INTRODUCTION

CONCRETE
Concrete is a composite material in which a binding material mixed in water on solidification binds the
inert particles of well graded fine and coarse aggregates. Cement and lime are generally used as binding
materials, whereas sand cinder is used as fine aggregates and crushed stones, gravel, broken bricks,
clinkers are used as coarse aggregates.

TYPES OF CONCRETE
Concrete are classified into different types:
1. According to binding material used in concrete.
2. According to design of concrete.
3. According to purpose of concrete.
According to Binding Material
According to binding material used concrete are classified into two types.
(1) Cement concrete
(2) Lime concrete.
Cement Concrete :- In cement concrete useful proportions of its ingredients are 1 part cement:1-8 part
sand:2-16 parts coarse aggregates.
Uses :- Cement concrete is commonly used in buildings and other important engineering works where
strength and durability is of prime importance.
Lime Concrete :- The concrete consisting of lime, fine aggregates, and coarse aggregates mixed in a
suitable proportions with water is called lime concrete. In this type of concrete hydraulic lime is generally
used as a binding material, sand and cinder are used as fine aggregates and broken bricks, gravel can be
used as coarse aggregates.
Placing of lime concrete :
Placing of concrete shall be completed within three hours of adding water in case of concrete is prepared
with hydraulic lime.
Concrete should be well cured for a period of at least 10 days.
Uses: Lime concrete is generally used for the sake of economy in foundation works, under floors, over
roof and where cement is not cheaply and easily available in required quantity.
According to Design of Concrete
(1) Plain cement concrete.
(2) Reinforced cement concrete (RCC).
(3) Pre-stressed cement concrete (PSC).
(4) Pre-cast cement concrete (PCC).
Plain Cement Concrete
Plain concrete, commonly known as cement concrete, in which no reinforcement is provided is called
plain cement concrete or mass cement concrete.
The main constituents are the cement, aggregates, and water. Most commonly used mix design is 1:2:4
which is the normal mix design.
This type of concrete is strong in taking compressive stresses but weak in taking tensile stresses.
The density of the plain concrete will vary between 2200 and 2500 Kg/meter cube. The compressive
strength is 200 to 500 kg/cm2.
These types of concrete are mainly used in the construction of the pavements and the buildings,
especially in areas where there is less demand of high tensile strength. The durability given by these type
of concrete is satisfactory to high extent.
Uses: Plain cement concrete is commonly used in for foundation work and flooring of buildings.
Reinforced Concrete
The reinforced cement concrete is defined as the concrete to which reinforcement is introduced to bear
the tensile strength. Plain concrete is weak in tension and good in compression.
Hence the placement of reinforcement will take up the responsibility of bearing the tensile stresses. R.C.C
works with the combined action of the plain concrete and the reinforcement.
The steel reinforcement used in the concrete can be in the form of rods, bars or in the form of meshes.
Now fibers are also developed as reinforcement.

Fiber reinforced concrete are concrete that use fibers (steel fibers) as reinforcement for the concrete. Use
of meshes in concrete will give Ferro cement.
Whatever be the type of reinforcement used in concrete, it is very necessary to ensure proper bond
between the concrete and the reinforcement. This bond will control the strength and the durability
factors of the concrete.

Pre-stressed Concrete
Most of the mega concrete projects are carried out through pre-stressed concrete units. This is a special
technique in which the bars or the tendons used in the concrete is stressed before the actual service load
application.
During the mixing and the placing of the concrete, these tensioned bars placed firmly and held from each
end of the structural unit. Once the concrete sets and harden, the structural unit will be put in
compression.
This phenomenon of pre-stressing will make the lower section of the concrete member to be stronger
against the tension.
The process of pre-stressing will require heavy equipment and labor skill (jacks and equipment for
tensioning). Hence the pre-stressing units are made at site and assembled at site. These are used in the
application of bridges, heavy loaded structures, and roof with longer spans.
Process of induction of compressive stresses in the structure before it is put to its actual use is known as
Pre-stressing. Pre-stressed Concrete member is a member of concrete in which internal stresses are
introduced in a planned manner, so that the stresses resulting from the superimposed loads are
counteracted to a desired degree.
 Pre-stressing is the intentional creation of permanent stress in a structure or assembly, for
improving its behavior and strength under various service conditions.
 In ordinary reinforced concrete, consisting of concrete and mild steel as basic components, the
compressive stresses are born by concrete while tensile stresses are born entirely by steel. The
concrete only acts as a binding material; it does not take part in resisting the external forces.
 In pre-stressed concrete, compression is induced prior to loading in the zones where external
loads would normally cause tensile stresses.
 In the case of long beams, where large shear forces exist, the beam sizes have to be large to limit
the diagonal tensile stresses under certain limits. Pre-stress decrease diagonal tensile stresses.
This has led to adopt modified I-section and T-section in which there is substantial reduction in
web area.
 In order to get the maximum advantage of a pre-stressed concrete member, it is necessary to use
not only high strength concrete but also high tensile steel wires.
 Concrete used for pre-stressed work should have cube strength of 35 N/mm2 for post-tensioned
system and 45N/m m2 for pre-tensioned system.
 In the design of a pre-stressed concrete member, the estimated loss of pre-stress due to shrinkage
of concrete and creep of concrete and steel is at the order of nearly 200 N/mm 2

Precast Concrete
Various structural elements can be made and cast in the factory as per the specifications and bought to
the site at the time of assembly. Such concrete units are called as the precast concrete.
The examples of precast concrete units are concrete blocks, the staircase units, precast walls and poles,
concrete lintels and many other elements. These units have the advantage of acquiring speedy
construction as only assemblage is necessary. As the manufacturing is done at site, quality is assured. The
only precaution taken is for their transportation.
Steps of Concrete Construction
The construction steps are:
1. Selecting quantities of materials for selected mix proportion
Quantity of materials such as cement, sand, coarse aggregates and water required per cubic meter of
concrete and mortar for different mix proportions varies with the mix design of the concrete and mortar
respectively.
Following table gives the estimated quantity of materials required per cubic meter of mortar and
concrete for various nominal mixes.
Quantities of Materials Per Cubic Meter of Concrete Mix Proportions
Notes:

1. F.A.= Fine Aggregates, C.A.= Coarse Aggregates

2. The table is based on assumption that the voids in sand and crushed stone are 40 and 45 percent
respectively.
3. Air content of 1 percent has been assumed.

4. For gravel aggregates decrease cement by 5 percent, increase sand by 2 percent and coarse aggregate in
proportion to fine aggregate in mix.

4. No allowance has been made in the table for bulking of sand and wastage.

Mixing

Quality control of ready mix concrete is important as it has to be mixed and transported to different
locations.
While Ordering Ready Mixed Concrete Following Points is to be specified:
 Coarse aggregate size
 Slump
 Air content
 Basis for proportioning, select Options A ,B, or C.

Option A – Performance Based Ready Mixed Concrete

Purchaser specifies compressive strength of concrete required and the concrete producer selects mix
proportions for the same.
Option B—Prescription Based Ready Mixed Concrete
Purchaser specifies mixture proportions including:
 Cement content
 Water content
 Admixture type and content
Option C – Mixed Option Based
Purchaser specifies compressive strength, cement content, admixture type and content for the ready mix
concrete. Concrete producer selects mix proportions for the same.
Batching and Mixing of Ready Mixed Concrete

Fig.1. Control room for batching equipment in a typical ready mixed concrete plant.
Stationary Mixing of Concrete
Stationary Mixers are used onsite or Central Mix R/M plant. It is used for complete or shrink mixing. The
concrete mixer can mix up to 9m3. It can have tilting or non-tilting drum, open top revolving blade or
paddle. Typical complete mixing times of this machine is minimum of 1 min. for up to 1 m 3 or less mixer
capacity plus 15 seconds for each additional m3 or fraction thereof.
Ready Mixed Concrete
There are two types of ready mixed concrete, shrink-mixed concrete in which concrete is mixed partially
in a stationary mixer and completed in a truck mixer. Truck-mixed concrete in which concrete is mixed
completely in a truck mixer.

Fig.2. Concrete can be mixed at the jobsite in a stationary mixer.

Fig.3. Truck-mixed concrete is mixed completely in a truck mixer.

Central-mixed concrete
It has concrete mixed completely in a stationary mixer and delivered in a truck agitator. The truck has
mixer operating at agitating speed. There can be even a non-agitating truck.

Fig. 4. Central mixing in a stationary mixer of the tilting drum type with delivery by a truck mixer operating
at agitating speed.

Fig: 5. Ready Mix Plant

Truck Mixed Concrete

It requires 70 to 100 revolutions required for mixing. Mixing speed varies from 6 to 18 rpm. After mixing,
drum revolves at agitating speed, 2 to 6 rpm. The concrete needs to be discharged before exceeding 300
drum revolutions and before 1½ hours.
Mobile Batcher Mixer
It is used for intermittent production of concrete at jobsite, or small quantities. Its advantages include
combined materials transport and batching and mixing system and requires only one-man operation.
Fig.6. Mobile batcher measures materials by volume and continuously mixes concrete as the dry ingredients,
water, and admixtures are fed into a mixing trough at the rear of the vehicle.