Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Abstract
Global Software Development (GSD) is a growing sector in Mauritius and South Africa. With an
increasing number of information technology (IT) investors, both countries are being recognised
as IT hubs in the Southern African region; hence the need for further research on GSD in those
two countries. Furthermore, due to a highly diverse cultural setting prevailing in Mauritius and
South Africa, common GSD practices derived from other studies might not be fully successful
when applied in these contexts. It is thus useful to explore how alternative GSD practices have
been put in place to handle these cultural disparities and the resulting communication require-
ments. The study has been undertaken in an attempt to enlighten investors on the communication
and cultural practices that could be followed while partaking in GSD in Mauritius and South Af-
rica.
Keywords: Global Software Development, Culture, Communication, Mauritius, South Africa,
Communication Technology, Grounded Theory.
Introduction
Global Software Development (GSD) involves the development of application software through
interactions of people, organizations, and technology across nations with different backgrounds,
languages, and working styles (Herbsleb & Mockus, 2003). GSD is enacted through virtual teams
whose members transcend time, space, and culture and communicate through computer-mediated
technologies (Jarvenpaa, & Leidner, 1998). As Mohagheghi (2004) notes, IT outsourcing is one
of the approaches to GSD. Organisations choose to outsource in order, inter alia, to take advan-
tage of cost reduction, improve performance, and gain access to wider labour markets (Casey &
Richardson, 2006). Due to low labour costs in developing countries, more and more organisations
are opting to contract with organisations from these regions. However, as Herbsleb and Moitra
(2001) note, GSD is not easy to orchestrate, due mostly to cultural disparities and complex com-
munication requirements of virtual
teams.
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amples of emerging IT Outsourcing des-
quest redistribution permission. tinations in Africa include Mauritius
(Burton, 2009) and South Africa (IT Match Online, 2008). Both countries are recognised as IT
hubs in the Southern African region (Burton, 2009; Knight, 2006). The attraction of the two coun-
tries is that they offer cheap and highly skilled labour, as well good IT infrastructures (Burton,
2009; Knight, 2006). The increasing investment rate in the two countries necessitates the need for
further research as a means to better inform the project planning and management decisions of
international investors in the region. It is also interesting to note that Mauritius and South Africa
are known to have diverse cultural heritage, as will be later discussed (Mauritius.Net, n.d.; “South
African languages and culture,” n.d.).
In spite of these developments, no GSD studies focusing on Mauritius and South Africa could be
identified. It might thus be useful to explore how these cultural disparities and the resulting com-
munication requirements are being handled in the two countries. Such knowledge might be useful
to potential investors when establishing their plan of action for GSD projects as existing practices
devised from more developed countries might not be entirely applicable to the Mauritian and
South African contexts.
This study has been undertaken in an attempt to explore the intricacies of communication and
cultural practices embraced within these two countries in the context of GSD. Both the offshore
and the onshore perspective have been considered. The Mauritian case study offered the view-
point for a culturally diverse offshore site as the main company, located in France, outsourced
some of its software development to a company on the island. The South African case study of-
fered the viewpoint for a culturally diverse onshore site as the local company outsourced some of
its software development to a company in India. Data for the study was gathered through semi-
structured interviews with different stakeholders. The data was analysed using Grounded Theory
analysis techniques. The results are part of a bigger study which covered several other aspects of
GSD in South Africa and Mauritius. However, this article shall focus only on communication and
culture aspects.
The paper is structured as follows. The next section describes the social context in which the
study was undertaken. This is followed by an overview of the role of communication and culture
in GSD. A synopsis of the research methodology is then provided followed by a description of
the cases. The analysis of the results is then detailed in the data analysis section. A discussion of
the key findings specific to the Mauritian and South African contexts is next provided. The con-
clusion then assesses the contribution of the research findings for both practitioners and the body
of knowledge.
South Africa
South Africa, also known as the “rainbow nation,” consists of one of the most complex and cul-
turally diverse populations in the world. Of the 49 million South Africans, 79.2% are African
(Black), 9.2% are White, 9% are Coloured and 2.6% are Indian/Asian (Statistics South Africa,
2008). The Black population is further divided into four major ethnic groups: namely, Nguni, So-
tho, Shangaan-Tsonga, and Venda. On the other hand, the White population is of the Afrikaans
(Dutch) (60%) and British descent (40%). There are also 11 official languages in South Africa
(Explore South Africa, n.d.).
South Africans were governed by apartheid laws from 1984 to 1994. According to that legal sys-
tem, people were classified into racial groups (White, Black, Indian, and Coloured) and separate
geographic areas were created for each racial group (“Apartheid South Africa”, n.d.). In April
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1994 the first multi-racial democratic elections were held and the apartheid regime was subse-
quently abolished. However, in spite of the elimination of the apartheid regime, the big gap be-
tween the haves and the have-nots based on racial lines still prevails in the country (Adato, Cart-
er, & May, 2004). Due to the diverse cultural heritage of South Africa, a study within this particu-
lar context could provide a different insight on the practices which are usually embraced by GSD
companies.
South Africa is most commonly known as an offshore site. For instance, according to the Global
Outsourcing Report, South Africa lies among the 20 best countries marked as “global opportu-
nity” for IT offshore investment and is predicted to rise to the 15th place by 2015 (Minevich &
Richter, 2005). However, South Africa can also be considered as an onshore site as the outsourc-
ing trend of South African companies to other countries has also been rising exponentially. For
instance, according to a Xerox survey undertaken in 2000, 94% of South African companies were
outsourcing their operations (Nothard, 2000). This demonstrates a high interest in GSD within
South Africa and justifies the need for research in that context. For the purpose of this study,
South Africa will be studied from the perspective of an onshore site, whereby a local company
chose to outsource its software development to India.
Mauritius
Mauritius is located in the South West Indian Ocean. The population of this island of 720 square
miles comprises a medley of all races, ethnic backgrounds, and cultures and is in many ways a
living reflection of East meeting West (Mauritius.net, n.d.). The population ethnicity consists of
Indo-Mauritians (68%), Creoles (27%), Sino-Mauritian which are of Chinese descent (3%), and
Franco-Mauritians (2%). Mauritius is also a bilingual country with English as the official lan-
guage. French dominates the public life but is, however, not an official language. Both English
and French are compulsory languages, which are learnt as from primary school (The World Fact-
book, n.d.). The English and French language proficiency prevailing in Mauritius originates from
the past French (1715 – 1810) and British (1810 – 1968) colonial establishments on the island.
Mauritius obtained independence from the British in March 1968 (InfoPlease, n.d.).
Mauritius is an attractive outsourcing destination. The Government of Mauritius has undertaken
to transform the island into a Cyber island and develop Information and Communication Tech-
nology (ICT) as the 5th pillar of the economy alongside sugar, textile, tourism, and financial ser-
vices (Burton, 2009). Between October 2006 and March 2007, 41 international ICT players
started operating in Mauritius. These included Oracle, Microsoft, IBM, HP, CISCO, Accenture,
Infosys, Hinduha Group, France Telecom, Teleforma, and TNT group (Burton, 2009).
By investing in the island, those ICT players seek to take advantage of the regulated jurisdiction
in place on the island. For instance, a few administrative relaxations have been effected and cer-
tain provisions of the domestic laws have been waived as a means to provide incentives to off-
shore investors. Several acts have been put in place including the Electronic Transaction Act, the
Data Protection Act, and the Cybercrime and the Computer Misuse Act (Jaddoo, 2009). ICT
players also invested in Mauritius as the island offers state-of-the-art telecommunications, a qual-
ity IT infrastructure, and favourable time zone of GMT+4, which are important backbones for
successful offshore setups (Tradersafrica, n.d.). For the purpose of this study, Mauritius will be
studied as an offshore site.
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Communication and Culture in Global Software Development
Communication
Communication, particularly informal communication, plays a critical role in virtual teams and
GSD projects (Herbsleb & Mockus, 2003), and barriers hindering communication flow are nu-
merous (Perry, Staudenmayer, & Votta, 1994; Prikladnicki, Audy, & Evaristo, 2003). These chal-
lenges relate to the lack of unplanned encounters among the developers, the cost of initial contact,
the inability to communicate effectively, and the lack of trust and willingness to communicate
effectively (Herbsleb & Mockus, 2003).
Various practices have been proposed to mitigate these challenges (Damien, 2002). For instance,
communication issues are handled through regular meetings, which can either be ad-hoc or
planned, or organised through weekly video-conference sessions (Paasivaara & Lassenius, 2004).
These regular encounters improve the team’s project definition (Ramesh & Dennis, 2002), foster
socialisation, trust, respect among team members (Maznevski & Chudoba, 2000), and enhance
subsequent electronic communication (Paasivaara, 2003). Individuals with outgoing personalities
are also sent as ambassadors and are given the explicit task of meeting people in a variety of
groups at the other sites. These face-to-face meetings are crucial, especially in the beginning of
projects, as they leverage the chances of having urgent and important questions answered (Paasi-
vaara, 2003).
Teams also collaborate by using various communication tools, ranging from telephone calls
(Hindus, Ackerman, Mainwaring, & Starr, 1996), fax, chat (Handel & Herbsleb, 2002), instant
messaging (Nardi, Whittaker, & Bradner, 2000), video conference (Dourish & Bly, 1992; Fish,
Kraut, & Root, 1992; Obata & Sasaki, 1998), email, and groupware applications (Majchrak, Rice,
King, Malhotra, & Ba, 2000; Maznevski & Chudoba, 2000). These practices are used to support
the four communication needs of GSD: namely, problem solving, informing and monitoring, rela-
tionship building, and decision-making and coordination (Paasivaara, 2003). However, their suc-
cess is limited, and they face challenges like poor design that does not facilitate adoption (Shami,
Bos, Wright, Hoch, Kuan, Olson, & Olson, 2004). Furthermore, the synchronicity of the commu-
nication tools is of no use in some cases. For instance, if in spite of the tools’ availability, indi-
viduals forget to communicate changes and updates made during the day to other dispersed team
members (Prikladnicki et al, 2003), it results in repeated work and time wastage (Ramesh & Den-
nis, 2002).
It might be interesting to understand the extent to which such practices are followed in Mauritius
and South Africa and whether new ones have been devised to fit these contexts. In order to do so,
it is, however, important to understand the intricacies behind the communication process. Hence,
parsing patterns and the shared experience, which are important components of the communica-
tion process, are detailed below.
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leading the communicator to falsely conclude that the message is understood. In such cases, a
common experience to refer to, among the sender and the recipient, can decrease the risk of mis-
understanding and leverage the chances of having successful communication (Cockburn, 2002).
The shared experience is an important missing factor in GSD as individuals are less likely to have
participated in the same projects (Mockus & Herbsleb, 2001). Consequently, there is a higher risk
of having incomplete or incorrect information being passed among team members. This leads to a
higher probability of misunderstanding and communication failures.
The importance of the shared context has also been highlighted by Kogut and Meitu (2000) in
relation to product requirements elicitation and in the case of creative tasks. Communication is
never a perfect and complete process. According to Cockburn (2002), “People don’t even know
what it is that they wish to communicate.” Even if they did, recipients always have to bridge a
gap at some point. In globally distributed teams, the situation is often worsened by the fact that
members come from different cultures. As such, they are fundamentally different from each oth-
er, and the greater the difference, the smaller the possibility of bridging the gap.
Culture
Cultural issues prevail due to the fundamental differences in values governing people’s lives.
Based on their culture, individuals have different attitudes towards communication styles and pre-
ferences and behaviours (Perry et al., 1994; Prikladnicki et al., 2003). It is the boundary condition
for all personal communication (Gudykunst, & Matsumoto, 1996).
For instance, communication styles and preferences are characterised by the different ways in
which people express agreements and disagreements or ask questions. Different behaviours can
be perceived when acknowledgement by one person is sometimes mistaken for agreement by
someone else (Herbsleb, Paulish, & Bass, 2005). Differences in behaviours are also felt in how
individuals categorise things, what decision procedures they use, and the basis on which they eva-
luate themselves (Fiske, Kitayama, Markus, & Nisbett, 1998).
Cultural differences have a “negative” impact on communication (Van Ryssen & Hayes-Godar,
2000) causing people to decipher communication through their own cultural perspective. Studies
have also demonstrated that an awareness and understanding of these differences, through previ-
ous cultural exposure, helps to alleviate these misunderstandings (Jarvenpaa & Leidner, 1999;
Kayworth & Leidner, 2000; Sarker & Sahay, 2002). Interestingly, two studies have contradicted
these findings (Kiel, 2003; Krutchen, 2004), whereby despite being aware of their cultural dis-
parities, team members still felt frustrated and communication was not very effective. This leaves
room for further research to really understand consequences of cultural disparities within GSD
and what coping strategies would be more appropriate.
Since individuals in virtual teams often belong to differing cultures (Jarvenpaa & Leidner, 1999),
the need to address these challenges is therefore strong so as to enhance GSD project success
(Kayworth & Leidner, 2000). The different cultural awareness practices followed by GSD com-
panies are detailed in Table 1.
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Communication and Culture in Global Software Development
Intercultural training programs increase the awareness of the team members on the different cul-
tures prevailing in the team and the expected behavioural patterns of the dispersed team members.
Cultural liaisons and managerial representatives present at the different sites are meant to clarify
any misunderstandings that might occur due to cultural differences.
The next section details the methodology employed for this study.
Methodology
The research approach adopted for this study was interpretive, qualitative, and empirical in na-
ture. The approach was appropriate as it allowed for an understanding of the context as well as
“the process whereby the information systems influences and is influenced by the context” (Wal-
sham, 2002). As GSD is broad and complex and may be difficult to be studied outside the context
within which it occurs, case studies were useful.
Two case studies were drawn from Mauritius and South Africa respectively. For each case, the
situation in specific dispersed teams was studied and the communication and cultural practices
were uncovered. As the purpose of the research was to a generate theory applicable to various
organisational contexts, differences in organisational conditions were sought. These differences
relate to the interviewee role, the offshore and onshore sites, the software development method
employed, and the communication technology employed. This allowed for generalisation and
maximum application of information to other cases (Patton, 2002). The differences in the chosen
case studies are outlined in Table 2.
Data Collection
Semi-structured interviews were the primary source of information as these allowed the re-
searcher to access the participants’ interpretation regarding actions or events (Walsham, 2002).
The interviews remained open-ended and assumed a conversational manner. Each respondent was
interviewed for one hour and a total of 13 interviews were conducted during the course of this
study (six from the Mauritian case, seven from the South African case). All the interviews were
conducted in Mauritius and South Africa respectively, but also included interviews of foreign
delegates/team members present at these respective sites at the time. The opinion of team mem-
bers from foreign sites (France in Case 1 and India in Case 2) was, therefore, also obtained.
A maximum variation sampling strategy was chosen. Such a strategy allowed the investigator to
obtain the broadest range of information and perspectives on the subject of study, namely GSD
(Guba & Lincoln, 1989). During the interviews, questions were asked pertaining to how GSD
was being practiced in the organisations from a communication and cultural perspective in order
to overcome GSD issues.
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Data Analysis
The grounded theory techniques (Strauss & Corbin, 1998) were used for analysis purposes during
the course of this study. As required by the grounded theory techniques, there should be continu-
ous interplay between data collection and analysis (Myers & Avison, 2002). Through this itera-
tive approach, data analysis was performed in parallel to data collection, and the results of the
analysis informed and directed the data collection process. Data collected in this study was ana-
lysed using open coding, axial coding, and selective coding (Strauss & Corbin, 1998).
The general idea behind open coding was to generate a list of concepts which were then grouped
into categories. As concepts were the basic building blocks of the theory, the first task in develop-
ing them was to open the data and reveal the name of these concepts (Strauss & Corbin, 1998, as
cited in Brown, 2005). This was achieved through constant comparative analysis by comparing
similarities and differences between data incidents. Discrete concepts were then produced and
labelled (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Comparisons were also made as a means to develop a common
name for multiple observations of data incidents (Locke, 2001). A sample open coding sheet is
given in Appendix 1.
Axial coding is defined as “the process of relating categories to their sub-categories, termed ‘ax-
ial’ because coding occurs around the axis of a category, linking categories at the level of proper-
ties and dimensions” (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). During axial coding, statements from the inter-
view transcripts were analysed to uncover relationships among the concepts which were grouped
into categories. Each relationship was given a specific code name. Initially during the coding
process, each relationship identified from each statement was individually drawn and labelled on
paper. All related concepts and their corresponding relationships were then regrouped on a big
mind map at the end of one case study analysis. This mind map proved to be a useful research
instrument, allowing the researcher to visualise how the concepts were related to each other. It
also helped in forming preliminary research outcomes and to answer the research questions. After
the creation of the first mind map, the researcher proceeded to the analysis of the next case study.
These allowed for new concepts and relationships to be uncovered, and the validation of both the
existing categories and relationships. A sample axial coding sheet is given in Appendix 2.
The quote and the interview question provided only a simplistic view of the raw data on which
the study was based. The relationships instead emerged through the analysis of many different
contextual elements. Paragraphs from the body of text were studied in an attempt to make sense
of the different concepts and categories and their respective relationships.
Selective coding involved identifying the core category and trimming away excess categories not
strongly linked to the core category (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). The first attempt at selective cod-
ing following the analysis of the second case study produced 15 high level concepts, regrouped in
seven categories. However, as the analysis process continued, these categories and concepts
gradually evolved and produced the final set of categories as described in the results and analysis
section.
Categories and their relationships were refined in two stages, namely, at the concept level and at
the relationship level. Refinement at the concept level was undertaken throughout the whole anal-
ysis process. Based on evidence in the data, some categories gradually evolved into more abstract
ones, which better described the phenomenon under study. Eventually, once the concept hierar-
chy reached a stable state, the core category was selected. All the high-level categories surround-
ing that core concept were then organised around the core category, so as to represent the essence
of the phenomenon under study. Refining at the relationship level was done according to Strauss
and Corbin’s (1998) recommendation: “… findings should be presented as a set of interrelated
concepts, not just a list of themes.” Therefore, all categories that did not participate in a relation-
ship were trimmed, and those which did not contribute to the theory, in spite of being linked to-
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Communication and Culture in Global Software Development
gether, were discarded. Lastly, the properties were categorised based on the number of relation-
ships they participated in and the number of times the properties occurred in the data. Those with
high occurrences and participation in relevant relationships were isolated and used to create the
story line (Strauss & Corbin, 1998).
Theoretical Saturation
In line with Coetsee (2006), theoretical saturation was demonstrated through the use of Figure 1,
which shows the number of concepts coded per interview and also the number of relationships
revealed per interview coded. As can be seen in the graph, the number of concepts identified did
not increase as analysis progressed. The number even slightly decreased. This is because more
effort was eventually placed towards creating and identifying properties and relationships (i.e.,
axial coding) as opposed to identifying new concepts. For instance, upon reaching interviews 12
and 13, both the number of concepts and the number of relationships dropped, indicating that a
saturation point was reached.
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Sample
The sample in this study consisted of IT professionals from companies located in two countries—
Mauritius and South Africa—providing research data for two cases. Each is discussed in turn.
CASE 1 – Mauritius
Case 1 (C1) was conducted in an organisation having branches in France (Paris and Toulouse)
and in Mauritius that provided software for the French retail sector. The Mauritian branch was
involved in the development of application software for both the company’s internal use and for
external customers. The work was subcontracted by the company in France and mostly involved
the migration of the legacy software from VB6 to VB 2005. The Mauritian branch also provided
support and development work on the customer relationship management (CRM) system, the data
warehousing software, the project management application, the time keeping application, as well
as the main software applications deployed at the customers’ sites.
The Mauritian branch was composed of five software development teams and four migration
teams. As summarised in Table 3, interviews were conducted on team members from both migra-
tion and software development teams as well as a delegate from Paris. Composed of three mem-
bers, the first team (T1) handled the internal products of the company. Interview 1 was conducted
on a software developer from team T1. The second team (T2) was composed of four members
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and was responsible for migration work from VB6.0 to VB2005. Interview 2 was conducted on a
software developer from T2. The third team (T3) was composed of four members and collabo-
rated with both the Paris and Toulouse teams. They were responsible for both migration and de-
velopment work on the main applications. Interview 3 was conducted on the team leader and in-
terview four on one software developer of T3. The fourth team (T4) was composed of three team
members responsible for developing applications for customer relationship management, project
management, and time keeping. Interview 5 was conducted on the team leader of T4. Finally, in-
terview 6 was conducted on a delegate from France.
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The cases chosen for this study comprised different cultural settings, with different history, work
processes and the level of experiences in GSD. Each team employed various forms of work proc-
esses, software development methods, and communication practices. This, therefore, laid ground
for rich responses from each of the participants of the study.
Data Analysis
This section describes the results from the coding process as well as the high level categories se-
lected for inclusion.
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Communication and Culture in Global Software Development
Meta - Description No of No of No of
Category properties out in links
links
GSD Value GSD Value Issues are issues that occurred on a more 7 3 6
Issues individual and emotional level within GSD. This cate-
gory encompasses GSD trust issues, missing visual
cues, uncertainty issues, and work interaction issues.
GSD Value issues also occur within the GSD Project
context and arise due to the emotional differences
among the individuals.
Technology impacts on communication practices, GSD
Technology 14 9 6
process issues, GSD project, GSD team, GSD value
issues, and on technology itself. In this study, a wide
range of technologies are available to be used during
GSD, including chat, email, Net Meeting, phone, con-
ference calls, and video conference. Each of these is
effective when used for the right task and in the right
context. Some can be used to overcome the disadvan-
tages introduced by others. Furthermore, each of the
organisations seemed to have some level of preference
for one particular technology, based on their particular
communication and cultural needs.
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Communication and Culture in Global Software Development
come negative cultural influences. By maintaining a professional tone of voice, work was more
efficiently performed.
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more willing to help than others. National culture drove the team-customer communication strat-
egy. For instance, sites sharing a strong sense of hierarchy in their organisational structure did not
allow the developers to communicate with the project managers. The team members respected
this hierarchy even during the communication process.
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Findings
The results presented in this paper are part of a bigger study which covered several other aspects
of GSD in South Africa and Mauritius, hence the complex final model presented in Figure 2.
However, as this paper solely focuses on the communication (including technology) culture, the
discussion will only be centred on these variables.
Communication Practices
Communication is a major challenge faced by GSD companies (Herbsleb & Grinter, 1999), and
the two South African and Mauritian companies studied are no exceptions. In essence, the study
reveals that effective communication practices have been devised to overcome communication
issues (GSD Process Issues) in these particular contexts. Some of these practices are in line with
those that have already been prescribed in past studies including international meetings, commu-
nication planning, and methods to ease initial contact (e.g. Herbsleb & Grinter, 1999; Herbsleb,
Zubrow, Goldenson, Hayes, & Paulk, 2003; Maznevski & Chudoba, 2000; Paasivaara & Lassen-
ius, 2004). One of the communication practices, however, does not seem to corroborate with what
was mentioned in the literature.
In essence, past GSD studies reported that a high level of communication should be maintained
across all sites and participants should communicate across all the sites and job titles (e.g. Robil-
lard & Robillard, 2000; Seaman, 1996). But what was observed in the two case studies does not
support this communication practice. It appears that even with limited communication across all
job titles and across all sites, GSD projects can be successful. Communication should instead be
coordinated by one key person at one site, whose role is to pass on queries and issues to the other
site and to obtain answers from them. In Mauritius, the team leader was responsible for coordinat-
ing the communication process across the sites as was explained by one of the respondents:
“We don’t deal with them [The French team]. We ask our team leader and he will talk to
them. He will talk to the French guys and they will sort out a solution”.
The South African team members also contacted their Indian colleagues through the team leader:
“There was a team leader whom we contacted. It wasn’t the analyst or the developer, we
worked with the team lead”.
The use of a key communication liaison at each site did not seem to hinder the communication
flow in any major way in both the Mauritian and South African case studies. Instead, this com-
munication method can be used as a way to leverage coordination issues and to control and moni-
tor agreements being made between the different stakeholders across the sites. For instance it was
mentioned by the team leader in one of the Mauritian interviews (offshore site) that:
“…if a developer just calls and agrees on something with the project leader in France
and I am [team leader] not aware of it, there will be chaos. It is just for controlling what
is going on”.
A similar comment was made by a developer at the South African site (onshore site), whereby:
“…the key person will make sure that communication is going the right way. We need
coordination and we need to ensure that no one goes into irrelevant details while com-
municating offshore. It’s not supposed to be so”.
This implies that both the offshore and the onshore site should share the same vision about the
need for coordination through controlled communication process for this particular practice to be
a success.
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The usefulness of this communication practice can be further validated by the introduction of de-
lays within the GSD project in the absence of the key communication liaison. For instance, in the
Mauritian site, one interviewee reported on a situation where the team leader onshore was absent
and they were instead dealing directly with the developers at the onshore site. They mentioned:
“The project ran 10 to 12 days late, because we sent them a problem, and they sent it
back to us. But if the team leader was there, it would have been completed in the first
round”.
No similar example was reported in the South African case.
Nevertheless, the act of restricting communication across the sites to only key individuals does
not imply less frequent communication threads. On the contrary, stakeholders should still com-
municate frequently. It was reported by a developer in the Mauritian case study that the team
leader:
“…phone them [France onshore site] everyday to give feedback. [Mauritian team leader
and onshore manager] talk to each other every day and if there is a problem, they will
tell us that the job is not well done and something has to be done”.
Similarly, in the South African case [onshore site], the need for frequent communication was
never undermined as can be seen in a statement made by one of the developers:
“…we have to communicate all the time to discuss about issues that we’ve had the previ-
ous day and how to overcome them”.
Communication frequency should also occur among the stakeholders within the different sites. As
opposed to communicating with their team members across the sites, developers instead exten-
sively communicated among themselves and with their team leaders at their respective site. For
instance, as reported by a developer in the Mauritian case study, problem solving would proceed
in the following way:
“…[we] deal directly with the team leader. He will be aware of the problem. If there are
any technical problems, we also call the team leader and he comes. Because we commu-
nicate a lot, there isn’t any problem. We do not sit idle, so there are no delays”.
In addition to frequency, some level of flexibility should also be allowed within the whole com-
munication practice. For instance, both the Mauritian and the South African cases revealed that
even though only the team leaders were officially allowed to contact the managers onshore, de-
velopers are sometimes allowed to do so, whenever specific issues needed to be addressed. For
instance, in the Mauritian case, a developer stated that “if he [the team leader] is not here, and I
am having some problem, then I can call”. Even the team leader acknowledged that in his ab-
sence: “…if there is a problem and if the developers are blocked, they can contact the people on-
shore”. In the South African case study, a developer offshore made a similar statement:
“…if specific answers are needed, then you can talk to the specific developer or tester
working on that specific task”.
Culture
The cultural heritage seems to influence GSD in both Mauritian and South African cases. For
instance, the success of the previously described communication practice (restricted communica-
tion across the sites) also appears to be dependent on the culture of the onshore and offshore site.
In the organisations from the offshore sites, namely Mauritius and India, a high adaptability level
seemed to prevail. Participants from both Mauritius and India identified themselves as being
highly adaptable and used this cultural trait to explain why they accepted and embraced this form
of communication practice. For instance, one Mauritian interviewee mentioned that:
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Communication and Culture in Global Software Development
“… sometimes I wish that I could communicate more but I understand that it’s the way
that the work process has been set up and I have to abide to it. So I just adapt and follow
the rule, and it works”.
In turn, one Indian interviewee stated that “we [the Indian participants] adapt very much”. Even
the South African participants acknowledged the high adaptability level of their foreign co-
workers: “They adapt more than us, I think. And it is more difficult for them than for us”.
The use of restricted communication across the sites seems to be appropriate for onshore sites
with hierarchical organisational cultures. In essence, if at the onshore site participants are prone to
respecting organisational hierarchies, the communication will be organised in a hierarchical man-
ner across the dispersed sites. Therefore, team members offshore are expected to communicate to
their team leaders and team leaders then communicate to project managers onshore. One of the
Mauritian interviewees explained:
“French people enjoy hierarchy. They respect all the hierarchical levels very seriously
and you can’t bypass someone to go to the manager. It’s something which is not accept-
able in their culture”.
No similar comment was made in the South African case study.
The lack of knowledge pertaining to the offshore culture also influences effectiveness of GSD
practices prescribed by past studies. For instance, in the South African case study, the use of tra-
vel and international meetings was not always successful. This GSD practice is, however, popular
in the GSD literature and is recognised as an efficient one (Paasivaara, 2003). For the South Afri-
can case, delegates from the South African teams were sent to the Indian offshore site but due to
ignorance and fear pertaining to the Indian culture, the visit was short and inefficient. The state-
ment made by one of the South African interviewees clearly illustrates this point:
“…a few of them were women, so their husbands were scared that they were going to get
raped or going to get mutilated. Although none of that actually happened, they themselves
were very scared. Even though they were staying in 5 star hotels, they used to lock all their
doors and put a cabinet on the door so that nobody can come in. The previous team that
went there, they never got out of the hotel. They went in the car to the hotel and in the car
to the office. They stayed there 3 weeks and they never stepped out of the hotel. Eventually
they could not take it anymore and they came back before the end of the mission”.
Ignorance, which appears to lead to fear hence impacts on the success of the GSD prescribed
practices. Therefore, it appears that some level of open-mindedness is crucial, and that stake-
holders should be open to new cultures. On the other hand, for the Mauritius case study (offshore)
the French offshore team had more open-minded delegates visiting Mauritius. As mentioned by
an interviewee from the Mauritian case study:
“They came and they were very friendly. They trained us, and showed us how to do the job
and they were very helpful. We got used to them and to their ways of doing things”.
Furthermore, when some delegates from the Indian offshore team visited the South African on-
shore site, the visit was also successful as can be seen in this statement:
“…and then this year, we said that we’re going to bring those resources [from India] to do
the whole thing here, and just try out the model. And it worked out pretty well”.
It can therefore be stated that the cultural heritage as well as the level of ignorance pertaining to
the other cultures impacts on the effectiveness of prescribed GSD practices.
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Communication and Culture in Global Software Development
“And I like the fact that instant messages can be saved. You can go back and look for it if
you want to.”
“Instant messaging is used for status updates. ‘There is this kind of issue, are you fixing it?’
It’s just for quick feedback. It’s easier than going on the phone.”
“If we didn’t have instant messaging, it would have made life so much difficult. I think it’s
one of the best communicating tool that I’ve used. I’ve got my list of contacts opened perma-
nently and I can see whether the person’s available or not.”
Teleconference was often employed in both the South African and the Mauritian case study. The
technology was frequently used for large projects, during the analysis and elicitation phase, to
promote uncertainty minimization, and for agreement seeking procedures. Here are two exam-
ples:
“With teleconference, if you are confused while someone is explaining a concept, you can
immediately stop them and you can ask your question. And when the issue is clarified,
you can ask them to continue. So you can exchange ideas quickly.”
“We can have a group discussion with teleconference; everyone is available and can
make suggestions. Decisions are immediately taken. So if we are experiencing issues, we
have a teleconference; we sit, talk, and make decisions.”
A systems analyst from the Mauritian case also mentioned that project management tools im-
proved the collaboration process across the sites, as this technology allowed information to be
conveyed in different forms, project information (delivery date, testing schedule) stored, and doc-
uments managed:
“We use project a project management tool. The tool is good as it promotes collaboration as
we all have access to relevant information pertaining to a project.”
This implies that GSD practitioners in Mauritius and South Africa are well aware of their differ-
ent communication needs, pertaining to the project type and the different project phases. The
communication technology is then chosen accordingly.
Limitations inherent to the use of some technologies are circumvented by the processes followed
which are derived from culture prevailing in the organisation. For instance, in the South African
case delays could be encountered due to the asynchronous nature of emails were managed
through clear contract negotiations and agreement seeking mechanisms which prevailed in the
organisational culture, as one respondent put it:
“Email delays are not an issue. In the contract signed with the client, we ask for three-four
working days to respond to email .If they do not abide to the contract, we escalate to upper
management.”
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to communicate with the onshore team. In consequence, only team leaders had telephone lines at
their desk. Here is one illustration:
“Not everyone has a phone and only the team leaders have phone lines. I don’t use the
phone. Only the team leaders do, as they need to contact the project managers.”
Based on the case studies, it also appears that by combining the use of several technologies, cul-
tural requirements are satisfied. Cultures that prefer formal arrangements and procedures prefer
emails in combinations with tools like conference calls over other forms of communication tools.
For instance, both in the Mauritian and the South African case, documents requiring approval and
sign-off were sent off by emails for prior reading, and meetings were then organised and confer-
ence calls were then scheduled to discuss any potential amendments to the document. Follow
some indicative statements:
”The approach is that you send a document by email and setup a conference call meeting
to go through the document.”
“We use the email for formal things. If we are launching a new project, completed a pro-
ject and sending it off to be validated, or if we have a problem needing to be solved, we
send an email. And if the mail itself is not sufficient, then we phone that person to request
for more information.”
The impact of culture on the choice of communication technology can also be seen in the use of
instant messaging applications. The South African organisation described themselves as “easy
going and informal” and hence enjoyed using instant messaging applications which they consid-
ered as being informal:
“I think chat is the most efficient... And the formality of email is gone. No-one is formal on
chat. I think that’s quite efficient.”
In the Mauritian case study, culture impacted on the choice of technology primarily when lan-
guage barriers had to be avoided. For instance, some Mauritian developers who were not very
fluent in French and in expressing themselves with the correct French accent while speaking pre-
ferred the use of email over the phone. Here is one typical comment:
“If I speak with someone who speaks a bit quickly over the phone, I won’t feel at ease. So I
take much time in understanding. So that’s why I prefer email over the phone.”
It can also be noted that culture impacts on the effective use of the technology employed for
communication. For instance, while using the video conference tool, the Mauritian team at times
felt that the communication pace was too fast and that they could not follow the course of the
conversation. Video conference offered visual connection across the sites and it could have been
easy for the Mauritian team to stop the flow and probe for further information. However, due to
their culture whereby interruptions were considered as rude, they did not and allowed the video
conference meeting to proceed. This reduced the effectiveness of the video conference system
that, under other cultural circumstances, could have been more effective. Here is an illustration of
this finding:
“The main disadvantage I would say is that sometimes they go a bit fast. And it’s not very
polite for us to say: ‘OK I did not understand this part’. Most of the time, we prefer to lis-
ten to them. It’s very rare that we have immediate questions because we have to analyse
the documentation to see what’s happening, how should we do and proceed on, and then
we take some decisions. That I would say is the main issue, it’s a bit fast.”
Culture impacting on the effective usage of the technology could also be seen in the use of email
by the Mauritian team. Emails had to be written in French while using an English keyboard.
Hence the process was not efficient. Based on the French vocabulary and grammar special char-
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Communication and Culture in Global Software Development
acters had to be typed which could not be easily be inserted while using an English keyboard.
One respondent reflected on this challenge in the following way:
“When using mail, you have big problems. It is difficult to write long emails as it is time
consuming and the keyboard that we use in an English one. Since they expect us to use very
formal French we have to insert the accents, and it is very difficult to do so.”
In contrast, if the organisation did not share a culture where formal writing style was required, the
accents could have been overlooked and the use of an English keyboard to write emails would not
have been complicated.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to explore GSD in the South African (onshore) and Mauritian (off-
shore) context, to understand the various forms of communication practices and the influence of
culture on GSD success. The study was performed through multiple qualitative case studies with-
in two focal GSD organisations located in South Africa and Mauritius. The grounded theory me-
thodology was applied to analyse the data.
The findings show that communication practice whereby one key person at all sites is responsible
for communication management and coordination can be successful in both the Mauritian and
South African context. The communication practice is typically successful provided that the fre-
quency of communication within and across the dispersed sites is maintained. Some level of flex-
ibility is also required so that people (other than the key communicant) are allowed to communi-
cate to other dispersed sites in the absence of the coordinator or when specific answers are re-
quired. The offshore teams should also possess high adaptability to embrace the communication
practice, which is also best suited to a highly hierarchical onshore culture. The other major find-
ing of the study relates to the fact that the cultural heritage of a country as well as the level of ig-
norance pertaining to the other culture should be taken into consideration as it might affect the
effectiveness of GSD practices. Finally, with respect to technology, the study has found that the
selection of communication technologies is driven by communication and cultural needs. Culture
also influences the effectiveness with which communication technologies are used.
Practical Contributions
Findings from this study might be relevant to practitioners wishing to partake in GSD in the Mau-
ritian or the South African setting. In essence, it was demonstrated that the communication coor-
dinator practice can be effective in the Mauritian setting and practitioners can therefore chose to
embrace it if need be. The findings also inform practitioners about the need to take the special
cultural heritage of South Africa into consideration when applying GSD prescribed practices in
that context.
Theoretical Contributions
Numerous findings corroborate what was previously prescribed in literature. For instance, in line
with Herbsleb and Grinter (1999), the two case studies reveal that early international meetings
should be held to facilitate contact initiation, bridge physical distance among team members, and
mitigate the disadvantages of some communication tools. In conjunction to what was prescribed
by Paasivaara (2003), it appears that communication liaisons should also be sent to the dispersed
sites to reduce communication issues and the negative impact of time zone difference. Further-
more, the results suggest that frequent meetings (weekly video conference, ad-hoc meetings, and
emergency workshops) should also be held to reduce communication misunderstandings and
bridge distance, as prescribed by Paasivaara and Lessenius (2004). It also appears that constant
communication throughout the GSD project is an important factor contributing to GSD success as
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it overcomes deadline issues. This finding corroborates what was prescribed by Herbsleb, Pau-
lish and Bass (2005). In line with Suchan and Hayzak (2001), the study also suggests that the use
of one common language while communicating should also be employed as a means to provide a
shared understanding of the context and to minimise communication issues due to information
loss.
However, the study also identified key practices which appear to add to the body of knowledge.
In essence, it was found that even through limited communication across all job titles and across
all sites, GSD can be successful as time zone difference and communication issues can be miti-
gated. The study also uncovered that communication should, however, be carefully planned and
uncertainty minimisation techniques should be employed as a means to facilitate contact initiation
and improve communication process by reducing the risk of having disagreements.
Some cultural practices uncovered in this study are also in concordance to literature. For instance,
in line with Jarvenpaa and Leidner (1999), Kayworth and Leidner (2000) and Sarker and Sahay
(2002) the result suggest that cultural awareness programs should be held as a means to reduce
the negative influence of cultural difference. It also appears that the cultural difference impact can
be mitigated through the use of cultural liaisons (as seen in Carmel & Agarwal, 2001), and tech-
nical and managerial liaisons (as seen in Heeks et al., 2001).
However, as opposed to literature, the study reveals communication practices should be employed
in accordance to the cultural traits of the participants. Also, if limited interactions occur among
the participants, cultural issues and misunderstandings can be avoided. The study finally contrib-
utes to theory by revealing that in spite of adopting commonly accepted GSD practices like inter-
national meetings or the use of rotation of management, these can fail if the delegates are not
open-minded and well versed about the culture of their foreign colleagues.
In line with literature, the study reveals that in the absence of adequate technology, the whole
GSD process would not be feasible (Dourish & Bly, 1992; Handel & Herbsleb, 2002; Hindus et
al., 1996; Majchrak et al., 2000; Maznevski & Chudoba, 2000 Nardi et al., 2000; Obata & Sasaki,
1998). In particular, based on the result of the study, it can be posited that a wide range of tech-
nologies should be employed, and each tool should be suited for one specific form of communica-
tion practice or culture. As such, provided that the infrastructure is satisfactory and that the right
tool is employed, the communication process should not fail and minimal issues should be en-
countered.
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Appendix 1: Sample Open Coding Sheet
Case Inter- Question Name Interview Statement Paragraph Lin Concept/Property Dimensions Category
viewee e
1 1 You've already told me I have more than two 1 1 Team-Customer-culture Little Complete Strategies to overcome cultural
that you've got more than teams because I have Dedication issues
two teams more than 2 customers.
1 1 But its two different That is why we have 14 1 Team-Customer-culture Little Complete Strategies to overcome cultural
styles of management, different teams Dedication issues
how do you cope with
that? (culturally speak-
ing)
1 1 You have one specific Yes, because the cus- 3 1 Team-customer-preference little Complete Strategies to overcome cultural
team for one specific tomer preferences are dedication issues
customer? different. In terms of
technology, in terms of
environment, in terms of
maturity, [the approach
there is], communica-
tion strategy etc. are
completely different.
People are different.
Communication and Culture in Global Software Development
Communication Foreign language By having a formal UP Hmmm… good ques- Do you think
style issues communication style, tion… I think probably that you use
communication issues not too much in kind of some expres-
can be reduced formal business com- sions that are
munications. Certainly typically from
you’ll have the guys out South Africa?
here talking about the
things like robot and […]
Communication strategy Common language [Different language used – Common language used]
Cues transmission com- Perception of efforts [No perception of efforts – Complete perception of efforts]
munication
Reassurance level [Little – High amount]
Culture Individual culture Individual culture description [Minimal characteristics – Strong characteristics]
National culture National cultural prevalence level [No prevalence – High level of prevalence]
Organisational culture Organisational culture prevalence level [No prevalence – High level of prevalence]
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Cultural issues Cultural difference impact [Little amount of cultural issues – High amount of cul-
tural issues]
Project Management Tool Task-technology structure fit [Low fit – High level of fit]
Biography
Maureen Tanner, MCom: Maureen is a PhD associate and Lecturer
in the Department of Information Systems, University of Cape Town,
South Africa. Her research interests include Global Software Devel-
opment, Agile Methods, and the application of Agile Methods in the
distributed software development setting.
85