SESSION - 1

NOTES – 1

FLUID DYNAMICS
In physics, fluid dynamics is a sub discipline of fluid mechanics that deals with fluid flow—the
science of fluids (liquids and gases) in motion. It has several sub disciplines itself, including
aerodynamics (the study of air and other gases in motion) and hydrodynamics (the study of
liquids in motion).

Euler’s equation
Euler's equation for motion Contents

The Euler's equation for steady flow of an ideal fluid along a streamline is a relation between
the velocity, pressure and density of a moving fluid. It is based on the Newton's Second Law of
Motion. The integration of the equation gives Bernoulli's equation in the form of energy per
unit weight of the following fluid.
It is based on the following assumptions:

 The fluid is non-viscous (ie., the frictional losses are zero).

 The fluid is homogeneous and incompressible (i.e., mass density of the fluid is constant).
 The flow is continuous, steady and along the streamline.
 The velocity of the flow is uniform over the section.
 No energy or force (except gravity and pressure forces) is involved in the flow.

Derivation of Equation
Let us consider a steady flow of an ideal fluid along a streamline and small element AB of the
flowing fluid as shown in figure.
 dA = Cross-sectional area of the fluidelement
 ds = Length of the fluid element
 dW = Weight of the fluid element
 P = Pressure on the element at A
 P+dP = Pressure on the element at B
 v = velocity of the fluid element

We know that the external forces tending to accelerate the fluid element in the direction of the
streamline

(1)
We also know that the weight of the fluid element,

From the geometry of the figure, we find that the component of the weight of the fluid element
in the direction of flow,

(2)
Mass of the fluid element =
We see that the acceleration of the fluid element

(3)
Now, as per Newton's second law of motion, we know that Force = Mass *Acceleration

Dividing both sides by

(4)
This is the required Euler's equation for motion as in the form of a differential equation.
Integrating the above equation,

or in other words,

which proves the Bernoulli's equation.

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS – 1
1. Which of the following devices does not use Bernoulli's equation as its working principle?

a. Venturimeter c. Pitot tube

b. Orifice-meter d. None of the above

2. What is the correct formula for Euler's equation of motion?

Where,
ρ = density of the fluid
p = pressure force
g = acceleration due to gravity
v = velocity of the fluid

Ans : (∂p / ρ) + (g dz) + (v dv) = 0

3. The study of force which produces motion in a fluid is called as

fluid dynamics

4. Euler equation is useful for

Ans : in viscid flow

5. sum of pressure, elevation, and velocity effects is

Ans : constant across streamlines.

TWO MARKS WITH ANSWER – 1

1. Euler's Equation
In fluid dynamics, the Euler equations are a set of quasilinear hyperbolic
equations governing adiabatic and inviscid flow. They are named after Leonhard Euler.
The equations represent Cauchy equations of conservation of mass (continuity), and
balance of momentum and energy, and can be seen as particular Navier–Stokes
equations with zero viscosity and zero thermal conductivity.
 2. Euler Equation Assumptions
It is based on the following assumptions:
 The fluid is non-viscous (i,e., the frictional losses are zero).
 The fluid is homogeneous and incompressible (i.e., mass density of the fluid
is constant).
 The flow is continuous, steady and along the streamline.
 The velocity of the flow is uniform over the section.

3. Euler's equation of motion

(∂p / ρ) + (g dz) + (v dv) = 0

Where,
ρ = density of the fluid
p = pressure force
g = acceleration due to gravity
v = velocity of the fluid

POSSIBLE BIG QUESTION – 1

1. Derive Euler’s equation of motion

SESSION - 2

NOTES – 2

BERNOULLI'S EQUATION
The Bernoulli equation states that,

Where
points 1 and 2 lie on a streamline,
the fluid has constant density,
the flow is steady, and
there is no friction.
Although these restrictions sound severe, the Bernoulli equation is very useful, partly
because it is very simple to use and partly because it can give great insight into the
balance between pressure, velocity and elevation.
How useful is Bernoulli's equation? How restrictive are the assumptions governing its
use? Here we give some examples.
Pressure/velocity variation
Consider the steady, flow of a constant density fluid in a converging duct, without
losses due to friction (figure 14). The flow therefore satisfies all the restrictions
governing the use of Bernoulli's equation. Upstream and downstream of the
contraction we make the one-dimensional assumption that the velocity is constant
over the inlet and outlet areas and parallel.

One-dimensional duct
showing control
volume.

When streamlines are parallel the pressure is constant across them, except for
hydrostatic head differences (if the pressure was higher in the middle of the duct, for
example, we would expect the streamlines to diverge, and vice versa). If we ignore
gravity, then the pressures over the inlet and outlet areas are constant. Along a
streamline on the centerline, the Bernoulli equation and the one-
dimensional continuity equation give, respectively,

These two observations provide an intuitive guide for analysing fluid flows, even
when the flow is not one-dimensional. For example, when fluid passes over a solid
body, the streamlines get closer together, the flow velocity increases, and the pressure
decreases. Airfoils are designed so that the flow over the top surface is faster than over
the bottom surface, and therefore the average pressure over the top surface is less than
the average pressure over the bottom surface, and a resultant force due to this pressure
difference is produced. This is the source of lift on an airfoil. Lift is defined as the
force acting on an airfoil due to its motion, in a direction normal to the direction of
motion. Likewise, drag on an airfoil is defined as the force acting on an airfoil due to
its motion, along the direction of motion.
OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS – 2

1. Which of the following devices does not use Bernoulli's equation as its working
principle?

a. Venturimeter c. Pitot tube

b. Orifice-meter d. None of the above

2. Which of the following sentences are true for Bernoulli's equation?

1. Bernoulli's principle is applicable to ideal incompressible fluid

2. The gravity force and pressure forces are only considered in Bernoulli's
principle
3. The flow of fluid is rotational for Bernoulli's principle
4. The heat transfer into or out of fluid should be zero to apply Bernoulli's
principle

a. (1), (2) and (3) c. (1), (2) and (4)

b. (1), (3) and (4) d. (1), (2), (3) and (4)

3. Chimney works best on principle of

A. equation of continuity C. light equation

B. Bernoulli's equation D. speed equation

4. Fundamental equation that relates pressure to fluid's speed and height is known as

A. equation of continuity C. light equation

B. Bernoulli's equation D. speed equation

5. According to equation of continuity product of area of pipe and speed of fluid

along pipe is

A. 1 C. constant
B. 0 D. different

TWO MARKS WITH ANSWER – 2

1. Bernoulli's Equation of Motion

The flow must be steady, i.e. the fluid velocity at a point cannot change with time, the
flow must be incompressible – even though pressure varies, the density must remain
constant along a streamline; friction by viscous forces has to be negligible.
 2. Assumptions must be met for Bernoulli equation
 the flow must be steady, i.e. the fluid velocity at a point cannot change with time,
 the flow must be incompressible – even though pressure varies, the density must
remain constant along a streamline

3. Write the Bernoulli’s equation applied between two sections

p1/ρg + v21/2g + Z1 = p2/ρg + v22/2g + Z2

p/ρg = pressure head

v2/2g = kinetic head
Z = datum head

POSSIBLE BIG QUESTION – 2

1. Derive Bernoulli’s equation of motion

SESSION – 3 (TUTORIAL)
PROBLEMS ON EULER AND BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

1. The water is flowing through a pipe having diameters 20 cm and 10 cm at sections 1 and
2 respectively. The rate of flow through pipe is 35 lit/sec. the section 1 is 6m above datum.
If the pressure at section 2 is 4m above the datum. If the pressure at section 1 is 39.24
N/cm2, find the intensity of pressure at section 2.

Given:

At section 1, D1 = 20 cm = 0.2m


( 0 .2 )
A1 = 4 2 = 0.314m2.

P1 = 39.24 N/cm2 = 39.24 X104 N/m2.

Z1 = 6.0m

At section 2, D2 = 0.10m
 
(0.1)
A2 = 4 2 = 0.0785m2.

P2 = ?

Z1 = 4.0m

Rate of flow Q = 35 lit/sec = 35/1000 = 0.035m3/s

Q = A1V1 = A2V2

V1 = Q / A1 = 0.035 / 0.0314 = 1.114 m/s

V2 = Q / A2 = 0.035 / 0.0785 = 4.456 m/s.

Applying Bernoulli’s Equations at sections at 1 and 2, we get

2 2
p V p V
1
 1
 2
 2

g 2g z1 = g 2g z2

or (39.24 X104 / 1000X9.81) + ((1.114)2/2X9.81) + 6.0

= (P2 /1000X9.81)+((4.456)2/2X9.81)+4.0

40+0.063+6.0 = (p2/9810)+1.012+4.0

46.063 = (p2/9810) + 5.012

(p2/9810) = 46.063 – 5.012 = 41.051

p2 = (41.051X9810/104) = 40.27 N/cm2

2. In a vertical pipe conveying oil of specific gravity 0.8, two pressure gauges have been
installed at A and B where the diameters are 16 cm and 8 cm respectively. A is 2 m above
B. the pressure gauge readings have shown that the pressure at B is greater than at A by
0.981 N/cm2. Neglecting all losses, calculate the flow rate. If the gauges at A and B are
replaced by tubes filled with the same liquid and connected to a U – tube containing
mercury, calculate the difference of level of mercury in the two limbs of the U-tube.
Given:
Sp.gr.. of oil, So = 0.8
Density, ρ = 0.8 X1000 = 800 kg/m3.
Dia at A, DA = 16 cm = 0.16m
 
X (0.16 ) 2  0.0201
Area at A, A1 = 4 m2.
Dia. At B DB = 8 cm = 0.08m

X (0.08) 2  0.005026
Area at B, AB = = 4 m2
(i). Difference of pressures, pB – pA = 0.981 N/cm2.
= 0.981 X 104 N/m2. = 9810 N/m2.
Difference of pressure head (pB – pA)/ ρg = (9810 / (800X9.81)) = 1.25
Applying Bernoulli’s theorem at A and B and taking reference line passing through
section B, we get

p A V A2 p B V B2
 ZA    ZB
g 2 g g 2 g

p A pB VB2 V A2
  Z A  ZB  
g g 2g 2g

p A  pB V2 V2
 2.0  0.0  B  A
g 2g 2g

VB2 V A2 pB  p A

- 1.25 + 2.0 = 2g 2g g = 1.25
VB2 V A2

0.75 = 2g 2g --------------------- (i)
Now applying continuity equation at A and B, we get
VAXA1 = VBXA2

VA X (.16 ) 2
V A XA1 4
  4V A
A2 
(.08) 2
VB = 4

Substituting the Value of VB in equation (i), we get

16V A2 V A2 15V A2
 
0.75 = 2g 2g 2g

0.75 X 2 X 9.81
 0.99 m / s.
VA = 15

Rate of flow, Q = VAXA1

= 0.99 X 0.0201 = 0.01989 m3/s.
 SESSION - 4

NOTES – 4
THE MOMENTUM EQUATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

We have all seen moving fluids exerting forces. The lift force on an aircraft is exerted by
the air moving over the wing. A jet of water from a hose exerts a force on whatever it hits.
In fluid mechanics the analysis of motion is performed in the same way as in solid mechanics
- by use of Newton's laws of motion. Account is also taken for the special properties of
fluids when in motion.

The momentum equation is a statement of Newton's Second Law and relates the sum of the
forces acting on an element of fluid to its acceleration or rate of change of momentum. You
will probably recognise the equation F = ma which is used in the analysis of solid mechanics
to relate applied force to acceleration. In fluid mechanics it is not clear what mass of moving
fluid we should use so we use a different form of the equation.Newton's 2nd Law can be
written:The Rate of change of momentum of a body is equal to the resultant force acting on
the body, and takes place in the direction of the force.

To determine the rate of change of momentum for a fluid we will consider a streamtube as
we did for the Bernoulli equation,

We start by assuming that we have steady flow which is non-uniform flowing in a stream
tube.

A streamtube in three and two-dimensions

In time a volume of the fluid moves from the inlet a distance , so the volume
entering the streamtube in the time is
this has mass,

and momentum

Similarly, at the exit, we can obtain an expression for the momentum leaving the
steamtube:

We can now calculate the force exerted by the fluid using Newton's 2nd Law. The force is
equal to the rate of change of momentum. So

We know from continuity that , and if we have a fluid of constant density,

i.e. , then we can write

For an alternative derivation of the same expression, as we know from conservation of

mass in a stream tube that

The rate at which momentum leaves face 1 is

The rate at which momentum enters face 2 is

Thus the rate at which momentum changes across the stream tube is

i.e.

This force is acting in the direction of the flow of the fluid.

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS – 4
1. Product of mass and velocity is known as

A. impulse
B. distance
C. momentum
D. velocity

2. Time rate of change of momentum of a body is equal to

A. displacement
B. applied force

3. Product of force and time is known as

A. impulse
B. distance
C. momentum
D. velocity

4. Throwing a package onto shore from a boat at rest will cause boat to move

A. inward from shore

B. outward from shore
C. at rest
D. uniform motion

5. Forces which act directly on volumetric mass of fluid element called

A. fluid forces
B. body forces
C. direct forces
D. fluid forces

TWO MARKS WITH ANSWER – 4

1. The Momentum Equation And Its Applications.

Def.: An equation stating that the impulse (force multiplied by time) applied to the
body of water is equal to the momentum (mass multiplied by velocity) acquired by
it. The concepts of momentum and impulse, along with energy, are basic to all
dynamics.
2. Define Impulse Momentum Equation (or) Momentum Equation.

The total force acting on fluid is equal to rate of change of momentum.

According to Newton’s second law of motion,
F = ma
F dt = d(mv)

3. How do you find the impulse of an object?

 As you do, keep these three major truths in mind:

 The impulse experienced by an object is the force.
 time.
 The momentum change of an object is the mass.
 velocity change.
 The impulse equals the momentum change.

POSSIBLE BIG QUESTION – 4

1. State and prove impulse momentum equation

SESSION – 5

NOTES – 5
ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND TORQUE

The angular momentum, H, of a particle about a

reference point O is the cross product between the
position vector, r, and the momentum of the
system, mV, or in equation form,

H = r × mV
Angular Momentum
where m is the mass of the system, and V is the
velocity of the system. The direction of the
angular momentum is perpendicular to the plane
containing the position vector and velocity vector,
and it can be determined by using the right hand
rule, as shown in the figure.

The angular momentum and torque or moment of

a particle are related. Recall, the torque, T, is
 given by the cross product of the position vector
and the force vector:

T=r×F

The force could also be written as ma and using

the chain rule as,

Right Hand Rule T = r × m dv/dt =d(r × mv)/dt

Thus, for a particle, the cross product of the

position and force vectors is equal to the
momentum rate of change, or

r × F = dH/dt

Moment of Momentum Equation

The moment of momentum equation is also

referred to as the angular momentum equation.
The moment of momentum equation for a fixed
and nondeforming control volume can be derived
using by taking a material derivative of the
angular momentum of a particle (omitted here),
Torque which will give

where r is the position vector (about a reference

Unit Normal Vector point),V is the absolute velocity of the fluid,
and n is the outward unit normal vector. For
steady flow, the first term on the right hand side of
the moment of momentum equation vanishes. The
term V·n will be positive when the flow is out of
the control volume while it is negative when the
flow is into the control volume

The moment of momentum equation can be stated

in words as follows:

Hydraulic Turbine The moment of momentum equation can be

applied to analyze rotating systems, such as
turbines, sprinklers, and fans. In analyzing such
 systems, the vector form of the equation is often
resolved into scalar form, and only the direction
along the axis of rotation is considered.

Take the lawn sprinkler as shown in the figure for

example. For steady flow, the moment of
Lawn Sprinkler momentum equation reduces to

So why two velocities? Due to the conservation of

mass, the mass flow rate, dm/dt is constant, and
thusρVrel must also be constant. Vrel is constant for
a non-accelerating system. The Vabs is the rate the
mass is really moving as compared to the ground
and this drives the rotating arm. It is critical that
the relationship between Vabs and and Vrel is
understood and used correctly. They are related as

Vabs = Vrel + Vtip

Velocity Relationships:
Vtip - Nozzle Tip Velocity ( = ωr)
Vrel - Fluid Velocity Relative to Nozzle
where Vtip is usually in the opposite direction, and
Vabs - Absolute Velocity from Ground thus negative.

Generally, the basic steady state angular moment

equation is written with separate terms for fluid
coming in and going out (velocity is assumed
perpendicular to the inlet or outlet area, and area
does not change) giving

Moment of Momentum Analysis

of a Lawn Sprinkler

This form is for fixed, nondeforming control

volumes. For rotating system, the absolute
velocity must be used.

Along the axis of rotation, the above equation can

also be written in scalar form for outlet only
systems as simply

Tshaft = -r Vθ dm/dt

where Tshaft is the torque of the shaft, Vθ is the

tangential velocity of the fluid, and dm/dt
(=ρAVrel) is the total mass flow out of the control
volume. Notice, this is a scalar equation, and the
minus sign means that the shaft torque opposes the
rotating arms. This equation assumes no fluid is
coming into the system except at the center of
rotation (i.e. a sprinkler type system).
OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS – 5
1. Suppose you find yourself teetering on the edge of a cliff or the roof of a tall
building with a heavy physics book in your hand. As you are about to fall, you
suddenly remember how physics can save you! What law did you remember?

a) law of inertia
b) law of gravitation
c) law of conservation of momentum
d) law of conservation of energy

2. A heavy object and a light object have the same momentum. Which has the greater
speed?

a) heavy object
b) light object
c) both have the same speed
d) the heavy object has a zero speed while the light object has a nonzero speed

3. A baseball player grabs a 200 gram baseball which is moving at speed of 30 m/s.
The ball comes to rest in about 1/10 second. The force acting on the player’s hand is
(Think of the relationship between change of the momentum and force),

a) 60 N
b) 200 grams
c) 30 m/s
d) 2000 N

4. A boxer quickly learns to move his head backward when he sees he is going to
receive a jab to the head. What does this head motion accomplish?

a) It increases the momentum and decreases the force

b) It increases the contact time which decreases the force
c) It decreases the contact time which decreases the force
d) It causes confusion on the opponent.

5. For the same force, which one imparts a greater momentum to a cannonball?

a) a long cannon
b) a short cannon
c) either (a) or (b) depending on the air resistance
d) neither (a) nor (b). The momentum is independent of the length of the cannon
TWO MARKS WITH ANSWER – 5
1. Impulse In Physics
Impulse is the change of momentum of an object when the object is acted upon by a force
for an interval of time. So, with impulse, you can calculate the change in momentum, or
you can use impulse to calculate the average impact force of a collision.
2. Moment of Momentum
In physics, angular momentum (rarely, moment of momentum or
rotational momentum) is the rotational analogue of linear momentum. It is an important
quantity in physics because it is a conserved quantity – the angular momentum of a system
remains constant unless acted on by an external torque.
3. What is the law of conservation of angular momentum?
I is moment of inertia of the rotating body about axis of rotation, ω is the angular
velocity. Angular Momentum formula is used to calculate the angular momentum of the
particle and also to find the parameters related to it. It is expressed in kilogram meter square
per second (kg m2/s).

POSSIBLE BIG QUESTION – 5

1. Derive and write the applications of moment of momentum equation

SESSION – 6 (TUTORIAL)

PROBLEMS ON MOMENTUM AND MOMENT OF MOMENTUM EQUATION