Mineralium Deposita (1998) 33: 539±546 Ó Springer-Verlag 1998

ARTICLE

R. H. Sillitoe á G. B. Steele á J. F. H. Thompson

J. R. Lang

Advanced argillic lithocaps in the Bolivian tin-silver belt

Received: 13 February 1998 / Accepted: 11 March 1998

Abstract Zones of advanced argillic alteration consti-

tuting lithocaps are commonplace in the shallow parts of
Introduction
porphyry copper systems. Similar lithocaps are also
Lithocaps
recognized in the shallowly eroded southern part of the
Bolivian tin-silver belt, where mineralization typically is
Lithocaps are large, topographically prominent masses
centred on felsic volcanic domes. A well-preserved lit-
of advanced argillic and argillic alteration that are lo-
hocap at PotosõÂ is dominated by vuggy residual quartz
cated between the subvolcanic intrusive environment
and contained the world's largest silver resource,
and the palaeo-surface, where they commonly constitute
whereas the basal remnant of a lithocap at Pulacayo is
the upper parts of porphyry copper systems (Sillitoe
composed of barren quartz-alunite. Minor gold occurs
1995). Lithocaps comprise large volumes of altered rock
in the structurally controlled roots of a lithocap at
and, prior to erosional degradation, commonly occupy
Tasna. The mineralization in these lithocaps is of high-
several tens of km2 and attain thicknesses of >1 km.
sulphidation type and was generated in the epithermal
Lithocaps may host high-sulphidation (acid-sulphate)
environment. In contrast, the tin- and base metal-bear-
epithermal precious-metal mineralization of a variety of
ing massive sulphide veins and associated sericitic and
styles.
quartz-tourmaline alteration that underlie the Bolivian
Lithocaps are also recognized in the shallow parts of
lithocaps are typi®ed by sulphides of low sulphidation
some lithophile element-enriched deposits, most notably
state, but are dominantly mesothermal rather than epi-
in the Bolivian tin-silver belt (Sillitoe 1995; Fig. 1). This
thermal in character. Magma chemistry is believed to
report brie¯y characterizes these Bolivian lithocaps in
account for the characterization of Bolivian lithocaps by
the context of a generalized model for alteration and
silver-tin-antimony and porphyry copper lithocaps by
mineralization in Bolivian tin-silver systems. The char-
gold-copper-arsenic. Low-grade, bulk-tonnage silver
acterization is based on three contrasting examples of
mineralization within Bolivian lithocaps and high-grade
advanced argillic alteration, at PotosõÂ (Sillitoe 1988;
tin-bearing veins concealed beneath them both consti-
Steele 1996), Pulacayo (Sillitoe 1988) and Tasna
tute attractive exploration objectives.
(Thompson et al. 1996). The lithocap that forms the
upper parts of Cerro Rico at PotosõÂ was described
Editorial handling: DR originally by Turneaure (1960) as a zone of silici®cation,
which Sillitoe et al. (1975) compared to the silici®cation
R.H. Sillitoe (&)
27 West Hill Park, Highgate Village, accompanying argillic/advanced argillic alteration in the
London N6 6ND, England shallow parts of porphyry copper systems.
G.B. Steele
Rio Tinto Mining and Exploration Limited, Casilla 440,
Liparita 251, Barrio Industrial, Antofagasta, Chile
Bolivian tin-silver deposits
J.F.H. Thompson1 á J.R. Lang
Mineral Deposit Research Unit, The Bolivian tin belt occupies the back-arc portion of
Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences,
University of British Columbia, 339 Stores Road, the central Andes. The youngest (23±12 Ma; Grant et al.
Vancouver, B.C. V6T 1Z4, Canada 1979) and least eroded deposits in the belt are in its
Present address: southern part. There, the shallower erosion levels result
1
Teck Exploration Ltd., Suite 600, 200 Burrard Street, in partial preservation of the upper, silver-rich parts of
Vancouver, B.C. V6C 3L9, Canada deposits (Turneaure 1971) and a number of lithocaps
540
(Fig. 1). The Bolivian tin-silver deposits are associated
typically with felsic volcanic domes (Cunningham et al.
1991) of broadly rhyodacitic composition. These frac-
tionated igneous rocks are relatively reduced and as-
signable to the ilmenite series (Sugaki et al. 1988;
Lehmann et al. 1990). Their reduced character probably
re¯ects the elevated organic carbon content of the thick
underlying prism of early Palaeozoic meta-sedimentary
rocks (Lehmann 1994), which underwent thick-skinned
compressive tectonism at the time of magma generation
(Lamb et al. 1997).
The tin-silver deposits are characteristically of vein
type, with the ore comprising polymetallic massive sul-
phides accompanied by only relatively minor amounts of
gangue (Turneaure 1960; Ludington et al. 1992). How-
ever, mineralized veinlet stockworks and hydrothermal
breccias are also commonplace. Widespread sericitic
alteration and tourmalinization accompany the miner-
alization. Well-developed metal zoning typi®es many of
Fig. 1 Location of the PotosõÂ , Pulacayo, Tasna and other lithocaps in
the tin-silver belt of the Eastern Cordillera, southwestern Bolivia (see
inset)
the vein systems, with base metals and silver tending to
increase both upwards and outwards at the expense of
tin, bismuth and tungsten (Turneaure 1960).
Lithocap characteristics
PotosõÂ
The lithocap at Cerro Rico crops out over 1 km2 and
exceeds 400 m in thickness (Fig. 2), much of it hosted by
rhyodacite porphyry (Fig. 3a). The upper 250 m consist
of cryptocrystalline quartz, which is largely vuggy
(Turneaure 1960; Sillitoe et al. 1975) and residual in
origin (Fig. 3a; Sillitoe 1988). Zones of massive silici®-
cation are the product of local quartz introduction. The
underlying 150 m consist of quartz-dickite alteration
(Sillitoe 1988; Steele 1996). Traces of pyrophyllite are
present with this assemblage near the base of the litho-
cap (Steele 1996). The quartz-dickite alteration shows a
gradational contact with the underlying sericitic altera-
tion which, in turn, grades into quartz-tourmaline al-
teration in the deepest parts of the deposit (Fig. 3a;
Sillitoe 1988; Steele 1996). Hypogene aluminium phos-
phate-sulphate (APS) minerals (Sto€regen and Alpers
1987), most notably svanbergite, are abundant within
the quartz-dickite zone and common within the lower
portions of the vuggy quartz zone (Steele 1996).
The lithocap is host to disseminated silver mineral-
ization of both hypogene and supergene origin. Ar-
gentite, the principal hypogene silver mineral, inverted
to acanthite and is associated spatially with disseminated
barite (Steele 1996). A sheeted zone of polymetallic veins
cuts the lithocap (Turneaure 1960), with the upper parts
of the veins containing chalcedonic quartz and barite.
Both the veins and the disseminated hypogene mineral-
ization throughout the lithocap underwent pervasive
supergene oxidation in the weathering environment.
Pockets of pyritic hypogene mineralization that escaped
the oxidation demonstrate that the lithocap originally
contained 5±10 vol % of disseminated sulphides. Veins
of porcellanous supergene alunite were generated im-
mediately beneath the lithocap during the sulphide oxi-
dation. The lithocap at Cerro Rico hosts the world's
largest silver resource, amounting to at least 86 000 to-
nnes (2800 million oz) of silver metal prior to colonial
exploitation.
Pulacayo
The lithocap remnant at Pulacayo is con®ned entirely to
the dome. It is approximately 40 m thick and occupies
the highest parts of the district, although hypogene ad-
vanced argillic alteration extends at least 300 m deeper
along faults (Fig. 3b; Sillitoe 1988). The lithocap is
composed of pervasive quartz-alunite alteration, which
contained about 10 vol % pyrite before supergene oxi-
dation. Minor pyrophyllite is present at the base of the