p.u., which is much lower than the 4 p.u. in Fig. 10.
In fact, 4 p.u. corresponds to a voltage of 752 kV which is
much higher than the 325 kV (1.73 p.u.) test voltage that
would be applied in a lightning voltage application to the LV
winding. Fig. 13 shows that the resulting waveforms when
applying 325 kV to the LV terminal (#47) with the HV
terminal (#70) grounded.
47
5.59 p.u.
1.2/50 µs
70 H.V
L.V
1 48
Fig. 11 Factory test with standard lightning impulse voltage
Fig. 12 Internal voltages with lighting impulse voltage to node #70
Fig. 13 Internal voltages with lighting impulse voltage to node #47
VII. DISCUSSION
As discussed in [5], the white-box models by
manufacturers are mainly intended for assessing the internal
voltage distribution when the winding is subjected to the
standard lightning wave, i.e. a unipolar impulse voltage.
When applied with oscillating voltage applications, the
internal overvoltages may result incorrect, mainly because of
insufficient representation of the damping. One should
therefore be careful when interpreting the results when
applied in general simulations.
VIII. CONCLUSIONS
We have proposed a procedure for interfacing transformer
manufacturer's white box models with EMTP-type circuit
simulators.
1. The input to the model is white-box description in terms
of RLCG matrices. The matrices can be frequency-
dependent.
2. The RLCG matrices are converted into an admittance
matrix description with respect to the external terminals,
taking into account the internal connections of the
transformer. The admittance matrix is fitted with rational
functions, allowing interface with circuit simulators via a
Norton equivalent.
3. Voltage transfer functions from the external terminals to
internal nodes are calculated and fitted with rational
functions, again defining a model which can be included
in time domain simulations.
4. Time domain simulations showed that oscillating
overvoltages on the transformer terminals can lead to
excessive internal overvoltages via voltage
magnification.
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