CHAPTER 7 enables us to understand our 1.

Denotation/ Connotation –
ELEMENTS OF LITERATURE AND
THE COMBINED ARTS
A writer should bear these objectives in
mind:
1. To strive in raising the level of
the reader’s humanity and;
2. To accomplish the purpose of
making one a better person,
giving him a high sense of value.
Important elements of literature:
1. Emotional appeal – attained
when the reader is emotionally
moved or touched by any literary
work.
2. Intellectual appeal – add
knowledge or information
3. Humanistic appeal – makes the
reader an improved person with
a better outlook in life and with a
clear understanding of his inner
self.
Classification of Literature
1. Escape literature – written for
entertainment purposes; takes
us away from the real world and
enables us to temporarily forget
our troubles; for pleasure.
2. Interpretative Literature -
written to broaden and sharpen
our awareness of life; takes us
deeper into the real world and
troubles; for pleasure plus
understanding.
Uses of Literature
1. Moralizing literature - purpose
is to present moral values for the
reader to understand and
appreciate, the moral may be
directly or indirectly stated.
2. Propaganda Literature – found
not only in history books,
advertising and marketing books
but also in some books
describing one’s personal
success and achievements.
3. Psychological continuum of
the individual-therapeutic
value. It could be looked on as a
sophisticated modern elaboration
of the idea of catharsis, an
emotional relief experienced by
the reader thereby helping him
recover from a previous pent-up
emotion.
Elements of Poetry
Poetry - is the most challenging for the
following reasons:
 The choice of proper words or
grammar
 The denotative and symbolical
meaning of the chosen grammar
 Limitation imposed by the
structure and rhythm of sounds
Denotation is the actual meaning
of a word derived from the
dictionary. Connotation is the
related or allied meanings of
word.
2. Imagery – the representation of
sense experience through
language. The most common
imagery is visual, as we are
made to see what the author is
talking about.
3. Figurative Language – most
commonly used are simile and
metaphor. Both are used as
means of comparing things that
are essentially unlike.
4. Rhythm and Meter - it is related
to the beats of our hearts and
the intake and outflow of air
from the lungs. Rhythm is part
of our lives. Meter, in language,
is the accents that are so
arranged as to occur apparently
equal intervals of time. Metric
language is called verse.
5. Meaning and Idea – the
meaning of a poem is the
experience it expresses. Here, we
can distinguish between the
“total meaning” of a poem which
is only a part of the total
experience it communicates. The
value and worth of the poem are
determined by the value of the
total experience, not by the truth
or nobility of the idea itself. Prose
 meaning does not necessarily
have to be an idea itself. It may
be story, a description a
statement of emotion, a reader knows to be true.
presentation of human character
or a combination of these.
Elements of the Short Story
Short story - is a short written story
usually dealing with few characters. It
is a short work of fiction.
1. Plot – is the sequence of
incidents or events of which a
story is composed. It might
consist merely a sequence of
related actions.
2. Character –is a person, or
sometimes even an animal, who
takes part in the action of a
short story.
3. Theme – is the controlling idea
or the central insight in a literary
work. It is the unifying
generalization about life stated or
implied by the story.
4. Symbol and Irony - A literary
symbol is something that means
more than what it is. Irony is a
term with range of meanings, all
of them involving some sort of
discrepancy or incongruity.
According to Perrine, there are
three kinds of irony :
a) Verbal irony is a figure of
speech in which the opposite
is said from what is intended.
b) Dramatic irony is the
contrast between what a
character says and what the
c) Irony of situation is the
discrepancy between
appearance and reality,
between expectation and
fulfillment, or between what
is said and what would seem
appropriate.
5. Language and Style
Language refers to the idiom
used and how it used. Style is a
term which may refer to the
precise use of language, both
literary and figuratively.
Elements of Essay
Essay - is simply defined as a literary
composition on a particular subject.
It is usually short and expresses the
author's personal thoughts, feelings,
experience, and observations on a
phase of life that has interested him;
Biography, history, travel, art, nature,
personal life and criticism.
It can be roughly grouped as formal
and informal.
Informal when the essay is light,
humorous, and entertaining.
Formal when the essay is heavy,
informative, and intellectually
stimulating.
When reading the essay, the following
elements should be considered:
1. The issue introduced
2. The writer's viewpoint and thought
3. The relevance of the issue to the life
of the reader.
Elements of the Novel
Novel - particularly applicable to a long
– work of prose fiction dealing with
characters, situations, and scenes that
represent those of real life.
1. Setting - covers the time, the place
and the background.
2. Plot - The skeleton or framework
which gives shape and proportion to
the novel.
It can be also described as story itself,
the actual events or happenings in the
novel.
The most important substance which
concerns human activity and the
changes which occur from the
beginning to the end of the story.
3. Theme - the universal truth found in
the novel, the main idea or the topic.
4. Characters - the moving spirits of
the novel. They do not only act but also
manifest the moral, emotional and
intellectual qualities endowed to them 3. Thought - Thoughts include the 9. Scenery and Lighting - furniture
by the author. ideas and emotions implied by the painted backdrops or large props
overall meaning of the play, sometimes should be real.
Morality – the older status as a the theme.
technical concept in literary criticism.  Proper lighting - can add a great
4. Language (dialogue) - means of deal of the realisms of the play.
Personality – includes speech, expressing the character and the  Stage lighting - is always
hairstyle, hobby, attitude toward work thoughts dramatically. In the theater, electrical.
and all of the complex attitudes and refers to the dramatic dialogue with
feelings that define the individual. maybe prose in the verse.
CHAPTER 8
Elements of Drama  Prose dialogue - may be
THE DRAMA
Drama - like prose fiction, utilize plot naturalistic or rhetorical
and character develop a theme, arouses  Verse dialogue - makes use of What is DRAMA?
emotion or appeals to humor, and may the conversation of poetry for the
DRAMA as a composition in prose or in
be either escapist or interpretative in its purpose of drama.
verse, adapted to be acted and is
dealings with life. represented with accompanying
5. Theme - it is what story means.
gesture, costume, and scenery as in
1. Plot - It is the term sometimes used real life. (Oxford Dictionary)
6. Climax - scene or incident that is
to mean a summary of a play's story. It
the fruition of the accumulated DRAMA in ancient Greek meant
is concern with what happen in the
suspense, and that stirs the most something that is acted out, or lived
story.
intense feelings or emotions. through. It is essentially social and
2. Character - The character must be involves contact, communication and
7. Music and Spectacle - Aside from negotiation of meaning. (O’Neill and
shaped to fit the needs of the plot, and
"BACKGROUND" music, there is music Lambert 1982)
all parts of the characterization must fit
of speech and of movement. Spectacle
together. Dramatic activity is the direct result
intensifies emotions, whatever these
of the ability to role-play – to want to
 The main character who is emotions are. know how it feels to be in someone
attempting to resolve the else’s shoes. (Heathcote et. Al 1984)
8. Costume and Make-up - Every
problem is called
costume should be comfortable and A World-wide Show (A Dramatic
PROTAGONIST. surely put together so that the Entertainment)
 The conflict he/she faces performance does not have to worry
frequently involves a struggle Miss Saigon, which was
about it once it is on. The make-up produced by Cameron Mackintosh of
with some forces outside crew should be allowed plenty of time to England whose company received a
himself/herself as with an do their work after each actor dressed. Queen’s award for Export Achievement
ANTAGONIST. was staged in the Cultural Center of the
Philippines in March 2001. The title
Miss Saigon was conceived by Alain-
Boublil, a lyricist and Claude-Michel
Shonberg who wrote the musical score.
DEVELOPMENT OF DRAMA
ANCIENT DRAMA
 Egyptians (2000 B.C.E.) – drama
existed in religious ceremonies
for the worship of Osiris.
 Greece (6th & 5th Centuries
B.C.E.) – drama in distinct forms
of tragedy and comedy was
originated in the festivals of
Dionysus where poetry, a
dithyrambic ode with song and
dance, was presented.
 The earliest Greek dramatic
production on record is the
tragedy won by Thespis of Icaria
about 534 B.C.E.
 Following Thespis, Greek tragedy
reached its highest peak in the
plays of Aeschylus, Sophocles
and Euripides.
MEDIEVAL DRAMA
There are three kinds of development in
the Medieval play:
 Mystery Play was based on the
Holy Scriptures.
 Morality Play represented
abstract qualities such as vice,
humanity, or death and the tone
was generally philosophical.
 Secular Drama dealing with
everyday characters such as
lawyers, the student, the young
wife and the old foolish husband.
RENAISSANCE DRAMA
 With the rediscovery of classical
literature during this period, the
Greek and Roman dramatist
were imitated first in Italy and
later in France, Germany, and
England.
 Comedia del arte was an
unwritten impromptu drama,
produced on platforms on the
streets by strolling players.
DRAMA of the 17th, 18th and 19th
Centuries
 In England, the Elizabethan
drama died out under the
Puritan regime and did not
return until near the end of the
18th century.
 Reopened under Charles to
produce the comedies of William
Wycherly and George Farguhar
and the heroic tragedies of John
Dryden.
 In the middle of 18th century, the
theater was briefly revived by the
comedy of manners of Oliver
Goldsmith and Richard
Sheridan.
 French drama emerged in the
17th century with the classical
tragedies of Pierre Corneille and
Jean Racine and the superb
comedies of Moliere.
 Before the middle of the 18th
century, the only playwright of
note was Hans Sachs.
 Although English players
introduced Marlowe and
Shakespeare to Germany at the
end of the 16th century.
 The popular 18th century drama
in France was the farcical
comedy; in England, the comedy
of manners and the domestic
drama.
 In the 19th century, romantic
drama flourished throughout
Europe.
 Various types of romantic
drama, melodrama, the historical
play, and the fantasy play
flourished in Italy and in Russia.
MODERN DRAMA
 Credit should be given to Ibsen,
a Norwegian dramatist, for the
development of the modern
drama.
 There was a brief revival of
romantic fantasy in France;
symbolism was carried to great
extremes; expressionism
appeared in Germany after World
War I; comedy was rejuvenated
in England and the United
States.
 French impressionism made a
small showing in the theater;
poetic drama reached new
heights in England, Ireland,
France, Spain and the United
States.
ORIENTAL DRAMA
 Dramas from Asian countries
like Filipino, Japanese and
Chinese drama.
  Drama of Asia originated as an
elaboration of liturgical
practices.
 It is based on the concept of
sangita (or sammita), the
threefold art of music, dance and
poetry, fused into single artistic
entry.
 In modern times, the classical
theater in Eastern countries
subsists as a national heritage
side by side with the developing
techniques of a new drama
patterned after European
practice but stongly colored by
local habit and taste.
PHILIPPINE DRAMA
Early Forms of the Philippine Drama:
 Duplo - a poetical debate held by
trained men and women in the
ninth night, the last night of the
mourning period for the dead.
The male participants, bellacos,
are the heads of the game.
 Karagatan - was also a poetical
debatebut its participants were
amateurs.
Three Plays and Two Street Dramas
that became Popular during Spanish
Era
CENAKULO
 It is a very heavy drama show in
relation to the life sacrifices and
death of Jesus Christ.
 It is like a passion play
presented and celebrated during
the month of March or April,
depending upon the exact date of ATI-ATIHAN
Holy Week.
 There are two kinds of  It is a pagan ritual which has
presentation: the ablada (oral) become an annual affair that the
and the kantada (song). natives look forward to with
great expectation.
MORO-MORO  It is the most extravagant fiesta
in the Philippines celebrated in
 It is a cloak-and-dagger play Kalibo, Aklan, every third
depicting the wars between the Sunday of January in honor of
Christian and the Muslims, with the Infant Jesus.
the Christian always on the  Ati-atihan derived its name from
winning sides. Atis, the aboriginal Negritos of
the area in the Visayas.
ZARZUELA
THE MODERN PHILIPPINE DRAMA
 It is a melodrama with songs and
dances that have a three-in-one- The modern Philippine drama/
act play. stage play was rejuvenated upon the
 It is intended to make the mass establishment of the Repertory
feeling towards love, fear, grief, Philippines in June of 1967 which was
sorrow or any emotional founded by Zeneida "Bibot" Amador and
reactions sublime. Baby Barredo.
 The zarzuela is a musical
comedy. Rizal wrote a zarzuela JAPANESE DRAMA
entitle “Junto Al Pasig (Beside
the Pasig)”. 1. NOH PLAYS
 are poetic treatments of history,
MORIONES
love story, war story, and
 The Morion festival is a Lenten legends, influenced by the
ritual that is as colorful as it is religious beliefs of Buddhism and
unique. It is celebrated every Shintoism.
Holy Week in Marinduque.  is performed by masked actors,
 Morion means mask or visor, and is usually accompanied by
which is the top part of the music, dance, and choral
Medieval Roman armor covering speaking.
the face.
 The climax of the Morion festival 2. JORURI PLAY
is the pugutan ceremony held at
 is a puppet drama.
noon of Easter Sunday.
  involves puppet manipulation to
a higher level involving
complicated skills.
 arose from the collaboration of
puppeteers attached to the
shrines where they performed
scenes from Buddha and Shinto
legends, with performers who
chanted the verses to the
accompaniment of the shamisen.
3. KABUKI DRAMA
 settings and costumes are lavish,
acting is extremely broad and
exaggerated, and heavy make-up
is used instead of masks.
 are based on the moral and
emotional conflicts of ordinary
people and are often about
impossible romances that end in
double coincidences or suicides.
CHINESE DRAMA
1. VUN PAN SHI
 is the oldest form of Chinese
play. It has patriotism and filial
devotion for its subjects.
 music and action unite to play
upon the emotion of the
audience.
2, SIN PAN SHI
 presents civil and military
conditions.
 difference between Vun Pan Shi
and Sin Pan Shi is not the
libretto, but in the manner of
singing certain roles and in the
tradition of acting.
3. VUN MIN SHI
 is also known as the "modern
play".
 colloquial dialects are allowed in
the Vun Min Shi instead of
Mandarin, the dialects of Peking,
which is the accepted speech of
the stage as well as of the
nation.
THE CINEMA
 The cinema or motion picture is
one of the most popular form of
entertainment in the Philippines.
 More than just a medium of
entertainment, it is an art form
that is appreciated.
 The film medium itself has been
called " a wild combination of
World War II and Philippine Movies
art, culture, commerce, and
technology".
 The film extensively makes use
of sound and light. It has its
intellectual, imaginative, and
technical aspects.
BRIEF HISTORY OF THE PHILIPPINE
CINEMA
 In 1926, Hollywood silent
pictures were shown in the
Present Movie Development
Philippines.
 In 1927, the Silos brothers made
The Three Tramps, a short
comedy.
 In 1929, Carlos Vander Tolosa
wrote and ditected "Collegian
Love".
 Petronilo Tolentino bought the
negatives and prints of four
movies from Jose Nepomuceno
 Asuncion Leyba bought two
movies from Nepomuceno.
 The keen competitor of Jose
Nepomuceno in motion picture
production was Rafael Fernandez
who formed Banahaw Pictures.
 Banahaw Pictures was the last
film company to make silent
pictures.
 George Musser produced for
Manila Talkatone the first talking
picture in Tagalog entitled " Ang
Aswang".
 In 1933, Jose Nepomuceno
started making Tagalog talkies
with American technicians and
some cameras brought from
Hollywood by Harris and Taft.
 The outbreak of the Second
World War temporarily paralyzed
the Philippine movie industry.
 Japanese imposed censorship on
American and Tagalog pictures
and established Eiga Heikusa.
 The actors and actresses, who
became jobless, were forced to go
the stage.
 The local movies have been
struggling hard but gradually
improving.
 The slow pace of the
development of the Philippine
movies could be attributed to
some factors like:
  The limited market for local
movies.
 Lack of capital or funding.
 Inadequate facilities or
equipment.
ELEMENTS OF PHILIPPINE MOTION
PICTURES
MUSIC AND MUSICAL DIRECTOR
 During the era of silent movies,
every cinema house employed
musicians who played music
that suited the tempo and
varying moods of the scenes as
they were projected on the
screen.
 The musical director, who was in
charge of the music, composed
new songs and wrote their
orchestration, prepared
background music, created
musical scores, and supervised
all recording.
MAKE-UP, COIFFEUR, AND
COSTUMES
 Make-up consists of the sticky
substances which are applied on
the face of the actors before
facing the camera.
ACTING AND THE STARS
 Acting is the art of portraying or
impersonating a character.
 A performer should forget his
own personality and live the life
of the character he is portraying.
COLOR IN THE MOVIES
 The latest innovation in
cinematography is color.
 Color in local movies was
attempted in 1941 by LVN
Pictures Inc. in "Ibong Adarna".
SET AND ART DIRECTORS
 Beautiful setting gives beauty to
the picture and pleases the eye.
 Art directors should know the
natural setting and build
artificial sets.
SOUND, CAMERAS, AND
TECHNICIANS
 Recording is the process where
an orchestra playing the music
or song is being recorded in the
sound track by the recording
apparatus.
 Playback is the method employed
when an actress ar actor borrows
the voice of another.
 The use of camera and the
functions of the technician are
indispensable in
cinematography.
CHAPTER 9: THE MEDIUMS
OF MUSIC
Music: is the art of combining sounds
of varying pitch to produce a coherent
composition.
The Two Medium of Music
I. Vocal Medium: is the music
produced by the voices of singers. Vocal
music is rendered a capella.
A. Male voices: have three
registers: bass (low), baritone
(medium), and tenor (high). The lowest
of the male local registers is the basso
profundo.
B. Female voices: also have
three registers: alto (low), mezzo
soprano (medium), and soprano (high).
The highest of the female vocal registers
is the coloratura soprano.
II. Instrumental Medium: pertains to
the different instruments played by
musicians.
Sachs-Hornbostel System -
categorizes each instrument according
to how the sound is produced and what
material is used to produce sound.
IDIOPHONES - Musical instruments in
which a vibrating solid material is used
to produce sound. Examples of solid
materials used in such instruments are
stone, wood and metal. Idiophones are
differentiated according to how you
make it vibrate. Such as:
 Concussion - A pair of similar
instruments that are struck
together or struck against each
 other to create sound. Examples:
cymbals, castanets.
 Friction - Instruments that
produce sound when rubbed. An
example of these are musical
glasses in which the musician
rubs his moistened fingers on
the rim of the glasses to produce
sound.
 Percussion - Musical
instruments that produce sound
by striking or using a striker.
Examples: xylophones, triangles,
bells, gongs, steel drums.
 Plucked - Also known as
linguaphones, these are
musical instruments that need
to be plucked to create sound,
such as the Jew's harp in which
the player plucks the "tongue" of
the instrument.
 Scraped - As the name implies,
these are instruments that when
scraped, produce sound.
Examples of these are cog rattles
and washboards.
 Shaken - Musical instruments
that need to be shaken to create
sound. A perfect example are
maracas which are believed to
have been invented by native
Indians of Puerto Rico.
 Stamping - Instruments that
produce sound when stamped on
a hard surface, such as the
shoes used by tap dancers.
MEMBRANOPHONES - Musical
instruments that have vibrating
stretched membranes or skin that
produce sound. Membranophones are
classified according to the shape of the
instrument.
 Kettle Drums - Also known as
vessel drums, these are rounded
at the bottom and may be
tunable or non-tunable. The
vibrating membrane is either
laced, nailed or glued to the body
and the player uses his hands, a
beater or both to strike it.
 Tubular Drums - Are further
classified into barrel, cylindrical,
conical, double conical, goblet,
hourglass and shallow. Tubular
drums may either be tunable
and nontunable. Like the kettle
drums, it may be played by using
both the hands or a striker and
the vibrating membrane is either
laced, nailed or glued to the
body.
 Friction Drums - Instead of
striking, the stretched
membrane vibrates when there is
friction. These are non-tunable
and the player uses a cord or
stick to create sound.
 Mirlitons - Unlike other musical
instruments belonging to the
membranophones, mirlPitons are
not drums. The membranes
produce sound with the vibration
of a player's voice or instrument.
Mirlitons are non-tunable, a
good example of this type are
kazoos.
Other membranophones are called
frame drums in which the skin or
membrane is stretched over a frame
such as tambourines. Also, pot drums
and ground drums fall under the
membranophone category.
AEROPHONES - Music instruments
which produce sound by a vibrating
mass of air. This is more commonly
known as wind instruments and there
are three basic types:
 Brasswinds - Made of metal,
particularly brass, these
instruments create sound
through the vibration of a
player's lips on the mouthpiece.
The air that passes from the
player's lips goes to the air
column of the instrument and
thus creates sound. Examples:
trombone, trumpet, tuba.
 Woodwinds - Originally made of
wood but now other materials
have also been used. On reed
instruments like the saxophone
and the clarinet, a thin material
is placed on the mouthpiece so
that when the player blows into
it the air is forced to go to a reed
and sets it to vibrate. In double-
reed instruments such as
 bassoons and oboes, the
material placed on the opening of
the mouthpiece is thicker. In
woodwinds such as flutes, the
player blows air into the edge of
a mouthpiece thus creating
sound.
 Free-reed - Refers to wind
instruments that has a freely
vibrating reed and the pitch
depends on the size of the reed.
A good example of this type of
instrument is the accordion.
CHORDOPHONES - Music instruments
that produce sound by means of a
stretched vibrating string. There are 5
basic types based on the strings'
relationship with the resonator. When a
string vibrates, the resonator picks up
that vibration and amplifies it giving it
a more appealing sound.
 Musical bows - May or may not
have resonators; the strings are
attached and stretched over a
wooden bow.
 Harps - The strings aren't
parallel to the sound board.
 Lyres - The strings run through
a crossbar holding it away from
the resonator. Lyres may either
be bowed or plucked.
 Lutes - These instruments have
necks; the strings are stretched
across a resonator and travel up
the neck. Lutes may be bowed or
plucked.
 Zithers - Have no necks; strings
are stretched from one end of the
board to another end. Zithers
may be plucked or struck.
Chordophones also have subcategories
depending on how the strings are
played. Examples of chordophones
played by bowing are double bass,
violin and viola. Examples of
chordophones that are played by
plucking are banjo, guitar, harp,
mandolin and ukulele. The piano,
dulcimer and the clavichord are
examples of chordophones that are
struck.
ELECTROPHONES - Refers to music
instruments that produce sound
electronically or produce its initial
sound traditionally and then amplified
electronically. Some examples of
instruments that produce sound
electronically are electronic organs and
electronic synthesizers. Electric guitars
and electric pianos are examples of
traditional instruments that are
electronically amplified.
 ENSEMBLES - ensemble music
is a music rendered by a group
of performers - singers and/or
players of musical instruments.
 ORCHESTRA - is the most
spectacular of the ensembles
because of it large size. Usually
performing under direction of a
conductor, the musicians playing
several instruments.
 CONCERTO - is a form written
for an orchestra in which one
solo instrument is given
prominence. Example is a piano
or a violin.
 BAND - having the size of an
orchestra but consisting of
mainly or exclusively of wind and
percussion instruments.
Nowadays, a band is used to
mean a small group of
performers, consisting of a
soloist, drummer, guitarist and
keyboardist, or a small group of
singers.
 RONDALLA - is a band usually
composed of string instruments.
It is best-known instrumental
group in the Philippines.