Methods of Teaching Physics

M. Vanaja

D. Bhaskara Rao

Chapter 14 : Laboratories

301
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http://books.google.com.ph/books?
id=JUfpB6slS8EC&pg=PA309&lpg=PA309&dq=common+laboratory+apparatus+physics+that+can+be+im
provised&source=bl&ots=qrARH0-LXT&sig=tPTkXMi1-FmZ8aRfb1wXy-WBJ20&hl=en&ei=zY-
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mprovised&source=bl&ots=yrFRsMneJv&sig=ZeDwupY2utIoxuLWyJxlPgmqDs0&hl=en&ei=M5WATODM
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alse

Beakman's Electric Motor

I saw this on the TV show Beakman's World and I was very impressed that you could
actually build a working electric motor with so few parts. I built one and brought it to
work where it was a big hit with all the engineers around here. This writeup was for a
friend of mine who wanted instructions that his son could follow for a science fair
project. So, if you missed the show, here's how to build one. If you are using a text
only browser, you can click on the "Figure" links to download the drawing s (GIF
files). BTW, my friend's son won second place in the school's science fair.
A homemade DC motor is a great project that illustrates electromagnitism and electro-mechanical energy
conversion.

This is a link to a design that only needs a few simple parts; wire, battery, magnet and paper clips, and
voila! a spinning motor!

Materials Required:
  One 'D' Cell Alkaline Battery
 One Wide Rubber Band
 Two Large Paper Clips
 One Rectangular Ceramic Magnet
 Heavy Gauge Magnet Wire (the kind with red enamel insulation, not plastic
coated)
 One Toilet Paper Tube
 Fine Sandpaper
 Optional: Glue, Small Block of Wood for Base

Instructions:

1. Starting about 3 inches from the end of the wire, wrap it 7 times around the
toilet paper tube. Remove the tube (you don't need it any more). Cut the wire,
leaving a 3 inch tail opposite the original starting point. Wrap the two tails
around the coil so that the coil is held together and the two tails extend
perpendicular to the coil. See illustration below:

                              
Figure 1: M1.gif

Note: Be sure to center the two tails on either side of the coil. Balance is
important. You might need to put a drop of glue where the tail meets the coil
to prevent slipping.

2. On one tail, use fine sandpaper to completely remove the insulation from the
wire. Leave about 1/4" of insulation on the end and where the wire meets to
coil. On the other tail, lay the coil down flat and lightly sand off the insulation
from the top half of the wire only. Again, leave 1/4" of full insulation on the
end and where the wire meets the coil.
                               
Figure 2: M2.gif

3. Bend the two paper clips into the following shape (needle-nosed pliers may be
useful here):

                              
Figure 3: M3.gif

4. Use the rubber band to hold the loop ends (on the left in the above drawing)
to the terminals of the "D" Cell battery:

                              
Figure 4: M4.gif

5. Stick the ceramic magnet on the side of the battery as shown:

                               
Figure 5: M5.gif

6. Place the coil in the cradle formed by the right ends of the paper clips. You
may have to give it a gentle push to get it started, but it should begin to spin
rapidly. If it doesn't spin, check to make sure that all of the insulation has been
remove d from the wire ends. If it spins erratically, make sure that the tails on
the coil are centered on the sides of the coil. Note that the motor is "in phase"
only when it is held horizontally (as shown in the drawing).

7. For display, you will probably need to build a small cradle to hold the motor in
the proper position. It might also help to bend the ends of the coil a bit so that
as it slips right or left, the bends keep it in the proper position:

                              
Figure 6: M6.gif

8. Here is a diagram of the finished motor:

                              
 Figure 7: motor.gif

Further Experiments:

Since this is an existing design, you might want to do some further experiments to
make it more of a Science Fair experiment instead of just a model. Here are some
suggestions:

1. Try to adjust the phase angle of the motor so that it will operate in a vertical
position. This involves removing a different area of insulation from the
partially bared tail of the coil.
2. Try making different shaped coils and seeing how they work. Is the circle the
best shape? Try squares, ovals, etc. Make a display showing each of the coils
you tried with a short summary of the results underneath them.
3. Try varying the number of turns of wire in the coil. I don't know where they
came up with seven. Does even or odd number of turns matter? Does the
number of turns determine the speed? Again, include the different coils in the
display and describe the results.
4. How long can you get the motor to run before it falls off the cradle?
5. Turn the coil slowly by hand and feel the magnetic attraction at each position
of the coil. Make drawings showing the different coil positions and describe
how the attractions vary at each position.
6. HARD ONES: Can you think of an interesting way of determining the speed of
the motor (in RPM)? Can you make the motor do any work?
Final Notes:

You can get the magnet wire and ceramic magnets at Radio Shack. I think the wire
comes in a pack of three spools of different gauges, you want to use the medium
gauge, not too heavy, but thick enough to hold its shape.

Be sure to bring a fresh (extra) battery to school with the project.

You should include the Beakman's World show in your bibliography.

http://home.hiwaay.net/~palmer/motor.html

Clocks
How do clocks keep time?

What was the world like without clocks?

How did people keep appointments?

Getting Started
Without looking at the clock or your watch, look out the window and guess what time
it is. How close were you to the "correct" time? What clues did you use to tell what
time it was? Are there other things you could use? How do you know it's lunchtime
without looking at a clock?

How does a clock measure time? What would happen if a minute were 100 seconds
and an hour were 100 minutes? How would that change the way you schedule your
day? How long would this class last? What about your school day?
 Overview
The alarm clock rings in the morning and, even in your drowsy fog, you look to see
what time it is. As you get dressed, you check the clock again and again to make sure
you're not late for school.

We look at clocks all the time because these devices help us regulate our lives, telling
us not only when to get up, but when to eat, sleep, play, and work. They are so much a
part of our lives that we rarely think about what clocks really do.

Whether they are highly accurate atomic clocks or slightly less accurate quartz
watches, electric alarm clocks or grandfather clocks with slowly swinging pendulums,
all clocks have one thing in common - they consistently count precise units of time.
Those units could be anything we want them to be, but for the world to function in
harmony, we have a timekeeping standard based upon three units of time - seconds,
minutes, and hours.

To measure these units, all clocks must have two things: a regular, repetitive
resonator, or oscillator, to mark off equal units of time; and a way of displaying those
units in an understandable form.

Most clocks and watches today keep time by applying electric energy to a quartz
crystal, a system developed in the 1930s. The energy makes the crystal vibrate
or oscillate at a constant frequency and produce regular electric pulses that regulate a
motor. The motor advances the watch hands or, in a digital watch, the number display,
by one-second increments.

Mechanical watches use a coiled mainspring for power. The mainspring drives gears
that cause a hairspring to oscillate, rocking a lever to and fro. The lever drives other
gears that move the clock hands.

Atomic clocks, the world's most accurate timekeepers, use the natural vibration, or
oscillation, of the cesium atom as their resonator. Cesium atoms vibrate exactly
9,192,631,770 times a second, driving a clock that is accurate to within a millionth of
a second per year. In ancient times, people used the rising and setting sun to keep
track of time. The first devices to measure time, invented in about 3500 B.C., were
small towers called obelisks. The changing length and position of their shadows
divided the day into morning and afternoon. Then came sundials, which split the day
into hours; water clocks, which measured even smaller units of time; mechanical
clocks that were much more accurate; and finally, in about 1510, spring-driven
clocks that led the way to clocks and watches accurate to within a minute or two a
day.

Connections
1. How would your day be different if nobody had clocks or watches? What other
ways could you tell time?

2. Why is it that time seems to pass quickly when you're doing something
interesting or fun, and slowly when you're bored?

Main Activity

Water Clock:
Build a clock that uses dripping water to measure how much
time has passed.

For many centuries, the best technology available for

keeping time was the water clock. While these clocks
weren't very reliable, they worked indoors, at night, and on
cloudy days, so they were much more useful than the
sundial, the only other clock in use at the time. Over time,
many styles of water clocks were invented. Here's an activity
that lets you find out just how accurate an "inflow" water
clock is.

Materials

 2 big eye screws

 a sturdy, wooden stick, 30 cm (12") long and 2.5 to 5 cm (1" to 2") square
 a thin, round stick or dowel, 20 to 25 cm (8" to 10") long, that fits through the
eye screws
 2 rubber bands
 a marker
 glue and a small piece of sturdy paper or cardboard
 a cork
 2 empty cans - medium sized, about 28 oz
  can opener

1. Screw the eye screws into the 30-cm stick, the first an inch or so above the
level of the cans, the other an inch or so below the top of the stick.

2. Run the thin, round stick through the openings in the eye screws and insert the
lower end of the stick into a cork.

3. Fasten the large stick to the outside of one of the cans with the two rubber
bands. Make sure the cork at the bottom of the thin stick doesn't rub against the
inside of the can.

4. Glue a small paper or cardboard pointer to the thin stick so that it points at, but
doesn't touch, the large stick.

5. Use the can opener to make a tiny hole in the side of your second can as close
to the bottom as possible. You want the hole small enough so the water only
drips out.

6. Fill the second can with water and set it on a platform so water drips from it
into the first can. As the water slowly fills the first can, the cork will rise and
push the thin stick and the pointer upward. Mark the starting level for the
pointer on the large stick. Then every five minutes, as the water drips in, make
another mark across from the rising pointer. At the end of the class period, you
will have calibrated your clock.

Now, try it again and see if it remains accurate as it counts off the five-minute
segments. There are many different designs for water clocks. Look for ideas on
building other types of water clocks or come up with your own design. Compare the
accuracy of different designs.

Questions

1. Does the clock run slower or faster if you use very cold water? Why?
2. Can you build two water clocks that measure time at the same rate? If not, why
not?
3. What disadvantages are there to using this type of clock?

Look at the sweep hand of a clock and note exactly when a minute
begins. Without looking at the clock again, try to silently count off 60
seconds in your head. How close did you come? Try again, but this time
 have someone talk to you and interrupt your concentration.
Build your own sundial with a medium-sized flowerpot filled with sand.
Put a 30-cm (12") stick in the center of the pot and set it in the sun.
Every hour, mark where the shadow of the stick falls on the edge of the
pot with a piece of masking tape. If you don't move the pot, you can
keep track of time on sunny days.
Galileo realized that a pendulum oscillates, or swings, back and forth for
the same unit of time, even as the arc of each swing decreases. Tie a
weight to one end of a string and tie the other end to a stick. Lay the
stick down on a table so the string is hanging free, then swing the string
like a pendulum. Was Galileo right?

Key Concepts
atomic clock
a very accurate clock that keeps time by measuring the natural oscillations of a cesium
atom
horology
the science of measuring time
obelisk
an upright, four-sided pillar that tapers to a pyramid at its top
oscillate
to swing back and forth; with electricity, to switch between a high and a low charge
  
quartz
crystal when placed in an electric field, a quartz crystal vibrates and generates a regular
electric signal that is a good resonator for running clocks and watches
spring-driven clocks
a tightly wound spring provides the energy for these clocks, but they slow down as the
spring unwinds
weight-driven clocks
old mechanical clocks that used the pull of a heavy weight to provide energy to run the
clock

Resources
Dohrn-van Rossum, G. (1996). History of the hour: Clocks and modern temporal
orders. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Macaulay, D. (1988). The way things work. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Suplee, C. (1994, Nov 16). A brief history of time-keeping: How the mechanical clock
set a new tempo for society. The Washington Post Horizons learning section, p.H1.
Tait, H. (1983). Clocks and watches - An illustrated history of clocks since the Middle
Ages. Cambridge: British Museum Publications/Harvard University Press.

Index of Horology: http://www.horology.com/horology

National Institute of Standards and Technology: http://physics.nist.gov/lab.html

(Click on "General Interest" in main menu, then click on "A walk through time.")

Tapes of this episode of Newton's Apple and others are available from GPN for only
$24.95.
Please call 1-800-228-4630.
For information on other Newton's Apple resources for home and school,
please call 1-800-588-NEWTON!

http://www.darylscience.com/Demos/Clocks.html

Building a Water Clock

Purpose

To build a feedback-controlled system (a water clock) and research ways to improve the system design.

Context

This activity should follow student encounters with more simple systems, such as pencils, scissors, etc. In this activity
students will begin to examine more closely the interactions between the parts of a system. The main goal of having
students learn about systems is not to have them talk about systems in abstract terms, but to enhance their ability to
attend to various aspects of particular systems in attempting to understand or deal with the whole system. 

Planning Ahead

Materials:

 1-liter plastic soft drink bottle with the label removed

 pin
 timer or watch that can be read to seconds
 ruler
 marking pen
 100-mL graduated cylinder

Motivation

Begin by letting students view a picture of the largest water clock in North America, on display at the Children's
Museum of Indianapolis. Ask students to jot down and describe some of the parts that make up the water clock. Ask
students to try to guess the time that the picture was taken based on the hint given at the website. The answer is
given at the bottom of the page.

Then let students read more about water clocks in A Walk Through Time. Focus the students' attention on the simple
water clock, or clepsydras, which is described on the page.

As they read, ask students to write down the answers to these questions:

 What are the parts of a water clock? 

 What is it designed to do? 
 What advantage does it have over other devices such as sundials? (It could be used at night as well as in
daylight.)
 What is the largest problem associated with water clocks? (The rate of flow of water is very difficult to control
accurately.) 

Discuss the answers with the class.

Development

How A Water Clock Works 

In the first part of the activity, the class will investigate how a water clock works and the effect of one of its variables
on its ability to be an accurate timepiece.

Tell students: Early water clocks were stone vessels with sloping sides that allowed water to drip at a nearly constant
rate from a small hole near the bottom. Other water clocks were bowl-shaped containers that slowly filled with water
at a constant rate. Markings on the inside surfaces measured the passage of time as the water level rose on the
inside of the bowl, a result of its slowly sinking. We're going to use a soft drink bottle to make a similar device.

Ask students to select what they consider to be the most important parts of the device. 

Procedure: Do the following as a teacher-led exploration:

Use the pin to make a very small hole in the bottom or close to the bottom of the bottle. A hole smaller than the
diameter of the pin is desirable. Let the students examine the hole.

Holding a finger over the hole, fill the bottle with water to a level just below the shoulder where it begins to have a
smaller diameter. Mark this level on the outside of the bottle. Measure the time required for 100 ml (+/- 0.5 ml) of
water to run or drip out of the bottle. Repeat the experiment with the starting water level about halfway up the bottle
and with the starting water level very low in the bottle. Plot the times as a function of the distance the starting water
level was above the hole in the bottle.  

Discuss the results with the class using questions such as the following:

 What do the results tell you? (The drip rate will change if the water level in the bottle changes very much.)
 What does this tell you about a water clock? (It might not be very accurate.) 

Now have each student write a one-sentence description of how they might improve the simple water clock made in
this demonstration. Student answers may vary, but generally they should respond that the clock could be improved
by making the drip rate more constant. 

Building a Better Water Clock 

In this part of the activity, students will build a feedback-controlled robotic system that will function as a water clock
that will keep time accurately for at least two hours without human intervention.
Procedure: Divide the class into groups. The goal for each group is to construct a water clock that will keep time
accurately (within +/- 1%) for at least two hours without human intervention. To accomplish this, the drip rate from the
bottle has to be constant. A drip rate of 10-15 ml/min will give appropriately accurate data (when the volume that drips
out is measured). At this drip rate, 1-2 L of water will be collected in two hours and this is a small enough amount to
be manageable. Since the drip rate will change if the water level in the bottle changes very much, the water level in
the drip bottle will have to be kept pretty constant in order to keep the drip rate constant. 

The task is to design a feedback-controlled robotic system to keep the water level in the bottle constant enough to
maintain a steady drip rate. The student groups will each have to decide what "constant enough" is. The robot will
need to sense the water level in the bottle and add water as necessary (but not too much or the level will get too
high).

You can restrict the kind of sensors the students may use to mechanical devices (like floats) or allow them to use any
materials from the classroom (or readily accessible in almost any household), including photocells for electro-optical
sensing, if you have them.

The source of water could range from a large (2-L) reservoir of water to the tap, again depending on the restrictions
you wish to place on the design. The robots can also range from ones powered only by the force of gravity to ones
that incorporate electrical components like small motors. The critical part of the robot is the control of water flow from
its source into the bottle. Again, you may restrict the options from controlling the flow through tubing by squeezing it
to control by electro-mechanical devices like solenoid valves, if available.

Provide students some time in class and outside of class to develop the concepts for their robots, check their ideas to
be sure they meet the design criteria and are safe, and then provide at least one or two periods of in-class time for
part of the construction, so you can judge how the group members are working together and to provide
encouragement and reinforcement of their ideas.

The finished robots must have a prominent sign giving the conversion factor from volume of water collected to
minutes from beginning of collection. 

Students should present their finished robots to the class. Each project should be accompanied by a written report
which details their design, including drawings illustrate and name all of the parts of the robot system they have
designed. 

Assessment

Actual testing of the finished robots could be an event open to the whole school as each is tested at two or three
random times during a two-hour run to see whether it is keeping time to within the specified +/- 1% over the entire
period.

Full assessment credit should be given to any group whose robot meets the specifications. Deductions for missing
the goal should be decided by you and the students together in advance of the testing.

To push student creativity, you might want to set up some special awards and incentives for robots run entirely by the
force of gravity or by springs or by electric motors and/or for devices that show the elapsed time continuously. Your
own creativity in this regard should be restricted only by what is reasonably available in your school. The wider the
range of options allowed, the more everyone will learn about what’s possible with robots. 

Extensions 
Students can learn more about robots by exploring Get a Grip on Robotics from the Tech Museum of Innovation. This
resource provides an introduction to robotics and describes the components of robots. Animations allow you to
explore the degrees of rotation of robotic arms and fictional case stories allow you to explore some of the implications
of robotics for humans. Other topics include robots in science fiction, industrial applications, and the use of robots
around the world. A focus of the activity is the effect of robots on the workforce. After exploring this resource,
students can engage in debates about the potential benefits and drawbacks of robots. 
Visit The Franklin Institute's Robo-Spot for more on robotics, including Cool Robot of the Week and links to a variety
of robot resources. Students who are interested in doing research reports or science fair projects on robotics can use
these links as a starting point. 
http://www.sciencenetlinks.com/lessons.php?BenchmarkID=11&DocID=2

It's All in the Wrist: Moving Water with the

Archimedes Screw Pump
Abstract

Amaze your friends and family by moving water with just a few turns of your wrist! Nope, it's not a
magic trick. It's simply an Archimedes screw. In this science project, you will build a very simple
pump, called an Archimedes screw, to transfer water from a low-lying location to a higher location.

Objective

For this science project you will build an efficient Archimedes screw pump, using commonly found
materials.

Introduction

Archimedes of Syracuse was born in the 3rd century BC. He was one of the most important
inventors of his time because he liked to solve problems; particularly problems that would help his
Italian hometown prosper. During the Siege of Syracuse, Archimedes developed the Archimedes heat
ray, which used parabolic mirrors to focus the energy of the sun onto incoming enemy ships, and
supposedly caught them on fire. For many years, several modern-day scientists didn't believe this kind
of weapon could have been built. However, recently a group of students at MIT showed that an
Archimedes heat ray weapon is possible. Although, they do not claim that the story is completely true.
  
Figure 1. Engraving of Archimedes of Syracuse. (eonimages.com, 2007.)

The King of Syracuse requested that Archimedes build the biggest luxury ship possible. This ship
proved to be leaky and Archimedes had to design a device to rid the hull of bilge water. So he
designed the Archimedes screw. The screw was very effective because it got rid of the water and
only required one person to operate it. The Archimedes screw was also used to transport water from
low-lying areas up to irrigation ditches. The design is so effective that it is still being used in many
modern-day applications. For instance, it is used to lift wastewater in treatment plants and even to lift
water at the Shipwreck Rapids water ride at Sea World in San Diego, California. It's a tool that has
never gone out of style.

The Archimedes screw is a positive-displacement pump. A positive-displacement pump traps an

amount of fluid from a source and then forces the fluid to move to a discharge location. The
Archimedes screw is made up of a hollow cylinder and a cylindrical core. The core sits inside of the
hollow cylinder. Helical blades are wound around the core and are secured tightly against the hollow
cylinder. The helical blades create pockets between the core and the inner wall of the hollow cylinder.
To use this device as a pump, one end is placed in a low-lying fluid source and then tilted up into a
discharge tank. To move water, simply rotate the screw. As the screw moves, it scoops up a small
amount of water into the first pocket. On the next turn of the screw, the first pocket of water moves
to the second pocket, and a new scoop of water enters the first pocket. This motion continues until
finally the first scoop of water comes out at the other end.
 Figure 2. Here is an inside view of an Archimedes screw pump. The screw is turned and
water is scooped up from the river and makes it's way up the screw pockets to the canal.
(U.S. Department of the Interior, 2004.)

The site of the fluid to be moved and the amount of fluid to be moved determine the outer radius of
the Archimedes screw (the distance from the center of the core to the outer wall of the hollow
cylinder), the length of the tool, and how much the tool has to be tilted (the slope). But there are
other parameters that are utilized to optimize the efficiency of the screw; for instance, the inner radius
(the distance from the center of the core to the inner wall of the hollow cylinder), the number of
blades, and the pitch of the blades (Rorres, 2000). The pitch or period is the length of one cycle of
the blade.

In this science project, step into Archimedes' shoes. Design the most-efficient pump using the
materials listed in the Materials and Equipment list below. Have fun and remember that Archimedes
loved solving difficult problems!

Terms, Concepts and Questions to Start Background Research

 Archimedes of Syracuse
 Archimedes screw
 Pump
 Radius
 Slope
 Pitch
 Period

Questions
 What other inventions did Archimedes develop?
 What areas of science did Archimedes study?
 What are some modern uses of the Archimedes screw?
 Can you explain how an Archimedes screw works?

Bibliography

 U.S. Department of the Interior. (2004, October 26). Hydraulic Research in

Transition. Retrieved April 7, 2008 from the U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of
Reclamation website: http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/hydraulics_lab/history/transition/trans1.html

To learn more about Archimedes and his contributions, check out the following websites:

 Rorres, C. (n.d.). Archimedes. Retrieved April 7, 2008 from this New York University

website: http://math.nyu.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/contents.html
 Wikipedia Contributors. (2008). Archimedes. Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved April
9, 2008 from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Archimedes&oldid=210433020

Check out this site for information about the Archimedes screw, as well as an animation of how it
works:
  Wikipedia Contributors. (2008). Archimedes Screw. Wikipedia: The Free
Encyclopedia. Retrieved April 9, 2008 from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Archimedes%27_screw&direction=prev&oldid=205908572

The following pdf describes how to design an Archimedes screw.

 Rorres, C. (2000). The Turn of the Screw: Optimal Design of an Archimedes Screw. Journal of
Hydraulic Engineering, Vol. 126, No. 1, 72-80. Retrieved April 9, 2008
from http://www.math.nyu.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Screw/optimal/optimal.html

Materials and Equipment

 PVC pipe, ½-inch inner diameter, 2-foot length; available at hardware stores
 Clear vinyl tubing, 10-foot length, with a 3/8-inch outer diameter x ¼-inch inner diameter;
available at hardware stores
 Clear vinyl tubing, 10-foot length, with a ¾-inch outer diameter x ½-inch inner diameter;
available at hardware stores
 Strong and sticky tape, such as Gorilla tape or duct tape
 Permanent marker
 Retractable blade knife
 Lab notebook
 Liquid measuring cup
 Spoon
 Water
 Food coloring
 StyrofoamTM bowls, 12-oz (2)
 Tape (Scotch® tape works fine)
 Pen
 Books of various thickness or pieces of plywood board; available at hardware stores (1–2)
 Helper
 Graph paper

Experimental Procedure

Making Your Archimedes Screw

1. Using the PVC pipe and the ¼-inch-inner-diameter vinyl tubing, take a piece of strong tape
and tape one end of the tubing to the outside of one end of the pipe such that a ¼-inch length
of tubing is hanging off the end.
2. Carefully wrap the tubing around the pipe in regular intervals until you come to the other end
of the pipe. From that point, add a ¼ inch and mark that spot on the vinyl tubing with a
permanent marker.
3. Unwrap the tubing and cut it with the blade knife at the mark. Ask an adult for assistance
when using the knife.
4. Rewrap the cut piece of tubing around the pipe in regular intervals and tape it down with
pieces of strong tape along the pipe. There should be a ¼-inch of tubing hanging off both ends
of the pipe, past the sections that you taped down. The starting section will reach into the
 water, allowing it to travel through the tube and the end section will help get the water out. By
wrapping the tubing in regular intervals you are establishing the period of the tubing.
5. Count the number of times you have wrapped the tubing around the PVC pipe. Divide 2 feet
(the length of the PVC pipe) by the number of times you wrapped the tubing around the PVC
pipe. This value is the period and is in units of feet. Note this down in your lab notebook in a
data table similar to the one shown at the bottom of the Experimental Procedure.

Figure 3. Experimental Archimedes screw.

Setting Up Your Bowls

1. In your liquid measuring cup, mix a few drops of food coloring in 1 cup of water. This makes
the water easier to see.
2. Now make tape loops with the Scotch tape to stick to the bottom of one of the Styrofoam
bowls and press the bowl onto a table so it stays in place.
3. Pour a ½ cup of the colored water into the other Styrofoam bowl. With a pen, mark the level
of the water on the bowl. Pour the water back into the measuring cup.
4. Making more tape loops, carefully tape the marked bowl onto one of the books or plywood
boards so that it will stay in place during the experiment. The bowl on the book or plywood is
the discharge bowl.

Testing Your Experimental Setup

1. Now you are ready to test your experimental setup and determine what slope works best so
you can run your trials. Place the marked bowl on the book or plywood about 2 feet away from
the bowl taped to the table. Pour the 1 cup of water into the bowl on the table.
2. Place your Archimedes screw across the two bowls, as shown in Figure 4. Be sure the extra ¼
inch of tubing hanging off the end is in the bowl of water on the table. Turn the screw so that
every time the end of the tube goes into the water it scoops up some of the water.
 3. Tilt the screw so that one end is in the water and the other end is in or close to the bowl that
you want to move the water to, which in this case, is the bowl taped to the book or plywood.

Figure 4. Experimental setup.

4. Make sure that as you turn the screw, the water doesn't fall back out of the screw. If the
water does fall out, adjust the tilt of the screw, the placement of the bowls, and/or the height
of the discharge bowl. Use an extra book or board if needed.
5. Turn the screw a few times to make sure that the water is traveling through the tubing.
Experiment with how fast you can turn the screw and still move water through the tube. Going
too fast might not lead to positive results.

Running Your Trials

1. Now you're ready to start running your trials. Hold the screw vertically and empty all of the
water from the tubing and the discharge bowl back into the bowl on the table.
2. Using your permanent marker, make a mark on the middle of the pipe at the position when
the vinyl tubing is just about to enter the water. This will help you keep track of the number of
turns you make. Turn the pipe so the mark is facing up, and then start turning the screw until
the mark is facing up again. You have made one turn and should see some water in the
tubing. On each successive turn, the tubing should be completely under water so that you
scoop as much as possible.
3. Continue turning the screw until a ½ cup of water is in the discharge bowl. Make sure that you
maintain the same tilt the whole time you are turning the screw. Also make sure that you are
scooping up water on every turn. Have your helper help you count the number of turns as you
go along. You can gauge when you have about a ½ cup in the discharge bowl, based on the
pen marking you made when you first started. To be exact, confirm that you have a ½ cup of
water in the discharge bowl by pouring it into the measuring cup. One person should hold the
screw in place and the other person should carefully remove the bowl from under the screw
and measure the water.
a. If the amount of water in the discharge bowl is not a ½ cup, continue turning the
screw until you get a ½ cup.
b. If the amount of water in the discharge bowl is greater than a ½ cup, empty all of the
water back into the first bowl and restart this step.
4. Keep track of the number of turns it takes to move a ½ cup of water from the starting bowl
into the discharge bowl. Note this information in your lab notebook.
 5. Repeat "Running Your Trials" two more times. Every time that you start a new trial, empty all
of the water back into the measuring cup. Make sure that you have a full cup of water at the
start of each trial. If you do not, then add water into the measuring cup until you have 1 cup.
For each trial, note the information in your lab notebook.
6. Calculate the average of the results of the three different trials and record them in your data
table.
7. Now unwrap the ¼-inch-inner-diameter tubing from the pipe. Take the ½-inch-inner-diameter
tubing and wrap that around the ½-inch-inner-diameter PVC pipe. Use the same period as you
did for the ¼-inch tubing. Wrapping this tubing will be harder than it was with the ¼-inch
tubing because the tubing is larger and stiffer. Have your helper assist you with wrapping.
Repeat the entire experiment with the new Archimedes screw. Remember to record the data
you collect in your lab notebook.
8. Plot your data. Label the x-axis Design and the y-axis the Average Number of Turns to Move a
½ Cup of Water. Which design is more effective at moving water? Why?

Design Period Number of Turns to Move ½ Cup of Water

Trial #1

Trial #2
¼-inch tubing wrapped on ½-inch pipe
Trial #3

Average of all trials

Trial #1

Trial #2
½-inch tubing wrapped on ½-inch pipe
Trial #3

Average of all trials

Variations

 Change the period of the tubing to increase or decrease the number of wrappings and
investigate how this affects the number of turns it takes to move ½ cup of water from the
bowl on the table to the discharge bowl.
 Change the diameter of the pipe. Try using a 2-foot-long, 1-inch-inner-diameter PVC pipe with
the ¼-inch-inner-diameter vinyl tubing. Does it make a difference?

 For more science project ideas in this area of science, see Mechanical Engineering Project
Ideas.

Credits
Michelle Maranowski, PhD, Science Buddies

This project is based on a design for a homemade Archimedes screw from this website:
de Campos Valadares, E. (2005, September 23). Fun Physics Experiments with Household Objects:
Hand-Operated Water Pump (Arichmedes' Screw). Retrieved April 9, 2008
from: http://www.informit.com/articles/article.aspx?p=413663&seqNum=4

Last edit date: 2008-05-06 12:00:00

http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_ideas/ApMech_p039.shtml

There are three basic types of science fair projects:

The experimental type - investigates a scientific issue by asking a question, testing a

hypothesis, performing an experiment and drawing conclusions from it - what we call
the scientific method. 

The experimental type is the most common (but not always the best choice).

For example:

 The effect of exercise on blood pressure

 Which bleach works the best?
 Light effects on seed germination
 The effect of the amount of storage space and RAM on the speed of a computer

E.g.
Multiple Rotors: A High
Efficiency Windmill Design
Project Information
Project Information
Dayna Walker
Team size: 1
Grade 7-9
Engineering - Experimental
Level: Advanced
Traditional Website constructed using Softquad HotMetal Pro
Graphics: Adobe Photoshop, Ulead Photoimpact & MetalWorks
Charts: Microsoft Excel
Hardware Tools: Digital Camera

Project Summary
"Watts Up With Torque!" is Phase 2 of my 2003 project, "Torque it Up!". The
results from Phase 1 strongly supported my hypothesis that multiple rotors
would produce more torque and mechanical power than a single rotor. 

The purpose of this project was to determine if multiple rotors would increase
the electrical output of a horizontal axis windmill. A laboratory scale windmill
was designed and built. Torque, the force created by the rotating windmill axis,
was used to turn the axle of three sizes of DC motors and generate electricity.
Electrical current in mAmps and electrical force in mVolts were measured and
electrical energy in mWatts calculated. The experiment was designed to measure
the effect of the independent variables (rotor size, placement, number, fan speed,
motor size) on the dependent variables (wind speed, RPM, mAmps and mVolts).
Twelve rotor variables were tested at two fan speeds, using three sizes of DC
motors. Each measurement was repeated ten times. RPM and wind speed were
used to calculate tip speed ratio. Statistical analysis was used to assess the quality
of the data collected. 

Multiple rotors produced more electicity than a single rotor and operated at
lower wind speeds. Adding a second rotor produced the largest increase (over
2000%) in electricity generated. Overall, three 28 cm rotors, placed side by side,
with offset blades, coupled to a 12 V DC motor produced the most electrical
energy. This rotor combination consistently had the highest tip speed ratios and
produced the most electrical energy at both fan speeds and with all three motors.

Abstract
Watts Up With Torque!
Multiple Rotors: A High Efficiency Windmill Design

The overall efficiency of a windmill is the amount of electricity that can be

generated over time on a cost basis. Two important factors that determine
overall windmill efficiency are the ability to use low velocity wind and the ability
of the windmill to convert the kinetic energy of the wind into electrical energy
(conversion efficiency). 

Currently, the most popular windmill design utilizes a large, single, three-blade
rotor. It is obvious that "unused" wind passes between the blades of these three-
blade systems. Rotors with more blades, such as those used on farms for
irrigation, will turn at lower wind speeds, and have high conversion efficiency.
However, these multiple blade rotor systems are subject to higher loads and
unable to withstand extreme winds. My design is to utilize multiple three-bladed
rotors. Multiple small rotors weigh less than a single large rotor, are easier to
produce and transport, and less subject to fatigue. 

The purpose of this project was to determine if multiple rotors would increase
the electrical output of a horizontal axis windmill. Torque, the force created by
the rotating windmill axis, was used to turn the axle of various sized DC motors
and generate electricity. Three sizes of DC motors were used to assess whether
the rotor combinations produced enough torque to start, and continuously turn
larger motors. Electrical current in mAmps and electrical force in mVolts were
measured and electrical energy in mWatts calculated. 

My engineering objectives were to design and build a multiple rotor, horizontal

axis, laboratory scale windmill, complete with couplers to connect the axis to the
axle of various DC motors. The scale model was used to determine the effect of
different rotor attributes (size, number, distance apart and orientation of the
rotors) on the resulting torque and electricity generated with the various sizes of
DC motors. The rotor arrangement and motor that produced the most electricity
was identified. 

My hypothesis was that multiple rotors, blades offset, closely spaced would
produce more torque and generate the most electrical energy. The experiment
was designed to measure the effect of the independent variables (rotor size,
number, placement, fan speed and motor size) on the dependent variables (wind
speed, RPM, mAmps and mVolts). Wind speed was measured with an
anemometer, RPM with a digital tachometer and mAmps and mVolts with a
digital multimeter. In all, 12 rotor variations were tested at medium and high fan
speeds, using three sizes of DC motors. Each measurement of wind speed, RPM,
mAmps and mVolts was repeated ten times. The RPM and wind speed
measurements were used to calculate tip speed. Statistical analysis was
performed to assess the quality of the data collected. 

My engineering objectives were met and my hypothesis was correct. Multiple

rotors produced more electricity than a single rotor. There were substantial
differences in the amount of electrical energy produced depending on rotor size,
number, orientation, spacing, wind speed and size of the DC motor. Adding a
second rotor produced the largest increase (over 2000 %) in electricity
generated. Over all, three 28-centimeter (cm) rotors, placed side by side with the
blades offset and coupled to a 12 V DC motor produced the most electrical
energy. This rotor combination consistently turned at the highest RPM and
produced the most electrical energy output at both fan speeds and with each of
the three motors. However, the addition this third rotor only increased the
amount of energy produced by two rotors by an average of 29 %. 

My results suggest that the overall efficiency of windmills could be substantially

increased through the addition of a second rotor.

Purpose
The purpose of this project is to determine if multiple rotors will increase the
electrical energy output of a horizontal axis windmill. Torque, the force created
by the rotating horizontal axis, will be used to turn the axle of various sized DC
motors and generate electricity. A digital multimeter will be used to measure
mAmps and mVolts and electrical energy output in mWatts calculated.
Revolutions per minute (RPM) and wind speed measurements will be used to
calculate tip speed ratio. Various sized motors were used to assess the ability of
the rotor variation to start and continuously turn larger motors. 

Opposition to the production of electricity from fossil fuels is rising and the
earth's non-renewable resources are being depleted. Twenty percent of all
greenhouse gases released in Ontario in 2001, were produced by five coal fired
power plants. Wind power offers a pollution free, electricity generating
alternative, using a renewable energy source. The cost of wind generated
electricity is declining, in comparison with other energy sources. Wind power is
currently one of the fastest growing sources of electricity generation in the world,
growing an average of 25% per year.

Most wind turbines are the single rotor, classic Danish three-blade design.
Although there has been a large amount of research on windmill design, there
appeared to be none published on the use of multiple rotors. 

Results from Phase 1 of this project (Torque it Up!), indicated that multiple
rotors did increase the torque of a horizontal axis windmill and could potentially
produce more electrical energy. Subsequent to my initial research, I did find that
researchers in California have been testing a multiple rotor windmill. 

This research could impact on the construction of wind turbines. Multiple small
rotors weigh less, are easier to produce and transport and are less subject to
fatigue. Multiple rotors turn at lower wind speeds and produce more torque.
Increased torque may permit increased turbine size and produce more electricity
than that of a single rotor wind turbine. 

The use of multiple rotors could result in lower construction costs because rotor
blades would be smaller, fewer support towers would be required and the overall
efficiency of wind turbines would increase. 

Engineering Objectives
My engineering objectives were to design and build a multiple rotor, horizontal
axis, laboratory scale windmill that could be coupled to the axle of various sizes
of DC motors. The scale model was used to determine the effect of different rotor
attributes (number, size, distance apart and orientation of the rotors) and size of
DC motor on the resulting mAmps and mVolts generated. The rotor
arrangement and motor that produced the most electrical energy output was
identified.

Hypothesis
If a three-blade rotor on a horizontal axis windmill generates a given amount of
electrical energy, then adding additional three-blade rotors will increase the
amount of electrical energy output. 

I predict that the distance between the rotors will affect the amount of electrical
energy produced and that there is an optimal distance. 

I predict that the orientation of the rotors (i.e. blades off set or in line) will affect
the amount of electrical energy produced. 

I predict that the size of the rotors will affect the amount of electrical energy
produced. 

I predict that single rotors will be able to start and continuously turn smaller DC
motors but will be unable to start turning larger DC motors.

Background
Most wind turbines are the single rotor, classic Danish three-blade design. These
blades are often more than 50 meters in length, requiring towers that are 100
meters in height. It is obvious that unused wind passes between the blades of
these three-blade systems. Smaller diameter multi-blade rotors, such as those
used on farms for irrigation, will turn at lower wind speeds but are subject to
higher stress and unable to withstand extreme wind conditions. My design is to
utilize multiple three-blade rotors. Multiple small rotors weigh less than a single
large rotor, are less costly and easier to produce and transport and less subject to
fatigue. 

This project, "Watts up with Torque!" is Phase 2 of my 2003 project "Torque it

Up!" The purpose of Phase 1 was to determine if multiple rotors would increase
the torque of a horizontal axis windmill. Torque is the force created by a rotating
shaft. 

In Phase 1, force in Newtons was measured using a spring scale and torque in
Newton-Meters calculated using the formula: 
Torque (N-M) = Force (N) x Radius (M) 

The revolutions per minute (RPM) of the rotor was used to calculate blade tip
speed and mechanical energy (power in Watts) was calculated using the
formula: 
Mechanical Energy (Watts) = Torque x Blade Tip Speed 

The results from Phase 1 strongly supported my hypothesis. Every test using
multiple rotors produced more torque than a single rotor and the mechanical
power produced was dependent on rotor size, number, blade orientation, rotor
spacing and wind speed. 

Subsequent to the completion of Phase 1, I found that researchers in California

have been testing a multiple rotor windmill. Preliminary results from this testing
indicate that their design, the "Quadrunner", using multiple rotors, coupled to a
single shaft, will harvest more wind and energy, at less cost than current models
using a single rotor. 

This further convinced me that my research of a multiple rotor windmill design

had merit and was worthwhile pursuing.
Phase 2: Watts Up With Torque! 
The overall efficiency of a windmill is the amount of electricity that can be
generated over time on a cost basis. Two important factors that determine
overall windmill efficiency are the ability to use low velocity wind and ability of
the windmill to convert the kinetic energy of the wind into electrical energy
(conversion efficiency). 

In Phase 2, I wanted to further my research of multiple rotor windmills and

assess the conversion efficiency utilizing a more direct approach. This project
required a device to generate electrical energy from the rotating horizontal
windmill axis. Direct current (DC) motors are readily available in various sizes.
They work as motors when you apply electricity to them, but they also work as
generators when you turn the motor axle. Lower voltage motors such as 3 Volt
(V), are easier to start up but have a lower electrical output. Higher voltage
motors, such as 12 V, require more torque to start the rotation, but produce
more electricity. 

The common units used to measure the quantity of electricity are:

Volts: electrical force or pressure behind the electrons in a current Amps:
number of electrons flowing past in a second
Watts: total amount of electrical energy per second and is equal to Watts = Volts
x Amps 

For Phase 2, I modified the laboratory scale horizontal axis windmill model so
that the axles of various sizes of DC motors could be coupled to the windmill axis.
The electricity generated by rotor combinations that were able to start and
continuously turn the motor was measured and conversion efficiency assessed at
two wind speeds.

Review of Literature
What is wind?

Wind is air in motion, caused by the uneven heating of the Earth by the sun.
Wind occurs when warm air rises, and cooler air moves in to fill the space. It is
estimated that 2% of the solar energy reaching the earth is converted into wind
energy. Air is constantly being interchanged between the warm tropics and the
cold polar caps. The rotation of the Earth also produces wind.

The sun radiates the most heat over the equator

and therefore the air there is warmer. Air from
both hemispheres is constantly moving toward
the equator. The rotation of the Earth causes the
cool winds to be deflected from east to west. As
the surface of the earth heats and cools unevenly,
pressure zones are created that make air move
from high pressure to low pressure areas.

What is wind energy?

The process by which the kinetic energy of wind

is used to generate mechanical power or electrical energy is known as wind
power or wind energy. Kinetic means being related to or produced by motion
such as the blowing wind.

A windmill converts the force of the wind into a turning force acting on the rotor
blades. The strength of this turning force is known as torque.

Wind speed and energy:

The amount of energy that can be captured from the wind is exponentially
proportional to the speed of the wind. If a windmill were perfectly efficient, the
power generated is approximately equal to:

P (watts) = 1/2 D (air density) x A (area of rotor) x V cubed (wind velocity)

Air density at sea level and 14 degrees C = 1.225. 

Therefore, if wind speed is doubled, the power in the wind increases by a factor
of eight, i.e. 2 x 2 x 2. In reality, because wind turbines are not perfectly efficient,
changes in wind velocity do not have such a dramatic effect on wind power. Betz'
Law states that you can only convert approximately 59 % of the wind energy to
mechanical energy using a wind turbine. However, small changes in velocity do
impact on available energy, making wind speed an important factor to consider
in the placement of a wind turbine. 
 The chart below illustrates that a doubling of wind velocity increases power

available by a factor of eight. 

History of Wind Power:

Wind has been used for centuries to propel ships and the wind routes were well
known and used by explorers such as Magellan and Columbus.

Wind power was used as a source of mechanical energy on land for thousands of
years. The Babylonians constructed windmills for irrigation as early as 1700 BC
and Europeans were using windmills by 1000 AD.

The Dutch used windmills to drain the land and

used eight basic types. Dutch settlers introduced
windmills to the United States in the early 1600s.

Daniel Halliday invented a new style of windmill,

which many believe encouraged the rapid settling of
the American West. More than 6.5 million windmills were sold in the US between
1880 and 1935. They were used to pump water, grind grain and cut lumber.
Some small electrical generating systems were used to produce direct current by
1900. Cheap electricity was introduced in th 1940s and most of the wind powered
generating systems in rural areas were considered obsolete and fell into disuse.

Wind turbine is the name given to a complete,

electricity generating windmill. In its simplest
form, it consists of a tower, blades, generator
and, if electricity is to be stored, batteries.
There are large windfarms in many areas of
the world.

Wind Turbine Rotor Design:

There has been a great deal of research on rotor design including whether the
turbine will be upwind (rotor facing the wind) or downwind (rotor on the lee side
of the tower), the number, size and shape of blades, the load (forces acting on the
rotor in high wind) and other rotor aerodynamic considerations. 

Generally speaking, larger windmill rotors and higher wind speed, produce more
power. The old Western windmills had many, wide blades. During very high
winds, they were exposed to extremely high forces known as loads and were often
damaged. Modern wind turbines by law, have to be able to withstand extreme
winds that may only occur once every 50 years. 

Most wind turbines are the classic Danish three-bladed design with the rotor
positioned up-wind (facing the wind). Even numbers of blades cause instability.
Some designs are two bladed, saving the cost of a blade and reducing rotor
weight. They need higher rotational speeds to produce the same amount of power
as a three bladed design. These speeds produce more noise. There are one bladed
designs that require a counter-balance on the other side of the hub. They also
require higher rotational speed. 

Aerodynamics of Rotors: 
Rotor blades act like airfoils. An airfoil is a structure around which air flows
creating lift. Rotor blades have a special shape so that when the wind passes over
them, it moves faster over one side. Bernoulli's Principle states that increased air
velocity produces decreased pressure.

When the wind blows there is a pocket of low pressure formed on the downwind
side of the blade. The blade is pulled toward the low pressure making the rotor
turn. This is called lift. The lift force is stronger than the force, known as drag,
acting on the front side of the blade. The combination of lift and drag causes the
rotor to spin like a propeller, and the turning shaft spins a generator to make
electricity. In wind turbine design, the objective is to have a high lift-to-drag
ratio. This is accomplished by twisting the blades. The blades are twisted so that
the wind hits them at the correct angle of attack. This twist is known a pitch.

Experimental Design
The objective of this experiment was to quantitatively measure how the
dependent variables, wind speed, mAmps, mVolts and revolutions per minute
(RPM), changed under varying experimental conditions. These changing
conditions were the independent variables as shown in the experimental design
chart below. 

Twelve rotor variations were tested with three sizes of DC motor at medium and
high fan speeds. 

The resulting mAmps, mVolts, RPM and wind speed were measured ten times
per manipulation to ensure accuracy and reproducibility. 

In total, 720 measurements each of mAmps, mVolts, RPM and wind speed were
planned. In actual experimentation, some rotor variables failed to start and turn
the horizontal axis, making measurements of RPM and electrical output
unavailable. 

mAmps and mVolts were measured using a digital multimeter. 

RPM were measured using a digital photo tachometer. 

Wind speed was measured using a digital anemometer to ensure that it was
constant for each of the tests using a particular speed and calculate tip speeds. 

Dependent Variables:
1. mAmps
2. mVolts 
3. RPM 
4. Wind Speed
Independent Variables:
1. Fan speed 
2. Number of rotors (1, 2 or 3) 
3. Rotor spacing 
4. Position of rotor on horizontal axis (i.e. rotor blades offset or in line) 
5. Size of the DC motor (1.5-3V, 9-18V or 12V)

Controls:
1. The same test station, retort stand supporting the motor, and electric fan were
used for all tests. 
2. All of the testing was done in the same location at ambient temperature. 
3. The equipment was positioned exactly the same for every test. The test station
and retort stand were clamped onto the workbench and the required fan position
was marked on the floor. 
4. The rotor placement on the axis was checked with a T-square to ensure that
the rotors were perpendicular to the axis. 
5. A ruler was used to mark the required distance between rotors. 
6. The same measuring instruments were used for all tests. 
7. The anemometer was held in approximately the same position for every
measurement. 
8. The tachometer was placed so that the beam was centered on the reflective
tape. 9. RPM and multimeter readings were not taken until the rotors had
reached maximum and stable rotational speed. 
10. All testing was repeated a total of ten times to ensure accuracy and
reproducibility. 

Experimental Design
Chart
Material & Equipment
 Equipment
3 bladed propeller 28 cm (3) 
3 bladed propeller 20 cm (3)
3 DC motors (1.5-3V, 9-18V, 12V)
0.635 cm (1/4") round stainless steel rod 48 cm in length (1)
0.635 cm U bolts 16 cm in length (2)
bearings (2) 
0.635 cm washers (4)
0.635 cm nuts (4) 
composite wood block 14 cm x 20.5 cm x 3.5 cm (1)
wood block 14 cm x 20.5 cm x 3.5 cm (2)
0.635 cm compression lock washer (1) 
0.635 cm plastic cap (1) 
10-24 set screws 
digital multimeter
anemometer 
digital photo tachometer 
retort stand (1) 
three speed electric fan (1) 

Tools: 
Drill with #25 drill bit and ¼" drill bit
10-24 tap
Allen key set
Black and Decker Workmate bench (1)
"C" clamps (2) 
measuring tape (1)
protractor
ruler (1)

Test Unit Construction

1. Holes were drilled on the hub of each propeller, between each blade with the
#25 drill bit. Each hole was tapped with a 10-24 tap. This allowed for the
insertion of 10-24 set screws (3) on each propeller. The set screws were used to
fasten the propeller to the steel rod. 
2. Four ¼" holes were drilled through the composite wood block as follows: 
3. The U bolts were placed over the bearings, through the drilled holes and
anchored with washers and nuts. 
4. The steel rod was inserted through the bearings.
5. The lock washer was placed on the rod at the first bearing to anchor the
bearing.
6. Rotors were placed on the rod in various positions and combinations during
testing and the set screws tightened using the Allen key.
7. The plastic cap was placed at the rotor end of the steel rod. 
8. The test unit and retort stand were clamped on a workbench to hold it stable.

Test Unit Schematic:

Procedure
Note: The manipulation of dependent variables is detailed on the previous
experimental design chart. In total, there were 12 rotor variables manipulated,
using one, two or three rotors, three sizes of DC motor at medium and high fan
speeds. Each variation was tested ten times. 

1. The rotor(s) was/were attached to the horizontal axis. The plastic end cap was
placed on the end of the axis. 
2. A DC motor (1.5-3 V, 9-18 V or 12 V) was coupled to the other end of the axis
and the leads of the multimeter attached to the poles of the motor using electrical
connectors. 
3. The fan speed was set at medium or high and the rpm and wind velocity at the
rotor end of the axis were measured using the digital tachometer and
anemometer and recorded. 
4. Step 3 was repeated a total of ten times. 
5. Ten measurements each of mAmps and mVolts were taken using the digital
multimeter.
6. If the rotor variation failed to start and continuously turn the DC motor, the
rotor variation RPM was equal to zero and testing of that variation stopped. 
Caution: The rotating blades could cause serious injury. Care was taken to
ensure that body parts, hair and clothing were always kept clear of the moving
rotors.

Observations
Observations for each rotor variable manipulation were recorded on the
following data worksheet. As noted previously, each of the 12 rotor variables was
tested at medium and high fan speeds, using three sizes of DC motors and ten
measurements each of wind speed, mAmps, mVolts and RPM were taken. In
total, 72 of the following worksheets were completed. 

Data Worksheet

Date:______
Independent Variables:
Motor Size:_____
Fan Speed: _____
Rotor 1 Size:_______
Rotor 2 Size:_______
Rotor 3 Size:________
Number of Rotors: ___
Rotor 1 Position:_____ 
Rotor 2 Position:____
Rotor 3 Position: 
W
in
d
S
p m m
Tri R
e A V
al P
e m ol
# M
d ps ts
(
m
/s
)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Av
era Observations for the 12 Rotor
ge
Variables 
and Each of the Three Motor Sizes
Wind speed, RPM, mAmps and mVolts were measured ten times each, at each
fan speed, for each of the 12 variables and each of the three motors. Mean,
standard deviation (SD), coefficient of variation (CV) and mWatts were
calculated.

OS = blades offset; IL = blades in line

Motor Size: 1.5-3.0 V

Rotor Variable 1: 1-28 cm rotor

Rotor Variable 2: 2-28 cm rotors, 0 cm apart

Rotor Variable 3: 2-28 cm rotors, 3.5 cm apart

Rotor Variable 4: 2-28 cm rotors, 5 cm apart

Rotor Variable 5: 2-28 cm rotors, 7 cm apart

Rotor Variable 6: 3-28 cm rotors, 3.5 cm apart

Rotor Variable 7: 3-28 cm rotors, 3.5 cm apart, rotors 1 & 3 in line and rotor 2
offset

Rotor Variable 8: 2- 20 cm rotors, 0 cm apart

Rotor Variable 9: 3-20 cm rotors, 3.5 cm apart

Rotor Variable 10: 3-20 cm rotors, 3.5 cm apart, rotors 1 and 3 in line and
rotor 2 offset

Rotor Variable 11: 3-28 cm rotors, 0 cm apart

Rotor Variable 12: 3-20 cm rotors, 0 cm apart

 Motor Size: 9-18 V
Rotor Variable 13: 1-28 cm rotor

Rotor Variable 14: 2-28 cm rotors, 0 cm apart

Rotor Variable 15: 2-28 cm rotors, 3.5 cm apart

Rotor Variable 16: 2-28 cm rotors, 5 cm apart

Rotor Variable 17: 2- 28 cm rotors, 7 cm apart

Rotor Variable 18: 3-28 cm rotors, 3.5 cm apart

Rotor Variable 19: 3-28 cm rotors, Rotors 1 and 3 IL, Rotor 2 OS

Rotor Variable 20: 2-20 cm rotors, 0 cm apart

Rotor Variable 21: 3-20 cm rotors, 3. 5 cm apart

Rotor Variable 22: 3-20 cm rotors, 1 & 3 IL and 2 OS

Rotor Variable 23: 3-28 cm rotors, 0 cm apart

Rotor Variable 24: 3-20 cm rotors, 0 cm apart

Motor Size: 12 V
Rotor Variable 25: 1-28 cm rotor
Rotor Variable 26: 2-28 cm rotors, 0 cm apart

Rotor Variable 27: 2-28 cm rotors, 3.5 cm apart

Rotor Variable 28: 2-28 cm rotors, 5 cm apart

Rotor Variable 29: 2-28 cm rotors, 7 cm apart

Rotor Variable 30: 3-28 cm rotors, 3.5 cm apart

Rotor Variable 31: 3-28 cm rotors, 3.5 cm apart, Rotors 1 & 3 IL, Rotor 2 OS
Rotor Variable 32: 2-20 cm rotors, 0 cm apart

Rotor Variable 33: 3-20 cm rotors, 3.5 cm apart

Rotor Variable 34: 3-20 cm rotors, 3.5 cm apart, Rotors 1 & 3 IL, Rotor 2 OS
Rotor Variable 35: 3-28 cm rotors, 0 cm apart

Rotor Variable 36: 3-20 cm rotors, 0 cm apart

Calculations
mWatt Calculation from mAmp and mVolt measurements:
mWatts were calculated using the following formula: 
mWatts = mAmps X mVolts
The data collected for each rotor variable was input into an Excel spreadsheet to
calculate the mean, standard deviation and coefficient of variation of the ten
measurements each of wind speed, mAmps, mVolts and RPM. A shortened
example of the spreadsheet is shown below,to provide the formulas used to
calculate the statistics.

Tip Speed Ratio Calculations: 

Additional calculations were done to calculate the Tip Speed Ratios of each rotor
variable at medium and high fan speed. 
Blade Tip Speed = RPM X Pi X Rotor Diameter / 60 
Pi = 3.14
Tip Speed Ratio = Blade Tip Speed (m/s) /Wind Speed (m/s) 
A shortened example of the Excel spreadsheet may be seen below to show the
formulas used for the calculations.

Results
The overall efficiency of a windmill is the amount of electricity that can be
generated over time on a cost basis. Two important factors that determine
overall windmill efficiency are the ability to use low velocity wind and the ability
of the windmill to convert the kinetic energy of the wind into electrical energy
(conversion efficiency). 

The results show that multiple rotors operated at lower wind

speeds and had a higher conversion efficiency.
1. Adding a second 28 cm rotor, coupled to the 1.5 - 3 V motor, increased the
amount of electricity generated by 4500% at medium fan speed and 2324% at
high fan speed. 

2. A single 28 cm rotor did not produce enough torque to start and continuously
turn the larger motors (9-18 V and 12 V) at either fan speed.

3. Adding a third rotor increased the amount of electricity generated by two

rotors an average of 28 %. 

4. Three 28 cm rotors, with 0 cm distance between the rotor hubs and with the
nine blades offset 40 degrees generated the most electricity for all three motor
sizes. 

5. This rotor combination also produced the highest tip speed ratios. 

6. There is an inverse relationship between rotor spacing and electricity

generation. As the spacing between the rotors increases, electricity generation
decreases. 

7. Interestingly, three 28 cm rotors, spaced 3.5 cm apart, with the blades of rotor
one and three inline and the blades of rotor two offset 60 degrees, produced more
electricity than the same rotor spacing with all blades offset 40 degrees. 

A summary of all calculated means of wind speed, mWatts and

tip speed ratio can be seen below.
The highlighted data below displays a summary of five rotor variables, including
those that produced the highest mWatts and tip speed ratios.

Results
Note: Rotor Variables are Charted from 1 to 12, left to right.
 Statistical Analysis

Statistics are a way of assessing the quality of the data collected. Standard
Deviation (SD) is a mathematical calculation used on a set of data to assess the
amount of scatter or dispersion from the mean, or average. It is an indication of
accuracy. If all data points are exactly the same, the SD would be equal to 0. 

Coefficient of Variation (CV) is a mathematical calculation (standard deviation x

100 /mean) that provides information that can be used to compare different sets
of data. A CV of 10% is considered acceptable.

Wind Speed Measurements: The differences in wind speed were

insignificant with a highest SD of 0.19 and a highest CV of 3.0%. The chart
below is a summary of all wind speed measurements and statistical analysis.
Grand Mean of Wind Speed Measurements:
A grand mean of all medium wind speed measurements was calculated as 5.6
with a SD of .12 and CV of 2.14%. 
A grand mean of all high wind speed measurements was calculated as 6.44 with a
SD of 0.089 and CV of 1.38%. 

The chart below shows the grand mean calculations of wind speed. Overall,
differences in the wind speed at each of the fan speeds for each set of
observations was insignificant.
mAmp Measurements: 
The highest SD was 2.73 and CV was 10.74%. There was only one observation
set with a CV for mAmps greater than 5%. Overall, the measurements were
quite reproducible. The chart below shows the means and statistics for all mAmp
measurements.
mVolt Measurements: The highest SD was 13.12 and CV was 7.08%. The
chart below shows all of the mVolt statistics.
RPM Measurements: The highest SD was 20.98 and the highest CV was
6.86%. The chart below shows the statistics for the RPM measurements.
Summary of Statistical Analysis
The coefficient of variation for all the data collected was acceptable (i.e. < 10%),
with the exception of the mAmp results for one rotor variable at medium fan
speed. The rotational speed of that particular rotor was relatively low and
produced slightly more erratic results. 

Overall, the data collected was accurate and precise.

Conclusions
My engineering objectives were met and the design of the laboratory scale model
accomodated my experimental design. The results supported my hypothesis as
follows.

I predicted that the number of rotors and their size, placement and orientation
on a single horizontal axis windmill would affect the amount of torque and
electrical energy produced. I predicted that the size of the DC motor would affect
the amount of electrical energy produced and that some rotor variables would be
unable to start and continuously turn the axle of larger DC motors. 

1. Larger rotors produce more torque and electrical energy than smaller rotors. 

2. Increasing the number of rotors from one to two increases the amount of
electrical energy generated by over 2000%. 

3. Single rotors were unable to start and continuously turn larger motors . 

4. Rotor size, number, placement and blade orientation affected the amount of
torque and electrical energy produced. 

Overall, three 28-cm rotors, placed 0 cm apart with all of the blades offset 40
degrees, produced the most torque and electrical energy, and the highest tip
speed ratios. This rotor variation produced 5448 % more electrical energy at
medium fan speed, and 2593% more electricity at high fan speed than a single
28-cm rotor. 

However, adding a third rotor increased the amount of electricity generated by

two rotors an average of 28%. 

The largest increase in electricity generated was from increasing the number of
rotors from one to two.

The results show that multiple rotors operated at lower wind speeds and had
a higher conversion efficiency.

Discussion
This was a really interesting project and I enjoyed working on it. I wanted to do
a project that was important and relevant to society. Phase 1, the 2003 "Torque
it Up!" project produced results that strongly supported the idea that a multiple
rotor windmill design was potentially more efficient than conventional three
blade windmill designs.

In Phase 2, "Watts Up with Torque", I wanted to further my research and use a

more direct approach than torque, to measure windmill efficiency. 
For the project "Watts Up with Torque!", I was originally going to use a pulley
system connected to the windmill axis and the axle of the motor. I quickly
discovered that this was not a viable option. The pulley kept slipping and when
tightened, pulled the motor out of alignment. A visit to a local specialty model
airplane shop proved successful. I was able to purchase couplers to connect the
windmill axis to the motor axle as a direct drive. The couplers allowed me to
connect and disconnect the DC motors relatively easily. This modification
ensured that errors in measurement were minimized. 

The use of couplers and various sizes of DC motors allowed me to not only
measure the electricity generated, but also allowed me to assess the ability of a
rotor variable to start and continuously turn the axle of a motor. 

"Watts Up with Torque!" started out as an expansion of Phase 1. I wanted to test

the effect of more than two rotors and the associated variables of placement,
blade orientation and size on electricity generation. Choosing to test various sizes
of DC motors provided the added bonus of verifying my previous results about
torque. 

This project allowed me to learn how to use additional devices such as the
multimeter for measuring mAmps and mVolts and the DC motors as generators.
The experiments taught me how careful I had to be in positioning the
instruments and being patient enough to wait until the RPM of the rotors
stabilized before attempting multimeter measurements. 

In all, I planned to collect 2880 observations. The actual amount of data collected
was less because some of the rotor variables failed to start and/or continuously
rotate. I learned more about how to organize a controlled experiment, and design
useful worksheets for recording the data collected. I learned a lot more about
spreadsheet programs and how to use them to analyze and present the data
collected. I also learned some basics about statistics and how they can be used to
assess the quality of the testing performed. 

My multiple rotor windmill design seems to be very efficient and worthwhile

pursuing. I may continue to explore additional facets of this approach in future
projects.

Sources of Error

The experiment was designed to keep sources of error to a minimum but not
every aspect could be perfectly controlled.
1. Although the same three speed fan was used for all tests, the wind speed
measurements at each speed were not exactly the same. However, the wind speed
data at each speed was analyzed using statistics and there did not appear to be a
significant variation. 

2. Some of the rotor variations would start the motor turning, but would not
allow it to run continuously. It was impossible in these cases to get consistent
readings of RPM, mAmps and mVolts. In these cases, that rotor variable was
assigned a RPM of zero. 

3. The wind speed, RPM, mAmp and mVolt measurements could not be done
simultaneously. The anemometer was held between the fan cage and rotor and
the position interfered with the wind flow to the rotor, meaning that RPM,
mAmp and mVolt measurements would not be valid. 

4. The anemometer had a stated accuracy of +/- 3 % or +/- 0.1 m/s. 

5. The tachometer had a stated accuracy of +/- 0.05 %. 

6. The multimeter had a stated DC voltage accuracy of +/- 0.5 % and stated
Amps accuracy of 1.2 %. 

Applications & Cost

Effectiveness
Opposition to the production of electricity from fossil fuels is rising and the
earth's non-renewable resources are depleting. In 2001, Ontario's five coal fired
power plants were responsible for 20% of all greenhouse gases released in the
province, 23% of all sulphur dioxide emissions, 14% of nitrogen emissions and
23% of mercury emissions. These plants are scheduled for closure by 2007. 

Wind power offers a pollution free, electricity-generating alternative, using a

renewable energy source. The cost of wind generated electricity is declining, in
comparison with other energy sources. 

This research could impact on the construction of wind turbines. Increased

torque may permit increased turbine size and produce more electricity than that
of a single rotor wind turbine. The use of multiple rotors to increase torque could
result in lower construction costs because rotor blades would be smaller, fewer
support towers would be required and the overall efficiency of wind turbines
would increase. 

My research could lower the cost of producing wind energy and have the added
environmental appeal of requiring fewer wind towers. Less land would be
utilized, less habitat destroyed and this could lessen some of the opposition to the
construction of wind farms. 

Wind energy is the fastest growing source of energy worldwide. I believe that it
will become more popular in North America due to the Kyoto Protocol and
concerns about greenhouse gas emissions. 

Cost Effectiveness: 
A 50 meter rotor windturbine costs approximately 2 million dollars.
Construction costs include tower construction (20 %) and rotor cost (20 %). The
cost of turbine components, foundation and maintenance does not rise in
proportion to size. 

Although cost information is difficult to obtain for proprietary reasons, I

estimate that a multiple rotor design, with smaller, lighter and less expensive
rotors, would exceed the performance of a conventional turbine, at a competitive
cost. 

Cost comparisons between traditional and green sources of power do not include
medical expenses. The Ontario Medical Association estimates that air pollution
costs Ontario more than $10 billion per year in health care costs, lost work time
and other measurable expenses. The time for investment in alternative sources of
energy is now!

Glossary of Terms
Airfoil - A structure around which air flows creating lift. 

Amps - The number of electrons flowing past in a second; similar to litres per
second in a water pipeline; defines electrical current in a wire

Anemometer - An instrument for measuring wind velocity. 

Bearing - A device that supports, guides, and reduces the friction of motion
between fixed and moving machine parts. 

Bernoulli's Principle - States that increased air velocity produces decreased

pressure. 

Betz' Law - A mathematical proof that states only 59% of the kinetic energy
from the wind can be converted into mechanical energy by a wind turbine with a
disc-like rotor. 

Blade Swept Area -The circular area that the rotor blades pass over. 

Blade Tip Velocity -The speed in meters/second of the tip of the rotor blade. 

Coefficient of Variation - A mathematical calculation (standard deviation x

100 /mean) that provides information that can be used to compare different sets
of data. 

Greenhouse Gases - Greenhouse gases are produced primarily through the

burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) to produce heat, electricity and
transportation. These gases trap the heat of the sun and cause global warming.
Green house gases are carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and sulphur dioxide. 

Kyoto Protocol - An international agreement on climate change that calls for

reductions in carbon emissions from industrialized countries by the year 2008 -
2012. 

Multimeter - An instrument designed to measure AC/DC voltage, batteries, DC

current, resistance, diodes and continuity.

Standard Deviation - A mathematical calculation used on a set of data to assess

the amount of scatter or dispersion from the mean, or average. It is an indication
of accuracy. 

Tachometer - An instrument for measuring revolutions per minute. 

Tip Speed Ratio - The blade tip velocity divided by the wind speed. The tip speed
ratio is how much faster, than the windspeed, the blade tips travel. 

Torque - The strength of rotational force usually measured in Newton-Meters. 

Volts - The electrical force or pressure behind the electrons in a circuit; similar
to water pressure in a pipe line

Watts - The total amount of electrical energy per second equal to Amps x Watts

Acknowledgements
This project could not have been completed without the assistance of my father,
who helped me design and build the test unit and my mother who proofread the
notebook and helped me understand basic statistical analysis.

Bibliography
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http://www.odec.ca/projects/2004/walk4d0/public_html/

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