Central Australian Women's Ritual Music: Knowing through Analysis versus Knowing through

Performance
Author(s): Linda Barwick
Source: Yearbook for Traditional Music, Vol. 22 (1990), pp. 60-79
Published by: International Council for Traditional Music
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 CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN WOMEN'S RITUAL MUSIC:
KNOWING THROUGH ANALYSIS VERSUS
KNOWING THROUGH PERFORMANCE

by Linda Barwick

What can one "know" about any sort of musicby means of musical
analysis?'Whatrelationship can that"knowledge"bear to theknowledge
of performers? These questions,pertinentperhapsto all musicologists,
ariseparticularly stronglyforme becauseforthepastthreeyearsmywork
on Central Australian music has involved analysing documentsof
fieldworkcarriedout by otherresearchers (mainlyCatherineEllis)during
the1960sand early70s,despitethefactthatI have neitherfieldexperience
in CentralAustralianorextensiveperformance experiencewithperformers
of CentralAustraliantraditionalmusic.2Whatfollowsis not intendedas
an apologia for"armchair"ethnomusicology, but ratheras an attempt
to open up, through discussion of the problematicsof historical
ethnomusicology, philosophicalquestionsI believe to be centralto the
ethnomusicological enterprise.
Before presentinga sample of my analysis of Antikirinyaand
Yankunytjatjara3 women'smusic,I want to exploresome of theways in
which my understanding has shaped and been shaped by the musical
analysis I have undertaken.I propose that analysis is a process of
understanding ratherthana methodologyforproducing"truth".What
I know about thismusicis not a measurablequantity,but a constantly
changingway of relatingto the music. Each timeI listento or analyse
a performance, I experience themusicdifferently. AlthoughI presumethat
theways in whichI experienceitare verydifferent fromthewaysin which
performers do, it is neverthelessthecase thatthemanifested formof the
music,whichtheyperformand I analyse,is a sharedcomponentof our
experience.Through"performing" my analysisof thissound pattern,I
am askingand sometimesansweringquestionsthatare relevantto my
understanding of the world; just as I understandthatsound patternto
be one manifestation ofperformers'understanding oftheworld.Therefore,
the "results"of my analysisdo not claim to be a definitive statementof
theessenceofCentralAustralianwomen'smusic,butratherrepresent one
stagein thecontinuallyevolvingprocessof myunderstanding. Different
analystsworkingon thesame documentswould presumablyask different
questions,and arriveat different ways of expressingtheir"results",just
as differentperformers produce more or less differentexpressionsof the
same piece.
For reasons outlinedin more detail below, thereare some aspects of
theseperformances thatmycurrentlack of fieldexperienceprecludesme
fromanalysing.These includeperformers' explanationsof textsand the
contextof themusic.Althoughthefocusof my analysiscan onlybe the
sound recordingsthemselves,thisdoes not mean thatmyunderstanding
of the music is confinedto aural elements.Via various indirectmeans
includingstudying thelanguage,conversations withtherecordists,reading

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BARWICK KNOWING THROUGH ANALYSIS / 61

relevantpublications,and examiningotherdocumentsoftheperformance
suchas films,photographs, and fieldnotes,I perceivethesoundrecordings
in a contextthatinfluences theways in whichI framemyquestionsabout
themusic.And withoutclaimingany authorityto speak forAntikirinya
or Yankunytjatjara performers, myown performance experiencesin a very
different culturefunctionas an importanttouchstonein the course of
carryingout my analysis.
True, this "context"cannot be the same as the contextthat field
experiencewould provide,but on theotherhand is thisnot onlya more
extremecase ofthedilemmathatfacesall researchers who carryout their
analyses in institutionsremovedfromthe "field"?Memory is always
reconstructive,and the very necessityof using academic discourse
inevitablyconstrainswhatwe can expressof our experience.Forany sort
of researchwithpeople, and especiallyany cross-cultural research,there
can neverbe a guarantee(ifindeeditis possibleat all) thatfieldexperience
alone willensurethattheresearcher "knows"thesamethingsas thepeople
withwhom she or he works,let alone thatsuch knowledgewill be able
to be expressedin the media and discoursesof academic institutions.
One of my reasonsforundertakingthe analysispresentedherewas a
desireto exploretheidea thatperformance of any sortcreatessomething
out ofnothing,manifests a particularway ofbeingin theworld.The ways
in whichI framethisquestionabout thenatureofperformance have been
influenced by my acquaintance with Aboriginalspiritualbeliefsabout the
Dreaming(tjukuror wapar in Yankunytjatjaraand Antikirinya), which
may also be translatedas Law, or History.On one level the Dreaming
maybe explainedas thetimelongago whentheancestorsoftoday'speople
travelledthecountryin animalor humanform,creatingorderoutofchaos,
settingthe precedentsfor various present-daymodes of behaviour,
performing ceremonies,and creatingand namingvariousphysicalfeatures
of the landscape such as creeks,treesor rock formations,whichare in
manycases explainedas marksleftby the ancestoras he or she passed
by thatplace (see Strehlow1971; Ellis1985). The termstjukurand wapar
also mean "story","individualword", "whatsomeonesays, thingsaid",
and "birthmark, wart . . . showingsomethingdistinctiveand personal"
(Goddard1987:145,176). On anotherleveltheDreamingis an ever-present
creativepowerthatcan be accessedthroughperformance oftheDreaming
songslaid down by theancestors,and suchperformances are considered
to be essentialto maintainingthelifeforceof thecountryand thepeople.
Singing,then,is themostimportantsinglemediumforexpressingthe
people's relationshipto the land and to theirancestors,and knowledge
and ownershipof Dreamingsongs is highlyesteemed.A performance is
notclassifiedas song (inma)unlesstextand melodyare presentedtogether
(Ellis1983). Comparisonofdifferent performances ofthesamesongsshow
that,consideredin isolation,both textand melodyare relativelyfixed,
but that thereis immensevariabilityin theircombination,which is
accomplishedby what may be crudelycharacterisedas a process of
expansionor contractionof themelodyto accommodatetextsofdifferent
lengths.Ellis and I have arguedelsewherethatthisgreatvarietyfound
in the specificdetails of the text/melodycombinationindicatesthat

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62 / 1990YEARBOOKFOR TRADITIONALMUSIC

performers are negotiatingthe intermeshing of textand melodyin the

momentof performance ratherthanlearninga fixedsettingby rote(Ellis
and Barwick1987; Barwick1989).
The specificanalyticalquestionthat I will be addressingregardsthe
principlesaccordingto whichthisintermeshing takesplace. Althoughit
is highlyunlikelythatall pertinent couldbe arrivedat by musical
principles
analysisalone, previousanalysissuggeststhatsignificant can
regularities
be accountedforin termsof textualand melodicconstruction.We have
identifiedcertainprinciplesthatrecurin manyperformances ofone song,
ngintaka(Ellisand Barwick1987,1988; Barwick1989),butwithoutfurther
analysisitis impossibleto be surewhichoftheseprinciples maybe specific
to particularsonglines,particulargeographicalareas,or particulargroups
of performers.This paper, then, presentssome of the resultsof my
explorationthroughanalysis,of the musical structuralregularitiesin a
differentsong.

Analysis
In orderto draw attentionto the ways in whichanalysisis part of a
process of understanding,I will firstoutline some of the procedures
undertaken.Afterdecidingto analysethesongreferred to as "yamiwara"
by Yankunytjatjarawomen,myfirststepwas to listento and notateall
related recordingsin Ellis's field collection. This sample was then
supplementedby tracing other recorded performancesof the same
ceremonyin theAustralianInstitute ofAboriginalStudiessoundarchives.
In thisway I assembleda corpus of nine recordingsof Antikirinya and
Yankunytjatjara women'sperformances made at PortAugustaand Yalata
by CatherineEllis, Isobel White,Luise Hercus, and MargaretKartomi
between1966 and 1971 (see the"Listofrecordings analysed"in appendix).
Because of restrictionson recallingthe names and voices of now dead
performers,and in many areas the disappearance of traditional
performancepractices(see Gibson 1989, Jacobs 1989), it is no longer
possibleto obtainfurther information about thesespecificrecordings.A
map shows theplaces wheretherecordingsweremade in relationto the
traditionalcountryof Antikirinyaand Yankunytjajarapeople.
Detailed auditionnoteswereprepared,transcribing in detailforevery
itemin the sample the isorhythmic patternof each text,the textwords
(as accuratelyas possiblefromtherecording),and in less detail,a sketch
melodiccontourshowingthesettingofthetexton themelody.Thesewere
thencollated withoccurrencesof the same textin otherperformances,
and withothertextssharingcertainrhythmic or structuralfeatures.The
formofpresentation of theproductsofthisprocesswas arrivedat during
the course of writingup, at whichstage some additionalcheckingand
analysis was carried out. What I aimed to communicate of my
understanding was of courseconstrainedby theformalrequirements of
an academic paper, as well as by my assessmentof the likelylevel of
withand interest
familiarity in Aboriginalmusicby readersofthisjournal.

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BARWICK KNOWING THROUGH ANALYSIS / 63

SouthAustralia

Yalata
PortAugusta

(Adelaide)
200 kms

Map 1:
LocationsofYalataandPortAugusta,theplacesin ornearwhichthenineperformances
of theYamiwaraceremony wererecorded. The traditionalcountry of Antikirinya
and
peopleisconsiderably
Yankunytjatjara furthernorth, inthegeneralareaoftheshadedportion
ofthemap.Someperformers weretemporarilyvisitingtheplacesinwhichtheywererecorded,
whileothershadsettled foraccesstofacilities
there (e.g.an oldfolkshomeatPortAugusta).
ThesettlementatYalatawastheresult offorcedrelocation ofAboriginalpeopleofvarious
language
groupsoriginally onlandnoworformerly
resident usedforDepartmentofDefence
British
purposes(including nucleartestingat Maralingain the1950s).

Background
Most of theserecordingswere made by thewomenresearchersin the
contextof ceremonialperformanceswith associated body design and
dancing.A groupof womenwould traveltogetherto a suitableplace for
stagingtheceremony.As theperformances couldlasta considerable
period
of time,theceremonialgroundwould ideallyhave shade forthe singers
as well as a flatsandyarea forthedancingand a screenofbushesbehind
whichthepreparationofbody designswould takeplace and fromwhich

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64 / 1990 YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC

the fullypainteddancerswould appear at the relevantmomentin the

performance to proceed towardsthe singers.Anotherrequirementwas
thattheplace be out of thesightand earshotofmen,forlikemanyothers
in therepertoire ofAntikirinya and Yankunytjatjara womenat thattime,
theseceremonies wererestricted to women(themostsecretwererestricted
to womenwithtwo or morechildren)and weresaid to be powerfullove
magic. On one occasion, forexample,theceremonywas performedfor
thepurposeofreconciling a womanwithherhusband.Men couldbecome
seriouslyill or go mad iftheywitnessedsuchwomen'ssecretperformances
(see Ellis 1970, Ellis and Barwick1989). In thispaper I will be avoiding
mentionof any potentiallyrestricted material,includingespeciallywords
and meaningsof song texts,and will be limitingmy discussionof texts
to theirstrictlyformalelements.
In traditionalCentralAustraliansinging,a musicalperformance consists
ofa numberofsongitems,each ofabout30 seconds'duration,interspersed
withintervalsof informaltalk. Some performances may consistsolelyof
singing, buta full-scale ceremony is organisedarounda numberofsessions,
each of which startswith informalsingingand dancing,proceedsto a
periodduringwhichsomeperformers are decoratedwithtraditionalbody
designsrelating to the story recounted in theceremony,and culminates
with the presentationof a formaldance by thesedecoratedperformers
(see Ellis 1970; Ellis, Barwick& Morais 1989). Each song itempresents
a fixedtext,realisedalways in the same rhythmic form,in conjunction
with a particularmelodicpatternidentifying the ancestraljourneythat
the performance celebratesand in a sense recreates.Different textsare
relatedto different sites or events in the ancestraljourney,and may
describeactivitiesofthemaincharacteror characters,or encounterswith
otherancestralbeings.The song itemsperformedthusconstitutea sung
map of thecountrythroughwhichtheancestralbeingstravelled,and the
seriesas a whole is oftenreferred to as a songline.Songlinesmaybe quite
short,iftheancestraljourneycoveredonlya fewkilometres, forexample,
or verylong,as is said to be thecase forthemen'sportionsofthissongline,
whichare knownto extendfromPort Augustaat thehead of Spencer's
Gulfin SouthAustraliathroughto CentralAustralia,and possiblyas far
as Darwin in thenorth.The portionsof thesonglinecelebratedin these
women'sperformances all relateto the area around Port Augusta,and
it is not known in what manner,if at all, thewomen's and men's sites
are connected.

Texts
Evenforperformers, to decipher,translateor explain
itmaybe difficult
to particularevents
the song texts,whichare at best crypticreferences
in theancestraljourney,and oftenuse archaiclanguage,or even words
fromneighbouring or distantlanguagesthatmaynotnormallybe spoken
by the performers. Many of the textsof Yamiwara were said to be in
Arrernte4, fromthemutuallyintelligible
a languagequitedifferent Western
Desertlanguagesof Antikirinya and Yankunytjatjarausuallyspokenby
the performers.Ellis's field notes record many instances in which

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BARWICK KNOWINGTHROUGHANALYSIS/ 65

performers wereunableto translate thewordsofa songtheyhad justsung.

This "opacity"of song languageis also commonin NorthernAustralian
song practice(see Merlan 1987).
Whenworkingfromaudio recordings aloneitmaybe evenmoredifficult
to transcribethecorrectformof thetextbecause of phoneticdistortions
normally enteringinto sung language (and sometimes deliberately
introduced by performers to maskthesacredmeanings;see Strehlow1971),
theblurringof articulationresultingfromchoralperformance, especially
by a largegroup,and theoftenhighlevelof extraneousnoise in thefield
recordings(e.g. fromwind, children,dogs etc.).
The exegesisof textsby knowledgeableperformers (one ofmanyspeech
events that may occur in the informaltalkingbetweensung items) is
therefore essentialto understanding of theceremony,and greatemphasis
is placed on correctperformance and explanation.Different performers,
by virtueofkinshipaffiliation, birthplaceand appropriate attitudeto learn-
ingof songs,earnrightsof ownershipof different portionsof a song line
and itsassociatedcountry(see Payne 1984, 1989). The songowners,who
lead thesinging,are the only performers qualifiedto give meaningsfor
thetexts,and theymayrevealdifferent aspectsand levelsofmeaningabout
a particulartextto different people (see Ellis1970). The explanationsgiven
may dependon theperceivedlevel of understanding of thepersonbeing
instructed as well as on theknowledgeof thepersondoingtheexplaining.
Furthermore, some individualsmay have rightsto performa particular
song,butnotto giveexplanations.Accordingly, theexplanationsrecorded
on anyone performance occasionwillrepresent onlypartofthetraditional
knowledgerelatingto thesong textsconcerned.Performers' expressions
of "knowledge"about the song, then,are dependenton the conditions
operatingat themomentof utterance,and will be understood(or even
misunderstood) differently accordingto whatthelistener already"knows".
It is notappropriateto postulatea singlefixed"meaning"of thesongtext;
it is rathera matterfornegotiationand even contestation.Since these
criticalcontextualfactorsare rarelyif at all susceptibleto theprocesses
ofdocumentation, itwouldbe foolhardyforme to commenton or attempt
to analyse theselevels of song knowledgefromsecond-handevidence
alone; and first-hand experienceof the unique performanceoccasions
recordedon thesetapes is of course no longerpossible.
I have already suggestedthatmusical formis also negotiatedin the
momentofperformance and thisis evidencedby theconsiderable variation
betweenperformances and disagreements betweenperformers. Musical
analysiscan only indirectly approachthecontext-dependent reasonsfor
such variation and disagreement,but it does generate an (always
incomplete)description ofvariationthatstandsin a dialecticalrelationship
to theanalyst'sunderstanding of themusic.The performers' knowledge
of the musical form is the only knowledgethat analysis can directly
commentupon, insofaras thatknowledgeis manifested in performance,
and insofaras theproceduresofrecording and musicalanalysisare capable
of apprehendingthe salientfeaturesof the performedsonic event. This
is not to say thattheprocessof analysiscannotrecognisetheimportance
of other extra-musicalknowledge,but simplythat it cannot directly

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66 / 1990 YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC

illuminate thoseothertypesofknowledge.Thus,althoughtheexplanations
and meaningsofthetextsremainbeyondthescopeofanalysisbased solely
on recordings,musical analysisdoes allow reliablestatementson their
formalfeatures,which in generalremainremarkablyconsistentacross
performances.
In the Yamiwara performances analysed all textshave the repetition
patternAABB; i.e. thefulltextconsistsof two repeatingtextlines,A and
B. The fulltextis thencyclicallyrepeateda numberoftimesin thecourse
of one song item.Althougha song item,which"fades"in and out on a
cue fromthesong leader,may beginor end at any pointin a text,such
textshave two key points, which consistentlycorrespondto certain
structuralfeaturesin the melody.These textual"pointsof fit"occur at
the boundarybetweentextline repeatsin the cyclicallyrepeatingtext,
i.e. at thetextlinepair boundariesbetweenAA and BB, and betweenBB
and AA. The expansionor contractionof the melodyto accommodate
textsof various lengthsis regulatedin part by the matchingof various
key pointsin themelodywithtextualpointsof fit.This broad principle
appears to apply to text-melodyrelationshipsthroughoutthe Central
Australianand WesternDesertareas (see Ellis1985:105;Moyle1979:79-80;
Barwick1989:19; Keogh1989:9). Additionalconstraints applyaccording
to the particularstructuralcharacteristicsof a given melody.
In CentralAustraliathereis no use of melodicinstruments suchas the
didjeridu,but singingmaybe accomplishedby percussivebeating,which
always occurs in a fixedrelationshipto the textualrhythm,and which
may be performedin a numberof ways includingstrikingone object
againstanotheror againsttheground,handclapping, or, forwomenonly,
by beatingcuppedhandsagainstthethighswhenkneeling("lapslapping").
Textsoccurin threebasic "styles"(Ellisand Barwick1987) definedby the
presenceand type of beating accompaniment:"slow" style texts are
unaccompaniedby beating;"fast"styletextsare accompaniedby beating
withalternating unaccentedand accentedstrokes;while"veryfast"style
textsare accompaniedby evenly accentedbeating,two strokescorre-
spondingto approximately thesame durationas thecycleof unaccented
stroke and accented stroke in "fast" texts. In Antikirinyawomen's
ceremonies"slow" textsare performedduringpaintingof body designs
on thedancers.Both "fast"and "veryfast"textsare used to accompany
formaldancing, and they also occur in the interludes(duringwhich
informaldancingmay be performedwithoutbody designs)betweena
formaldanceand thenextpaintingsession.In a recentpaper(Ellis,Barwick
& Morais 1989), ithas beenshownthatdifferent setsofdancemovements
are performed to thetwotypesofbeating.I willbe confining mydiscussion
of melodicfitting to "fast"styletexts,and it will be convenientto refer
to thetextsaccordingto thenumberofmain(accented)beatsaccompany-
ing each textline, whichmay be two, threeor four.
Anotherimportantrelatedelementof the text'sconstructionis the
rhythmic segment,definedby the occurrenceof a long note at the end
of a meaningfultextphrase. In "fast"styletextsa segmentis made up
of two or threemainbeats. Two-and three-beatlinescorrespondto one
segment,while four-beattext lines are always subdivided into two

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BARWICK KNOWING THROUGH ANALYSIS / 67

segments.In Yamiwara"fast"styletextsthefollowingorganisations occur

(see figure1):
eight-segment textsmade up of two 2-beatlines,each ofwhichis repeated
(al a2/al a2//bl b2/bl b2)
six-segment textsmade up ofone 3-beatlineand one 4-beatline(a/a//bl
b2/bl b2)
four-segment textsmade up of eithertwo 3-beatlines,two 2-beatlines,
or one 2-beat line and one 3-beat line (a/a//b/b)

TEXT(text2)
EIGHT-SEGMENT
textlineA textlineB

LJ LJ J.
LJ,IJ "J
L1. "1
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
segmental segmenta2 segmentbl segmentb2

TEXT
SIX-SEGMENT
(text
7)
I
MAI Jf.:I: u.
textlineA textlineB

J.
ll'. %J- .u.r,.r
segmental segmenta2 segmentb

TEXT(text4)
FOUR-SEGMENT

I
L.J :
textlineA textlineB

5
L..l..J.
L..J- 5 5 5

segmenta segmentb

Figure1
Examplesof rhythmic settingsof textshavingeight-segment,
six-segment and four-segment
cycles. Unaccentedbeats, whichmay be omitted,appear in brackets.Four-segment texts
also occurwithone or bothlinesset to segmentshavingthreemain (accented)beats rather
than the two shown in the example.

Melody
Likeall CentralAustralianmelodies,theYamiwaramelodyis organised
around a tonal centre(termedhere the tonic),whichis usually the last
note performedas well as the note occupyingthe largestproportional

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68 / 1990 YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC

duration.The totalrangecoversmore thanan octave. Pitchesused are

organisedquite differently fromWesternmusic (see Ellis 1967, Ellis,
Barwick & Morais 1989), but for conveniencehere the approximate
equivalentsare indicatedusingWesternscale degrees.Comparedto other
melodiesin theAntikirinya women'srepertoire (Ellis1970; Ellis,Barwick
& Morais 1989), theYamiwaramelodyis quitecomplex.I followTunstill
(1979) in analysingthemelodyintofoursections,theboundariesofwhich
are markedby a discontinuous ascentin themelodicline,whichotherwise
(i.e. withina section)continuallydescendsor repeatsthesamepitch(with
small upward and downward flexures).Breaths occur more or less
consistently at thesesectionboundaries(see figure2).5
Only themainpitchesand a generalindicationoftheirrelativepositions
are representedin the melodic outlinenotation(whichforconvenience
placesthetonicon A; absolutepitchplacementvaries).Repeatednoteheads
indicatethatthe pitchis used repeatedlyover more than one segment.
Melodic featuresthatdo not occur in all itemsare enclosedin brackets.
I have indicateda furtherdivisionof melodicsection2 intotwo parts(2a
and 2b), based on thedifferentpitchrangesused and on certainrecurrent
featuresin the way textsare fittedonto the melody (see below).

melodicsection1 melodicsection2 melodicsection3 melodicsection4

V a b
bV
"
-~r
I- - ?-

Figure2:
Melodic outlineof theYamiwaramelody,showingdivisionintomelodicsectionsaccording
to breathstaken. Optional pitchesare enclosedin brackets.Repeatednotesindicatethat
thesame pitchis used foran extendedperiod,usuallyin morethanone segmentof thetext.
The secondmelodicsectionis dividedintotwo parts(2a and 2b) to reflectboththedivision
betweenthe two differing pitchranges(upperC-A and F-lowerC) and the importanceof
thisdivisionfortheplacementof textsonto the melody. Althoughthemelodyis usually
presentedonlyoncein a songitem,itmaybe presented severaltimes,especiallywhendancing
is occurring.

Figure2 showsthatthemelodymaybe extendedwithinmelodicsections

1, 2a, 3 and 4 by repeateduse ofthepitchesC and A; thedescentinmelodic
section2b is extendedonly by repetitionof the pitchD. Note thatthe
"external"melodicsections1 and 4 each consistof thesame materialas
presentin the "internal"sections2a and 3 respectively;these"external"
melodicsectionsmay in some respectsbe consideredas extensionsof the
melodic"core" of melodicsections2 and 3, whichtogetherconstitutea
descentover theentirepitchrangeof a tenth.Eitheror both of melodic
sections1 and 4 maybe omittedwhenthemelodyis presentedcyclically,
thatis morethanonce withinone sungitem.Such cyclicalpresentations
of themelodyoccurparticularly frequently whenformaldancingis taking
place. Thereis no apparentdifference oflinearand
in thepitchstructures
cyclical forms of themelody (thisis in contrastwiththeuse ofsignificantly
different tonal materialin linear and cyclical formsof other Central
Australianmelodies; see Ellis and Barwick1987).

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BARWICK KNOWING THROUGH ANALYSIS / 69

When the melody is performedcyclicallya leap is usually executed

betweenthe lower octave range of melodicsection4 and upper octave
rangeof melodicsection1. Althoughthisleap oftenoccursat a textline
boundary,it may also occur at otherpointsin the textcycle,and may
even rarelybe delayed untilthe second presentationof melodicsection
2. Boththesefeatures indicatethatthereis a conceptofoctaveequivalence,
so thatmelodicsections1 and 4 are consideredto be "the same" by at
leastsome singers.Althoughthereis usuallymaintenanceof fairlyprecise
unisonby thepracticeof thegroup followingthe song leader'smelodic
lead (oftenwitha slightdelay),majordisagreements in melodicplacement
are relativelyfrequently heard in cyclicalperformances of the melody,
as some singers,for example, performmelodic section4 in the lower
octave, thenmelodic section1 in the upper octave beforegoing on to
melodic section 2, while othersbegin melodic section 2 immediately
followingtheleap to theupper octave aftermelodicsection4, omitting
melodicsection1. Because of thesimilarity in thebeginningsof melodic
sections1 and 2, the disagreementdoes not become obvious untilthe
singerswho have omittedmelodicsection1 beginthedescentin melodic
section2b whiletheremainder continuewithmelodicsection1 in theupper
octave (see figure3).

1 2a 2b 3 4 1 2a ...etc.
............................
groupx M _ ...

(-. '

1 2a 2b 3 4 2a 2b
group y
a. i
. ...etc.
..
" : "'''"'

pointat which pointat which

disagreement disagreement
starts becomesobvious

Figure3:
Simplifiedmelodicoutlinenotationsillustrating betweensingerson themelodic
disagreement
sectionconstruction of therepeatedmelody.In thisexample,one groupperformsmelodic
section1 aftermelodicsection4, whiletheothergroupomitsmelodicsection1 and moves
to melodic section2. The disagreement does not become obvious untilthe lattergroup's
break to the lower octave in melodicsection2b.

Text/melodyfit
Turningnow to the ways in whichthe melodyis expanded and con-
tractedto fitthetext,analysisrevealsthatalthoughthereis a considerable
degreeof variationin the exact fittingthereare a numberof principles
thatseemto hold trueacrossmostofthesample.Firstly, "internal" melodic
sectionboundaries(i.e. thosebetweenmelodic sections1 and 2, 2 and
3, 3 and 4) correspondin everycase withsegmentboundariesin thetexts.

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70 / 1990 YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC

The "external" boundariesoftheitem(i.e. thebeginning ofmelodicsection

1 and theend of melodicsection4) oftenalso occur at or veryclose to
segmentboundaries,although,as alreadymentioned,thebeginningand
end of an itemare oftenmarkedby a sortof "fade"effect,in whichthe
song leaderstartsor ends thesingingveryfaintlyat any pointin thetext
line. In cyclical presentationsof the melody the octave leap between
melodicsections1 and 4 oftentakesplace at pointsotherthana textline
boundary,and is notalwaysmarkedby a breathintake,further evidence
that thesetwo melodicsectionsmay be consideredas equivalentwhen
presentedconsecutively.
The onlyinternalmelodicsectionboundaryto be consistently marked
by a textualpoint of fit(textline pair boundary)is thatbetween melodic
sections3 and 4; thenextmostcommonplacementfora pointof fitbeing
the boundary between melodic sections 2a and 2b. This can be
demonstrated by considering performances ofeight-segment text(text2).
of
Twenty-seven twenty-eight performances of this textplace the first
textualpointof fitat the2a/2b boundary,whileall place a textualpoint
of fitat the3/4boundary(see figure4). The 1/2and 2/3boundarieshave
a textualpointof fitin onlyone performance of thistext(thesame item
in whichthe2a/2b boundarydid not have a pointof fit).Note thatthe
pointof fitin themiddleof melodicsection3 is notmelodicallymarked.

Melodicsections

[ 1 1 2a II 2b 3 4

m:b2 blb2 a2 al a2:. b2b1b2 al

M a2 al a2 b2 bI b2: a2 ial a2 a . b2 bl1b2
IBorA
: BorA) AorBIIAorBlBorABorAjAorB AorB
[BB or AA II AA orBB BB orAA AA orBB
textcycle textcycle

Figure4:
Fittingof eight-segmenttextsonto the melody.The textcycle may be placed witheither
AA or BB as thefirsttextlinepair (textlinereversal).Note thatpointsof fit(textline pair
boundaries) coincide with melodic section boundaries 2a/2b and 3/4. Melodic section
boundaries1/2 and 2b/3 coincidewith textline boundaries.

Thereare two equally "good" fitsof thetext;eithertheAA or theBB

pointoffitmaybe placedat thebeginning ofthemelody.Bothpossibilities
are frequentlypresentedin consecutiveitems.This performance feature
has been widely identifiedin CentralAustralianmusic, and is usually
termed"textlinereversal"(forfurtherdiscussionsee Barwick1989:19-20).
texts,melodicsections1, 2a and 2b fit
In thesesettingsof eight-segment
over two segments,while melodic section3 fitsover six segmentsand
melodic section4 over foursegments.

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BARWICK KNOWING THROUGH ANALYSIS / 71

inmelodicsection3
Setting1: sixsegments

S 1a
2.. 2b
[Melodic
3 . 114 j
sections

b a b a b * b a
I blla
S abb bl a b .a b
I AA/BB
cycle I text
text
BB/AA,
BB/AA
cycle
IIBB/AA
IAA/BB IjAAI/BB
IBB/AA
IA/BB
text cycle
cycle text
inmelodicsection3
Setting2: foursegments
sections
1Melodic
I 1 2a II 2b II 3 4

ba. 1 b
bb
a
b
1b
. b a tb
b
BB/AA
IjAA/BB BB/AAIAA/BBD B/AAIiAA/BB
I BB/AAI
textcycle II text
cycle text
cycle
Iltext""
Figure5:
textswithtwo main beats per segmentonto themelody. The text
Fittingof four-segment
cyclemaybe placedwitheither AA orBBas thefirst Note
textlinepair(textlinereversal).
thatpointsoffitcoincide section
withallmelodic boundaries 4). Thesetexts
(cf.figure occur
witheithersixor foursegments in melodicsection3.

In figure5, whichshowsthemostfrequent settingsoffour-segmenttexts

withtwo main beats per segment(i.e. textsof exactlyhalfthelengthof
theeight-segment textjustdiscussed),itcan be seenthatthesegmentcounts
formelodicsections1, 2a, 2b and 4 are thesame as thepreviousexample.
Melodic section3, however,varies,havingeithersix or foursegments.
Some performers use only six or only four segmentsfor textsof this
structure,others use sometimessix, sometimesfour; in the latter,
disagreements betweensingersat thispointare frequentlyaudible.Again,
textualpointsoffitoccurring withinmelodicsection3 are notmelodically
markedby a rise in pitch; such risesoccur only at segmentboundaries
in themiddleof a textlinepair. Note thatsincetextualpointsoffitoccur
everytwo segmentsin thesetexts,thevariationof two segmentsin the
duration of melodic section 3 maintainsa textualpoint of fit at the
boundarybetweenmelodicsections3 and 4 (thiswould not be possible
with eight-segment texts,in which point of fitonly occurs everyfour
segments).

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72/ 1990YEARBOOK
FORTRADITIONAL
MUSIC

inmelodicsection3
1: foursegments
Setting
Melodicsections
BBA2b
I 1 E2a 3E 4 b

ba bb aa .b ja M b b. a

BB/AA AA/BB AA/BB IIBB/AAI

IIBB/AA AA/BB IIBB/AAII
textcycle II textcycle FI
textcycle I text...

inmelodicsection3
2: twosegments
Setting
Melodic
sections
I11 2a iE2b 113 14

mb M b 0 b
IBB/AA AA/BBIIBB/AAIIAA/BBIBB/AA
textcycle I
textcycle ]text...

Figure6:
textswiththreemain beatsper segmentonto themelody.The text
Fittingoffour-segment
cyclemaybe placedwitheither AA orBBas thefirst
textlinepair(textlinereversal),
and
pointsoffitcoincide
withallmelodicsection Thesetextsoccurwitheither
boundaries. four
or twosegments in melodicsection3.

If we comparefigure5 withfigure6, whichshows themostfrequent

settingsof four-segment textswiththreemain beats per segment,it can
be seenthatthesame segmentcountsapplyformelodicsections1, 2a and
2b, but thatmelodicsection3 is now eithertwo or foursegmentslong
(again a two-segmentdifference maintaininga textualpointof fitat the
3/4 boundary),and melodicsection4 is eithertwo or foursegmentslong
dependingon the durationof melodic section 3. Melodic section 3's
maximumdurationof fourthree-beatsegmentsis of coursethesame as
the maximumdurationof six two-beatsegmentsseen in the previous
examples(twelvebeats). This suggeststhat thismelodic sectionis not
measuredsolely by segments,but is also constrainedby some sort of
durationalmeasure(it is nevershorterthansix main beats,neverlonger
thantwelvemain beats) as well as by therequirement of finishing
with

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BARWICK KNOWING THROUGH ANALYSIS / 73

a textualpointoffit.Forall four-segment texts(i.e. thoseshownin figures

5 and 6), textualpointsof fitoccurat all melodicsectionboundaries.We
may sum up the observedtextfitting proceduresup to thispointof the
analysis as follows:
melodicsection1: 2 segments;usually beginswith textualpoint of fit
melodicsection2a: 2 segments;ends with a textualpoint of fit
melodicsection2b: 2 segments;beginswith a textualpoint of fit
melodicsection3: even numbersof segments;ends witha textualpoint
of fit; any points of fit occurringwithinthe melodic section are not
melodicallymarked;melodicsectionis no shorterthansix and no longer
than twelvemain beats;
melodicsection4: "balances" durationof melodicsection3 (either4 or
2 segments);beginsand ends with a textualpoint of fit.
I will now considerthe group of textswhose melodicsettingis most
variable:six-segment texts(see figure7). Thereare manydifferent settings
of such texts,and to judge by thehighpercentageof disagreements and
abandonments of attempts,text line reversal appears often to be
problematic,and in some performances does not occur at all. I propose
to show thatthe unevennessin segmentstructureof textlinesA and B
and theconsequentimpossibility of applyingsimultaneously all thetext
fitting proceduresoutlinedabove is responsiblefortheapparentdifficulty
in successfullyaccomplishingtextline reversal.
Disregardingforthe momentthe dispositionof textlines in melodic
sectionsotherthan the centralmelodic section2b, thereare two basic
arrangementsof the text. By far the most common arrangementhas
melodicsection2b coveringthe textsegmentsbb (as shown in the first
two examplesin figure7). This arrangementis the only one found in
performances withno successfultextlinereversal,and is always thefirst
arrangementpresentedin those performancesthat do have text line
reversal.The second arrangement presentedplaces the textsegmentsal
and a2 over melodic section2b (as in the thirdexamplein figure7).
The firstsettingshownin figure7, in whichthetextlineA is presented
at the beginningof the item,maintainsall the textfittingprocedures
outlinedabove (with the qualificationthatmelodic section4, at 2 text
lines,"balances"melodicsection3 in a different way fromthatpreviously
described.This setting, and another(notshown)inwhichmelodicsections
1 and 2 are divided al a2 al / a2, is thatmost commonlyoccurringin
performances in whichtextlinereversalis notattempted.It willbe noted
thatif a textline reversaldid occur afterthissetting,thatis, if setting
3, whichalso presentsthe textline A at thebeginningof the item,was
to be performed immediately aftersetting1, therewould be no immediate
cue to the less experiencedsingersin the group thata textline reversal
was about to be performed.
It is presumablyforthisreasonthatsetting2, whichdoes immediately
signal the reversalby presentingthe textline B at the beginningof the
item,is preferredto setting1 in performances with successfultextline
reversal,despitethefactthatmelodicsection2a is thenof 4 ratherthan
2 segments'duration.In a corresponding"anomaly" in setting3, it is
melodicsection1 thatis of 4 ratherthan2 segments(regularity is main-

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74 / 1990 YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC

Setting1: segmentsbb over melodic section2b; melodic sections1 and 2a measure2 segments
Melodicsections
1 I 2a I 2b 11 3 4

a2
A
81 .22
IIA L
m b a2 1
1-WA
A 02l
b

X AA IIBB I AA II BB
I textcycle textcycle
Setting2: segmentsbb over melodic section2b; melodic sections1 and 2a measure2 textlines
Melodicsections

S II 2a 2b 1__L 3 4 1

BB
b

II
A A[T]
l
a2 a
A
FBT]
AA
a2

BB I
b a2 al ia2

AA I] BB
b

I
textcycle textcycle
I [ text...
Setting3: segmentsal and a2 over melodic section2b; melodic sections1 and 2a measure2 textlines
Melodicsections

S1 __ 2a II 2b I 3 Ii11 4 I

Iue2
a b
e21e2 bIM2 1
a8 2 'a b M*e2a
2 l :a2
tAII A
IcByBl A II A I AI 1 A
Ii
I AA
textcycle
II BB I1 AA
textcycle
IB ]I AA I
I I I ltext cycle...

Figure7:
ofsix-segment
Threepossiblesettings textsontothemelody.Textlinereversal appearsto
be problematicwithsuchtexts,and is notaccomplished in all performances. 1 is
Setting
thatpreferredinperformances withno textlinereversal.In performanceswithsuccessful
textlinereversal
setting tosetting
2 ispreferred 1,presumably inordertosignal
unambiguously
thereversalfromsetting3. Thisinvolves
adjustingmelodic 1 and2 tomeasure
sections two
textlinesratherthanthetwosegments seenin all previousexamples.

tained,however,at the level of the textline). Perhapsit is in response

to suchan anomalythatmelodicsection1 is frequently omittedaltogether
in itemsotherwiseidenticalto settings2 and 3.
In comparisonwiththetextfittingproceduresapparently operatingwith
eightand four-segmenttexts,settingsof six-segment textsoftenseem to
theunitofmeasurement
involveredefining ofmelodicsections1, 2a, and

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BARWICK KNOWINGTHROUGHANALYSIS/ 75

4 fromthesegment(whichin thesesix-segment textsmay or may not be

coterminouswiththe textline) to therelativelymore regularstructural
level of text line. The central melodic section 2b, however, always
maintainsits measurementat two segments.
Anotherattemptedsettingworthyof mentionplaces the six-segment
texton themelodyin thefollowingarrangement (pointsoffitare indicated
in bold font):
melodicsection1: b b
melodicsection2a: al a2
melodicsection2b: al a2
melodicsection3: b b
melodicsection4: al a2 al a2

Althoughthis settingmaintainstwo-segmentmeasuresfor melodic

sections1 and 2a, it contravenesthe principlesof havinga point of fit
at the beginningof melodic section 2b. There are always major
disagreements or incompletepresentationsof themelodywhenthissetting
is attempted,indicatingthat the point of fitprincipleis less open to
variationthan the melodic sectionmeasurementrequirements.
Examinationof thefinerdetailof themelodyyieldsfurther examples
of ways in whichthelead singermay build themelodyformulaically, or
cue certainmelodicfeaturesto facilitatemaintenanceofmoreor less close
unison.Forexample,in textswithtwo-segment linestherepeatofthepitch
formulaC-A withinone textlinein melodicsections1, 2a and 3 indicates
thatthe same textline will be repeated;when the textline is presented
withonlyone C-A formula,or solelyon thepitchA, it indicatesthatthe
nexttextlinewillfollow.This featurewould helpto preventinexperienced
singersgetting"lost" in a complextext.In melodicsection3 the tonicis
always reachedby the end of thefirstcompletetextline in the section,
thereare nevermorethantwo consecutivesegmentsperformed solelyon
the tonic,and thereis always at least one completetextline performed
solely on the tonic beforethe end of melodic section3.
In practice,the applicationof such principlesof intermeshing of text
and melodymeansthateach actofperformance involvesconstantchecking
of all levelsofrhythmic and melodicconstruction in thecourseofmaking
decisionsabout fittingthe texton the melody. This featmay be easier
to performthanit is to analyse,because onlyone decisionneed be made
at any one point in the performance.As I have arguedelsewhere,this
flexibility in the systemof intermeshing of textand melodypromotes,
paradoxically,theconservationof what may seem to be veryinflexible
rhythmicand melodic structures(Barwick 1989). On the otherhand,
melodiccuingby experiencedperformers meansthattheless experienced
can participatein a relativelyunreflective way. The disagreements that
ariseat pointsof ambiguityin eithertextualor melodicstructure (as with
six-segment texts,forexample) are clear indicationthatperformers are
continuallynegotiatingthe fitbetweentextand melodyat the moment
of performance,always real-isingin the momentof performancenew
manifestations of theirrelationshipto the Dreaming.

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76 / 1990 YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC

Conclusion
In deferenceto theconventionsof academicdiscourse,I pose again the
questionswithwhichI opened thispaper. What can one "know"about
any sortof musicby means of musicalanalysis?What relationshipcan
the "knowledge" produced by analysis bear to the knowledge of
performers? I cannot claim to be able to answerthesequestionsin any
absoluteway. As I reflecton theimplicationsforme of havingdone the
analysis,themoststriking is thatI now experiencethemusicdifferently.
Before,myrelativeunfamiliarity withtheYamiwaramelodymeantthat
I tended to be unaware of any but the grossestdifferences between
successiveitems.Thus,whileI could identify changesoftextand textline
reversals,the finerdetailsof the melodicsettingand theirimplications
werelost on me. Now, however,I experiencelisteningto each new item
withan oftenexcitedappreciationof thesolutionsperformers have found
to thesometimesconflicting principlesof combiningtextand melody.As
Foucaultsaid of linguistics,analysismay be more a perceptionthanan
explanation(Foucault1970:381).Throughanalysis,I have had to confront
the technicalpossibilitiesand limitationsof themusicalsystem,as must
the performers in each momentof performing the intermeshing of text
and melody.The mediathroughwhichI arriveat suchan understanding,
and thelanguagewithwhichI name it, are verydifferent, and yetthere
is an interfacebetweentheseemingly contradictory approachesofholistic
expressionin performance and cold dissectionin analysis.I am aware that
in the absence of access to performance-based instruction,analytical
descriptionssuchas thatpresentedin thispapermaybe theonlyway for
manyreadersof thisjournalto have accessto information about thismusic
that would betterenable themto appreciatethe few readilyavailable
recordings.6
EventhoughI have so muchmoreto learnbeforeI couldevenapproach
full appreciationof the experienceof the performers, analysingthese
recordingshas beena processofdiscoverythathas taughtme a greatdeal
about thebeautyof CentralAustralianculture,whichseemsto express
a profoundunderstanding of the natureof the world, recognisingthe
creativepowerinherent in performance whileacknowledging thedebtwe
all owe to traditionand to the earth that sustains us. In my own
"performance" of thisanalysismyhope is thatI too mightbe able to use
thestructures I sharewiththe
and possibilitiesof theculturalinstitutions
readersof thisjournal to expresssome of theinsightsI have gainedinto
myworldthroughcontactwiththetraditionsthattheseAntikirinya and
Yankunytjatjarawomen so generouslysharedwithEllis,White,Hercus
and Kartomiso manyyearsago. In doingso, I hope thatnon-Aboriginal
Australiansand othersmaybe betterenabledto appreciateaspectsof this
wonderfulmusicthattheymightnototherwisehave knownhow to listen
to, and therebycome to a betterunderstanding ofAboriginalculture.My
rolecan neverbe to speak fortheperformers, but ratherto communicate
myunderstanding ofthemusic,gainedpartlybutnotonlythrough musical
analysis,to the scholarlycommunityand beyond.

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BARWICK KNOWING THROUGH ANALYSIS / 77

Acknowledgements
Financialsupportforthisresearchhas been providedby theNational
ResearchFellowshipSchemeof theAustralianResearchCouncil, and by
the InternalResearchGrantsSchemeof theUniversityof New England.
Thanks are due to many people. Firstly,to CatherineEllis, for her
continuinggenerosityin sharingher vast experienceand understanding
of CentralAustralianmusic, as well as allowingme unhinderedaccess
to herhugefieldcollection.Secondly,to Isobel (Sally) White,Margaret
Kartomiand LuiseHercusforaccess to theirfieldtapes; Sally Whitealso
generouslymade available field notes and slides, as well as helpful
backgroundinformation on theperformances she recorded.Gratitudeis
also due to Grace Koch, sound audiographerat theAustralianInstitute
of AboriginalStudies,forherunstinting assistance.VeronicaRosierand
Guy Tunstillgave kind permissionforEllis and myselfto consulttheir
Honours disserations(Rosier 1973 and Tunstill1979).

NOTES
1. Forthepurposeof thispaper I followBent(1980) in definingmusicalanalysisas "that
partof thestudyof musicwhichtakesas itsstarting-point themusicitself,ratherthan
externalfactors";and more specificallyas the"resolutionof a musicalstructureinto
relativelysimplerconstituent elements,and theinvestigation of thefunctionsof those
elementswithinthatstructure"(Bent 1980:341, 340).
2. I have, however, studied Pitjantjatjaralanguage and participatedin workshops
conductedby traditionalperformers of theCentreforAboriginalStudiesin Music in
Adelaide (see Tunstill1989). My originaltrainingwas in Romancelinguistics, and my
doctoralthesiswas on Italiantraditionalsong,whichI also performed formanyyears.
Theoretically,myinterests are in historicalethnomusicology,and in particularin the
use of documentaryresources(see Barwick1988/89).
3. Antikirinya (also spelt"Antikirinja" and "Andagarinja")and Yankunytjatjara speakers
traditionallyinhabitedneighbouringareas in south-eastCentralAustralia.The two
languageshave manywordsin commonwitheach otherand withthemoreextensively
documentedPitjantjatjaralanguage,and thereare manysharedceremoniesand ritual
linksbetweenthe two countries.
4. Also spelt "Aranda".
5. Note thatmelodysettingsof thissonglinehave been previouslyanalysedor discussed
by Ellis1964,Tunstill1979 and 1987, Rosier1973. See also Strehlow1971; Keogh1989
discussesa similar,possiblyrelated,melodyfromnorthwestWesternAustralia.All
theseexceptRosierconcentrateon men'sperformances of the melody.
6. Thereare no commerciallyavailable recordingsof Antikirinya and Yankunytjatjara
women's music,but two relativelyrecentlyreleasedrecordingscontainingexamples
ofCentralAustralianwomen'smusic(fromtheWarlpiriand Alyawarralanguagegroups
respectively)are foundin Wild 1988 and in thecompaniondisc to Moyle 1986. Music
fromthePitjantjatjara, a closelyrelatedgroupto theAntikirinya and Yankunytjatjara,
is representedin the open (men'sand women's) song inma nyiinyii,also includedin
Wild1988. A fullerversionof inmanyiinyiiis availableon cassettewithaccompanying
bookletfromtheCentreforAboriginalStudiesin Music,University of Adelaide,GPO
Box 498, Adelaide S.A. 5001, Australia.

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78 / 1990 YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC

LIST OF RECORDINGS ANALYSED

Performance1, recordedby C.J. Ellis at Port Augusta in January1966 on Ellis fieldtape

66/22-24.Performedby Antikirinyawomen.
Performance 2, recordedby CatherineEllis at PortAugustain January1966 on Ellis field
tape 66/30-31.Performedby Antikirinya women.
Performance 3, recordedby CatherineEllisat PortAugustain1969on EllisfieldtapeE69/27-8.
Performedby Antikirinyawomen.
Performance 4, recordedby MargaretKartomiat Yalata in September1969 on Kartomifield
tape KY69/9, AIAS 1713B-1714A.Performedby Yankunytjatjarawomen.
Performance 5, recordedby MargaretKartomiat PidinggaLake nearYalata on 8 September
1969,on KartomifieldtapesKY69/12-13,AIAS 1714. Performed by Yankunytjatjara
women.
Performance 6, recordedby MargaretKartomiat PidinggaLake nearYalata on 11 September
1969,on KartomifieldtapesKY69/20-21,AIAS 1716B.Performed by Yankunytjatjara
women.
Performance7, recordedby Isobel (Sally) Whiteat PortAugustaon 31 January1970, on
WhitefieldtapenumberWA70/8-9,AIAS 3034B-3035A.LuiseHercusalso recorded
theperformance on her tapes 310-312.Performedby groupof Antikirinya women
in the sandhillsbehind the DavenportReserve.
Performance 8, recordedby Isobel (Sally) Whiteat Yalata on 6 August1970, on Whitefield
tape WY70/10-11,AIAS 3035A-B. Performedby Yankunytjatjarawomen.
Performance9, recordedby Isobel (Sally) Whiteat Yalata on 17 August1971, on White
field tape WY71/6-7, AIAS 3042B-3043A. Performed by large group of
Yankunytjatjarawomen.

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