Classification of Network Technologies Local-Area Networks (LAN) and Devices

h Based upon geographical area size LAN characteristics:

• Local Area Network (LAN)
- Optimized for a moderate size geographic area
- generally owned, used, and operated by a single organization.
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
- Optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging
from several blocks of buildings to entire cities
- Might be owned and operated by a single organization, but
usually will be used by many individuals and organizations
• Wide Area Network (WAN)
- Operate over geography of telecommunication carriers such as
intra-/inter- area/city/country, more than tens km scope
• Operate within a limited geographic area
~ intra-/inter-building, a few km scope
• Connect physically adjacent devices on the media
~ including Hubs, Bridges, workgroup concentrators, Switches, Routers, etc.
• Allow multiaccess to high bandwidth media
~ media/bandwidth is shared by many devices
• Provide full-time connectivity to local services
~ LAN rarely shutdown or restrict access to connected devices
• Control the network privacy under local administration
~ privately control the LAN by renting/purchasing the media/connections
• Channels are relatively error-free (BER < 1 in 109 )

Overview
¾ LAN and WAN are widely deployed 77 Overview Bit Error Rate 78

3
Switching Technology - I Message Switching Concept
(inside network core)
• Data/signal forwarding over networks :
- Message switching (MS)
- Circuit switching (CS)
- Packet switching (PS)

• Message switching
- Message (block data) is stored in a switching node and then
forwarded later one hop at a time
- Message received in its entirety , inspected for error, and then Each link has 1.5Mbps
transmission rate
forwarded
- Need “LARGE” storage space to store data in each node
• Transfer a 7.5 Mbit message in a Message-Switched Network
Ex. Telegraph, military applications needs 5 sec, assuming immediately processing
Overview 79 Overview 80
 Switching Technology - II Circuit Switching Concept
* Example - Public (circuit-)Switched Telephone Network
• Circuit switching Switching

- dedicated commu path(circuit) between an O-D pair

- data are transmitted along the path with pre-negotiated rate
- path (i.e., the link capacity/bandwidth) is occupied for the
entire lifetime of communication
- Three phases of the CS:
1) ciircuit/connection establishment (call setup) (Twisted pair)
2) data transfer
3) circuit disconnect (release the granted capacity)
- only propagation delay while transmission
Connection Over PSTN
Ex. Telephone network: dial .Æ talk Æ hang up
(Example )
Overview 81 Overview 82

Multiplexing Multiple Access CS Example - FDM

‹ FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing)
• Multiple Access (MAC techniques) – Each signal is modulated onto (being shifted) a different
- a set of rules to control the access to a shared communication carrier frequency (called subcarrier)
channel – Each signal is exclusively possess its dedicated frequency
band all the time
- conflicting access to the channel may be happened
– Ex : FM/AM broadcasting, Cable TV Spectrum allocation
- mostly for broadcasting channels
[AM (amplitude
- Ex: Contention, Round-Robin (take turn), Reservation modulation) assumed]

• Multiplexing
- given the instantaneous knowledge of all users’ requirement
- sharing the communication channel without contention
- implemented at a local site, remote mat take the reverse action
- Ex: TDM, FDM,WDM systems
(a reminder)
Overview 83 Overview
Interfere to each other occurs if sending at the same time interval w/o FDM 84
 FDM system architecture (TX and RX)
CS Example – (Synchronous) TDM
FDM (cont’d)

• STDM (Time Division Multiplexing, or just TDM)

+ - Multiple digital signals can be carried on a single transmission
path by interleaving portions of each data in time
(modulator) - Take turn to use the entire bandwidth
Mc( f ) Upper Side-Band
Lower Side-Band
- Ex: voice communication in PSTN
(USB)
(LSB)
• Illustration
1 TDM channel 1
MUX
2
DEMUX
2

mc(t) Input 1 Æ F 1 f 1 f 1 d 1 d 1 C 1 A 1 F 1 f 1 f 1 d 1 d 1 C 1 A 1 . . .

Input 2 Æ F 2 f 2 f 2 d 2 d 2 C 2 A 2 F 2 f 2 f 2 d 2 d 2 C 2 A 2 . . .
FDM
signal
F1F2f1f2f1f2d1d2d1d2C1C2A1A2 . . .
Overview 85 Overview 86

A TDM System AT&T T-1/DS-1 Carrier : North America and Japan Standard
• Since 1962 . . . in New York, to reduce the cable
Transmitter congestion in urban area (7-bit PCM)
• A voice channel, band-limited to 4KHz
(Bell Lab.)
- 7-bit (digitized) data and 1-bit signaling control
• 24 voice channel integrated/Muxed together
• Frame = 24 u 8 + 1 (framing bit) = 193 bits
• Voice signal is sampled 4kHz u 2 = 8,000 times/sec (125us/sample)
• Data rate for T-1 carrier ÖÖ 8000 x 193 = 1.544 Mbps

Frames in the line

Receiver 5.18us
PCM
O.6477us

Overview 87 Overview 88
 Pulse Code Modulation – Brief Review Switching Technology - III
analog • Packet switching
Sampling • Encoding example (4-bit PCM)
‚ voice - data are sent in a sequence of “chunk” (called packet)
Quantization - each packet contains src addr, dest addr, and sequence #
‚ and is passed through the network from node to node
Encoding digital along some paths
waveform - packets are received , “may/may not” be stored briefly, and
then forwarded to the next node
( save entire packet and forward it to later on Æ store-and-forward;
process the first few part of a packet and then forward it to
transparently Æ cut through )
- no dedicated path allocated for an O-D pair

- Two forms of PS:

(A) Datagram (DG)
(B) Virtual circuit (VC)
Sampled according to Sampling/Nyquist Theorem.
Overview 89 Overview 90

3
Packet Switching Concept Statistical TDM or Statistical Multiplexing

10 Mbs statistical multiplexing • Statistical TDM, Asynchronous TDM or Intelligent TDM

A Ethernet C
• Used to resolve the bandwidth waste (empty time slots) in STDM
(The “gap” ~ not all transmitting all of the time)
1.5 Mbs
B • Scenario: n ports (I/O) with k time slots available, k < n
queue of packets
waiting for output
• Operation:
link - Scan input buffers, collect data until a frame is filled or
a scanning cycle is finished, send frame out.
D E • Statistical MUX (STDM) varies the bandwidth allocation based
on the traffic presented at any given time instant.
• Sequence of A & B packets does not have fixed pattern/frame • The bandwidth (or time slot) is assigned to some one else if the
Î statistical multiplexing )಍ीӭπ*. current input device has no data to send at that time instant.
• In TDM (circuit switching), each host gets same • STDM buffers incoming data until outgoing bandwidth can be
slot/circuit/bandwidth in revolving TDM frames. allocated.
Overview 91 Overview 92
 Statistical TDM or Statistical Multiplexing Switching Technology - IV

MUX • Packet switching (cont’d)

n inputs outgoing (A) DGPS
link Distribute the data slots to - Packet are routed independently (called datagram) of
the appropriate output buffer
one another
Frame in TDM - packets can be received in a different order
(out-of-sequence delivery)
C1 ~ wasted time
slot/bandwidth
link : (B) VCPS
usage ~ tries to combine the advantages of CS and DGPS
- all pkts (from one pkt stream) are sent along the same path
(virtual circuit)
 ~ n inputs but only k active (kd n), no empty slots was sent in a frame - guarantees in-sequence delivery
- similar to CS, needs:
- use a “lower data rate” to support as many inputs as a TDM MUX does
(1)VC setup, (2)packets transfer , (3)VC disconnection.
- under a fixed data rate, STDM can support more inputs than a TDM does
Overview 93 Overview 94

Packet Switching - Datagram Packet Switching - Virtual Circuit

Transmitted Transmitted
in-order in-order

(a) (a)

Virtual
circuit
(b)
3
(b)

2
1

Taking different route (c) Taking the same route (c)

Might be Guarantee
3 out-of-order 3 in-order
1 2
2 1

(d) (d)
Overview 95 Overview 96
 Virtual Circuit Routing Concept Packet Switching versus Message Switching
• Datagram network ~ route packets according to host’s
destination addresses (IP, Ethernet)
• Virtual circuit network ~ route packets according to VC
number (X.25, Frame relay, ATM)
• Transfer 7.5 Mbit message in a
• Ex: Pkt-Switched network
- Msg Æ 1.5 Kbit x 5,000 pkt

Æ Packet switching has reduced the

VC # translation table in PS1 message-switching delay by a
factor of three!
But why is this so?

• SWs need to maintain connection • Key different:

5.002
state info for ongoing connections Parallel vs sequential transmission sec
Overview 97 Overview 98

3 3

Packet Switching versus Message Switching Packet Switching versus Circuit Switching
(From Packet-switching’s standing point)
• Packet switching allows more users to use network
• One 1 Mbps link for sharing
Sorry for the repetition
• Transfer 7.5 Mbit message in a • Each user:
– 100Kbps when “active”
Pkt-Switched network
- Msg Æ 1.5 Kbit x 5,000 pkt – “Active” Æ 10% of time
• By circuit-switching: N users
of this page.
Æ Packet switching has reduced the
message-switching delay (by a
– 10 users (N = 10)
• By packet switching:
1 Mbps link
factor of three, here) – Allowing more than 10
But why is this so? user by taking the
advantage of not
• Key different: 5.002 simultaneously use the
~ Parallel vs. sequential transmission sec channel (higher usage)
Overview 99 Overview 100
 Packet switching versus circuit switching (cont’d) 3
• Great for bursty data Timing Comparisons of Switching Techniques
– resource sharing efficiently
– no call setup
• Excessive congestion: packet delay and loss (coming next)
– protocols needed for reliable data transfer,
congestion control
• Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior?
– bandwidth guarantees needed for audio/video apps
still an unsolved problem (QoS issues)
• Viewpoints of Pros and Cons (try the following)
- processing overhead? Setup? Store need? Viewpoints:
- more control over the traffic? Dynamic use of bandwidth/data rate? Dedicated communication path? The way of data transmission?
- maintaining system/node status? quality of services? Message being stored? Call setup? Delay (propagation and transmission)?
- etc. Network overloading response? Overhead bits?
Overview 101 Overview 102

(Delay in packet-switched networks)

Delay in packet-switched networks 3. Transmission delay: 4. Propagation delay:

• Packets experience delay
on end-to-end path
• Four sources of delay at
each hop
transmission
A propagation
• R=link bandwidth (bps) • d = length of physical link
1. Nodal processing delay • L=packet length (bits) • s = propagation speed in
– check bit errors • time to send bits into medium (~2x108 m/sec)
– determine output link link = L/R • propagation delay = d/s
2. Queueing delay
– time waiting at output transmission
link for transmission A propagation
– depends on congestion
level of routers
B
nodal
processing queueing

• Total nodal delay :

B
nodal
processing queueing
d nodal d proc  d queue  d trans  d prop
Overview 103 Overview 104
 Queueing delay (revisited) What is the “ Internet ” ?
• R = link bandwidth (bps) • Network of networks * roughly hierarchical
• L = packet length (bits)
(inter-connected set of networks) local
• a = average packet arrival ISP
rate (packet/sec) • To interconnect different regional ISP
computers used by various
NBP B
Traffic Intensity = L*a/R organizations via the same
(dimensionless)
TCP/IP protocol Î it treats all NAP NAP
networks (e.g., LAN, WAN, NBP A
• La/R | 0: average queueing delay small
etc.) equally (i.e., a flat network) regional ISP
• La/R Æ 1: delays become large (queue length grows) local
• La/R > 1: more “work” arriving than can be A(B,S)P ~ Access (Backbone, ISP
Service) Providers
serviced, average delay infinite!
• New computers added to the Internet > ONE per second
‹ Golden rule Î Do not design your network with T.I. > 1 or Æ 1. • Internet ~ Doubling in size every nine to twelve months
Overview 105 Overview 106

(reference) (reference)

Internet History - I Internet History - II

1961-1972: Early packet-switching principles
• 1961: Kleinrock -
• 1972:
queueing theory shows
effectiveness of packet-
switching
• 1964: Baran - packet-
switching in military nets
• 1967: ARPAnet
conceived by Advanced
Research Projects
Agency
• 1969: first ARPAnet
node operational
Overview
– ARPAnet
demonstrated publicly
– NCP (Network Control
Protocol) first host-
host protocol
– first e-mail program
– ARPAnet has 15 nodes
107
1972-1980: Internetworking, new and proprietary nets
• 1970: ALOHAnet satellite
network in Hawaii
Cerf and Kahn’s internetworking
• 1973: Metcalfe’s PhD thesis
proposes Ethernet
principles:
– minimalism, autonomy - no
• 1974: Cerf and Kahn - internal changes required to
architecture for interconnecting interconnect networks
networks – Best-effort service model
• late70’s: proprietary – stateless routers
architectures: DECnet, SNA, – decentralized control
XNA
Æ define today’s Internet
• late 70’s: switching fixed length architecture
packets (ATM precursor)
• 1979: ARPAnet has 200 nodes
Overview 108
 (reference) (reference)

Internet History - III Internet History - IV

1980-1990: new protocols, a proliferation of networks 1990-2000’s: commercialization, the Web, new apps.
• Early 1990’s: ARPAnet Late 1990’s – 2000’s:
• 1983: deployment of • new national networks: decommissioned
• more killer apps: instant
TCP/IP
Csnet, BITnet, NSFnet, • 1991: NSF lifts restrictions on
messaging, peer-to-peer file
• 1982: SMTP e-mail commercial use of NSFnet
protocol defined Minitel (decommissioned, 1995) sharing (e.g., Naptser)
• 1983: DNS defined for • 100,000 hosts • Early 1990s: Web • network security to
name-to-IP-address – hypertext [Bush 1945, forefront
connected to
translation Nelson 1960’s] • est. 50 million host, 100
confederation of
• 1985: FTP protocol – HTML, HTTP: Berners-Lee million+ users
networks
defined – 1994: Mosaic, later • backbone links running at
• 1988: TCP congestion Netscape Gbps
control – late 1990’s:
commercialization of the Web
Overview 109 Overview 110

Internet Organizations How to get RFC ?

1. By FTP : Connect via FTP to ds.internic.net with
IAB, 1983 IAB ~ Internet Activities Board Acc#: anonymous & Password: guest, then
“ get rfc/rfc1577.txt local filename ”

IRTF IETF 2. By E-mail : Mail to “mailserv@ds.internic.net ” with a message of

“ send rfc1577.txt ”
IESG: Internet Engineering Steering Group
Mail to “rfc-info@ISI.EDU with Subject “getting rfcs” and
Area 1 ... Area 8 Content “help: ways_to_get_rfcs”
... 3. Web sites: http://www.rfc-editor.org (many others)
research groups
... ... 4. Archie Search:

IRTF - Internet Research Task Force working groups

- Responsible for research and deve- rfc

lopment of the Internet protocol suite • IANA ~ Internet Assigned Number Authority

IETF - Internet Engineering Task Force
- Responsible for solving short-term
engineering needs of the Internet.
It has over 40 Working Groups.
Overview
• NIC ~ Network Information Center TWNIC
Ö APNIC (TWNIC, etc.), EURNIC, etc.
RFC ~ Request For Comments
FYI ~ For Your Information (RFC # > 1500)
111 Overview 112
 RFC Examples Some Important RFCs
Full Full Full
Protocol RFC # Protocol RFC # Protocol RFC #
Name Name Name

Transport 951 Simple

793 Bootstrap Network 1067
TCP* Control BOOTP Protocol 1048 SNMP* Management
Protocol 1323 1448
1084 Protocol
• RFC 1577 User
Datagram
Uniform
Simple
Mail 821
UDP* Protocol 768 URL Resource 1738 SMTP Transfer
Location 822
Protocol
2045
Dynamic Host 1531 Multipurpose
topic IP*
Internet
Protocol 791 DHCP* Configuration 1541 MIME
Internet
Mail
2046
2047
Protocol
2131 Extensions
2048
Internet
Control Telnet 764 Post Office
ICMP* Message 792 Telnet* (Remote login) POP3 Protocol V.3 1939
854
Protocol
Internet
Address File
Mail
ARP* Resolution 826 FTP* Transfer 959 IMAP Access 2060
Protocol Protocol
Protocol
• RFC 1700 Reverse
Domain
Network
Address 1034 News
RARP Resolution 903 DNS* Name NNTP Transport 977
System 1035
Protocol Protocol
HTTP
Hypertext Classless
State
• Other RFCs: HTTP Transfer
Protocol
2068 Cookies Management 2109 CIDR InterDomain
Routing
1519
Protocol

1. RFC1700 - assigned numbers (including all port numbers and constants) Internet
Standard Point to Point
IP Network
ISSP 950 PPP 1661 NAT Address 1631
2. RFC2700 - State (standard, draft standard, proposed standard, experimental, Subnetting
Procedure
Protocol
Translator

Overview informational, or historic) of standardization of various internet protocols 113 Overview 114