OBJECTIVES

 To investigates the generation and reception of frequency modulated (FM) waveforms

 To identify the FM signals
 To study FM signal looks like when modulated by speech
 To study the recovering of message signal using a zero-crossing detector

INTRODUCTION
In the AM, DSBSC and SSB communication systems have some disadvantages such that
they are susceptible to picking up electrical noise in the transmission medium. This is because
noise changes the amplitude of the transmitted signal and the demodulators of these systems are
affected by amplitude variations. Therefore, we use frequency modulation (FM). The frequency
modulation (FM) uses a message’s amplitude to vary the frequency of a carrier instead of its
amplitude. FM demodulator is designed to look for changes in frequency and it is less affected
by amplitude variations. FM is less susceptible to noise. Thus this makes FM a better
communications system in this regard.

To generate FM signals, oscillator with an electrically adjustable frequency is used. The

oscillator uses an input voltage to affect the frequency of its output. Typically, when the input is
0V, the oscillator outputs a signal at its rest frequency. If the applied voltage varies above or
below 0V, the oscillator’s output frequency deviates above and below the rest frequency.
Moreover, the amount of deviation is affected by the amplitude of the input voltage. That is, the
bigger the input voltage, the greater the deviation.

In the FM signal, the envelopes are flat because it doesn’t vary the carrier’s amplitude.
Apart from that, its period (and hence its frequency) changes when the amplitude of the message
changes. As the message alternates above and below 0V, the signal’s frequency goes above and
below the carrier’s frequency.

The zero-crossing detector is used in this experiment. It is a simple yet effective means of
recovering the message from FM signals. Its block diagram is shown below.

Figure 1: Recovering the message using a zero-crossing detector

The received FM signal is first passed through a comparator to heavily clip it, effectively
converting it to a squarewave. This allows the signal to be used as a trigger signal for the zero-
crossing detector circuit (ZCD). The ZCD generates a pulse with a fixed duration every time the
squared-up FM signal crosses zero volts (either on the positive or the negative transition but not
both). Given the squared-up FM signal is continuously crossing zero, the ZCD effectively
converts the squarewave to a rectangular wave with a fixed mark time. When the FM signal’s
frequency changes (in response to the message), so does the rectangular wave’s frequency.
Importantly though, as the rectangular wave’s mark is fixed, changing its frequency is achieved
by changing the duration of the space and hence the signal’s mark/space ratio (or duty cycle).

PROCEDURE
Part A. – Generating an FM signal using simple message

1. The oscilloscope is setup per instruction as following:

The trigger source control is set to CH1 position
The mode control is set to CH1 position
The input coupling of CH1 is set to DC position
2. The setup is connected as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1
 3. The Master Signals module is used to provide a 2kHz squarewave message signal and the
VCO module is the FM modulator with a 10kHz carrier.

4. The VCO module’s Gain control is tweaked until similar FM signal as in Figure 1 is
obtained from the VCO.

5. The message signal is overlay with the FM signal and both signals are compared.

6. The Message and FM signal waveforms are saved.

Part B. – Generating an FM signal using speech

1. So far, this experiment has generated an FM signal using a squarewave for the message.
However, the message in commercial communications systems is much more likely to be
speech and music. The next part of the experiment demonstrates what an FM signal looks
like when modulated by speech.

2. The plugs to the Master Signals module’s 2kHz DIGITAL outputs are disconnected and
it is connected to the Speech module’s output.

3. The scope’s Trigger Source control is set to the CH2 position. The timebase control is
adjusted accordingly. Talk, sing or hum while watching the scope’s display.

4. Quietly hum into the Speech module’s microphone while watching the scope’s display.

5. The hum is made louder and louder slowly without changing its pitch.

6. The Message and FM signal waveforms are saved.

Part C. – Recovering the message using a zero-crossing detector

1. The plug to the Speech module’s output is disconnected and is connected to the Master
Signals module’s 2kHz SINEWAVE output.
2. The comparator on the Utilities module is used to clip the FM signal, effectively turning
it into a squarewave. The positive edge-triggered Twin Pulse Generator module is used to
implement the zero-crossing detector. To complete the FM demodulator, the Baseband
LPF on the Channel Module is used to pick-out the changing DC component of the Twin
Pulse Generator module’s output.
3. The Twin Pulse Generator module is located and its Width and Delay control is turned
fully anti-clockwise.
4. The entire set-up can be represented by the block diagram in Figure 2 below. Note that
the REF of the comparator should be connected to GND.
 Figure 2
5. The scope’s Timebase control is set to the 2µ s/div position. The Twin Pulse Generator
module’s Width control is adjusted for an output pulse that is 12µ s.
6. The shape of the Comparator’s output waveform is examined. The FM signal and
Comparator’s Output waveforms are saved.

7. The output from the Comparator and the Twin Pulse Generator module (the ZCD) are
compared. The Comparator and ZCD output waveforms are saved.

8. The message is compared with the FM demodulator’s output. The scope’s Timebase
control is adjusted to view two or so cycles of the Master Signals module’s 2kHz SINE
output. Both waveforms are saved.
RESULT
Part A

Figure 1: Message and FM signal waveforms

Part B

Figure 2: Message and FM signal waveforms for the lowest hum

Figure 3: Message and FM signal waveforms for slightly louder hum

Figure 4: Message and FM signal waveforms for the loudest hum

Part C

Figure 5: FM signal and Comparator’s Output waveforms

Figure 6: The ZCD output waveforms

Figure 7: 2 KHz SINE message with the FM demodulator’s output waveforms
DISCUSSION

1. Derivation of frequency modulation.

Instantaneous phase deviation = 𝜃 (𝑡) = 𝐾𝑝 𝑉𝑚 (𝑡)𝑟𝑎𝑑

Instantaneous frequency deviation = 𝜃 ′ (𝑡) = 𝐾𝑓 𝑉𝑚 (𝑡)𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
When 𝐾𝑝 and 𝐾𝑓 are constant (deviation sensitivity of phase and frequency)
Phase modulation = 𝑉𝑚 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑚 𝑡)
Frequency modulation = 𝑚 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑐 cos( 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜃(𝑡))

= 𝑉𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝐾𝑝 𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑚 𝑡))

𝐾𝑓 𝑉𝑚
= 𝑉𝑐 cos ( 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + sin(𝜔𝑚 𝑡))
𝜔𝑚

= 𝑉𝑐 cos( 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + ∫ 𝜃 ′ (𝑡))

= 𝑉𝑐 cos( 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + ∫ 𝐾𝑓 𝑉𝑚 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡)

= 𝑉𝑐 cos( 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝐾𝑓 ∫ 𝑉𝑚 𝑐 cos(𝜔𝑚 𝑡)𝑑𝑡)

𝐾𝑓 𝑉𝑚
= 𝑉𝑐 cos( 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + sin(𝜔𝑚 𝑡))
𝜔𝑚

𝐾𝑓 𝑉𝑚
= 𝑉𝑐 cos( 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + sin(𝜔𝑚 𝑡))
𝑓𝑚

By assuming 𝑚 (𝑡) is the message signal, the frequency deviation of FM signal is proportional to
message signal. Thus when the frequency of 𝑚 (𝑡) is maximum, the frequency of FM signal will
also maximum and otherwise.
 2. Basically there are two types of comparators. They are non-inverting comparator and
inverting comparator. Figure 1(a) is called a non- inverting comparator. A time varying
signal 𝑉𝑖 is applied to (+) input and a fixed reference voltage 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 is supplied to (-) input.
For 𝑉𝑖 < 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 , the output voltage is -𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 and for 𝑉𝑖 > 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 , the ouput volateg is 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 .
The output waveform for (+) input is shown in figure 1 (b) and figure 1 (c) is for (-)
input.

Figure 1

There are four important application of comparator. They are zero crossing detectors, window
detector, and time marker generator and phase meter. In this experiment, the zero crossing
detector (ZCD) is used. The previous comparator in figure 1 is the basic comparator that can be
used as a ZCD provided that 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 is set to zero. An inverting zero crossing detectors are drawn
below in figure 2 (a) and the output waveform for a sinusoidal input signal is also drawn below
in figure 2 (b). The circuit can be called as a sine to square wave generator.
 Figure 2 (a) Zero Crossing detector (b) Input and output waveforms

CONCLUSION

The Frequency Modulation will be generated using the oscillator with an electrically
adjustable frequency. The FM signal will vary the frequency of carrier while the amplitude of the
carrier is kept constant. This makes the FM a better communication system as it is less
susceptible to noise. Throughout the experiment, students will notice that the envelope of the FM
signal is flat because of the carrier’s amplitude of the FM does not vary. Other than that, the
frequency of the FM signal changes as the amplitude of the input signal (message) changes.

Some of the modules that are used to recovering the message signal (FM Demodulation)
are comparator on the Utilities, positive edge-triggered Twin Pulse Generator and the Baseband
LPF. For the demodulation of FM, the zero-crossing detector is used in the Emona Telecoms-
Trainer 101.The FM signal is used as an input signal and connected to the comparator on the
Utilities module. The Twin Pulse Generator Module is used to implement the ZCD. Then the
Baseband LPF is connected to generate the FM demodulation signal as required.