IT-Elective

Technical
Jasper Nichol M. Fabella
 IT-Elective
Technical Design

Jasper Nichol M. Fabella

Instructional Material for

Jasper Nichol
Information Technology

Sorsogon State College

Bulan Campus
Introduction

Our main goal for this course is to let every I.T. students to understand electronics.
How can we do that you might ask? by both explaining the theory behind digital electronics
at a level beyond complex mathematics, and by providing real world examples about how
each piece of theory can be put to practical use, we emphasize hands on approach to
learning in this course. because if you let your hands dirty you learn for real
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 chapter 1

Analog and Digital

We live in an analog world. There are an infinite amount of colors to paint an object
(even if the difference is indiscernible to our eye), there are an infinite number of tones we can
hear, and there are an infinite number of smells we can smell. The common theme among all
of these analog signals is their infinite possibilities.

Digital signals and objects deal in the realm of the discrete or finite, meaning there is a limited
set of values they can be. That could mean just two total possible values, 255, 4,294,967,296,
or anything as long as it’s not ∞ (infinity).

Working with electronics means dealing with both analog and digital signals, inputs and
outputs. Our electronics projects have to interact with the real, analog world in some way, but
most of our microprocessors, computers, and logic units are purely digital components. These
two types of signals are like different electronic languages; some electronics components are
bi-lingual, others can only understand and speak one of the two.

In this chapter, we’ll cover the basics of both digital and analog signals, including examples of
each. We’ll also talk about analog and digital circuits, and components.
2 Chapter 1 n Analog and Digital

Analog Signals
Analog signal is a kind of signal that is continuously variable, as opposed to having a limited
number of steps along its range (called digital). A well-known example of analog vs. digital is
that of clocks: analog being the type with pointers that slowly rotate around a circular scale,
and digital being the type with decimal number displays or a “second-hand” that jerks rather
than smoothly rotates. The analog clock has no physical limit to how finely it can display the
time, as its “hands” move in a smooth, pauseless fashion. The digital clock, on the other
hand,
cannot convey any unit of time smaller than what its display will allow for. The type of clock
with a “second-hand” that jerks in 1-second intervals is a digital device with a minimum
resolution of one second.

Analog Signal Graphs

Because a signal varies over time, it’s helpful to plot it on a graph where time is plotted on
the horizontal, x-axis, and voltage on the vertical, y-axis. Looking at a graph of a signal is
usually the easiest way to identify if it’s analog or digital; a time-versus-voltage graph of an
analog signal should be smooth and continuous.

While these signals may be limited to a range of maximum and minimum values, there are
still an infinite number of possible values within that range. For example, the analog voltage
coming out of your wall socket might be clamped between -120V and +120V, but, as you
increase the resolution more and more, you discover an infinite number of values that the
signal can actually be (like 64.4V, 64.42V, 64.424V, and infinite, increasingly precise
values).
3 Chapter 1 n Analog and Digital

Digital Signals

Digital signals are signals wich signifies HIGH an LOW , or in boolean , 0 or 1, it is a form of
signale that communicates with an electronic device.

Digital signals must have a finite set of possible values. The number of values in the set can
be anywhere between two and a-very-large-number-that’s-not-infinity. Most commonly digital
signals will be one of two values – like either 0V or 5V. Timing graphs of these signals look
like square waves.

5V

0V

0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0

Or a digital signal might be a discrete representation of an analog waveform. Viewed from

afar, the wave function below may seem smooth and analog, but when you look closely
there are tiny discrete steps as the signal tries to approximate values:
4 Chapter 1 n Analog and Digital

Digital Signal Processing

DSP can be found in almost any field, whether it's oil processing, sound reproduction
radar and sonar, medical image processing, or telecommunications-- essentially any
application in which signals are being compressed and reproduced.
vDSP manipulates different types of signals with the intention of filtering, measuring, or
compressing and producing analog signals. Analog signals differ by taking information
and translating it into electric pulses of varying amplitude, whereas digital signal
information is translated into binary format where each bit of data is represented by
two distinguishable amplitudes.

So what exactly is digital signal processing? The digital signal process takes signalslike
audio, voice, video, temperature, or pressure that have already been digitized andthen
manipulates them mathematically. This information can then be represented asdiscrete
time, discrete frequency, or other discrete forms so that the information canbe digitally
processed. An analog-to-digital converter is needed in the real world totake analog signals
(sound, light, pressure, or temperature) and convert them into 0'sand 1's for a digital format.

A DSP contains 4 key components:

 Computing Engine: Mathematical manipulations, calculations, and processes by

accessing the program, or task, from the Program Memory and the information
stored in the Data Memory.

 Data Memory: This stores the information to be processed and works hand in
hand with program memory.

 Program Memory: This stores the programs, or tasks, that the DSP will use to
process, compress, or manipulate data.

 I/O: This can be used for various things, depending on the field DSP is being used
for, i.e. external ports, serial ports, timers, and connecting to the outside world.
5 Chapter 1 n Analog and Digital

ADC & DAC

Electric equipment is heavily used in nearly every field. Analog to Digital Converters
(ADC) and Digital to Analog Converters (DAC) are essential components for anyvariation
of DSP in any field. These two converting interfaces are necessary to convertreal world
signals to allow for digital electronic equipment to pick up any analog signaland process
it. Take a microphone for example: the ADC converts the analog signalcollected by an
input to audio equipment into a digital signal that can be outputted byspeakers or
monitors. While it is passing through the audio equipment to the computer,
software can add echoes or adjust the tempo and pitch of the voice to get a perfect
sound. On the other hand, DAC will convert the already processed digital signal back
into the analog signal that is used by audio output equipment such as monitors. Below
is a figure showing how the previous example works and how its audio input signals
can be enhanced through reproduction, and then outputted as digital signals through
monitors.
 chapter 2

Logic Gates
What can a digital circuit do?

The simplest task we can think of is a combinational Logic decision

A logic gate is an elementary building block of a digital circuit. Most logic gates have two inputs
and one output. At any given moment, every terminal is in one of the two binary conditions low
(0) or high (1), represented by different voltage levels.

The logic state of a terminal can, and generally does, change often, as the circuit processes
data. In most logic gates, the low state is approximately zero volts (0 V), while the high state is
approximately five volts positive (+5 V).
6 Chapter 2 n Logic Gates

Basic Logic Gates

While each logical element or condition must always have a logic value of either "0" or "1",
we
also need to have ways to combine different logical signals or conditions to provide a logical
result. For example, consider the logical statement:

"If we move the switch on the wall up, the light will turn on."

At first glance, this seems to be a correct statement. However, if we look at a few other
factors, we realize that there's more to it than this. In this example, a more complete
statement would be:

"If we move the switch on the wall up and the light bulb is good and the power is on,
the light will turn on."

If we look at these two statements as logical expressions and use logical terminology, we
can reduce the first statement to:

Light = Switch

This means nothing more than that the light will follow the action of the switch, so that when
the switch is up/on/true/1 the light will also be on/true/1. Conversely, if the switch is
down/off/false/0 the light will also be off/false/0. Looking at the second version of the
statement, we have a slightly more complex expression:

Light = Switch and Bulb and Power

Normally, we use symbols rather than words to designate the AND function that we're using
to combine the separate variables of Switch, Bulb, and Power in this

expression. The symbol normally used is a dot, which is the same symbol used for
multiplication in some mathematical expressions. Using this symbol, our three-variable
expression becomes:

Light = Switch Bulb Power

When we deal with logical circuits (as in computers), we not only need to deal with logical
functions; we also need some special symbols to denote these functions in a logical
diagram. There are three fundamental logical operations, from which all other functions, no
matter how complex, can be derived. These functions are named
and, or, and not. Each of these has a specific symbol and a clearly-defined
behavior, as follows:
7 Chapter 2 n Logic Gates

NOT Gate

x y

A NOT gate is a one-input, one-output logic circuit whose output is always the complement
of the input. That is, a LOW input produces a HIGH output, and vice versa.
When interpreted for a positive logic system, a logic ‘0’ at the input produces a logic ‘1’ at
the output, and vice versa.
It is also known as a ‘complementing circuit’ or an ‘inverting circuit’. Figure 4.10 shows the
circuit symbol and the truth table.

The NOT operation on a logic variable X is denoted as X or X'. That is, if X is the input to a
NOT
circuit, then its output Y is given by Y = X or X' and reads as Y equals NOT X. Thus, if X = 0
Y = 1 and if X = 1 Y = 0.
8 Chapter 2 n Logic Gates

AND Gate

An AND gate is a logic circuit having two or more inputs and one output.
The output of an AND gate is HIGH only when all of its inputs are in the HIGH state.
In all other cases, the output is LOW. When interpreted for a positive logic system, this
means that the output of the AND gate is a logic ‘1’ only when all of its inputs are in logic ‘1’
state. In all other cases, the output is logic ‘0’. The logic symbol and truth table of a
two-input AND gate are shown above.
The AND operation on two independent logic variables A and B is written as Y = AB and
reads
as Y equals A AND B and not as A multiplied by B. Here, A and B are input logic variables
and Y is the output. An AND gate performs an ANDing operation:
9 Chapter 2 n Logic Gates

OR Gate

An OR gate performs an ORing operation on two or more than two logic variables. The
OR operation
on two independent logic variables A and B is written as Y = A + B and reads as Y
equals A OR B
and not as A plus B. An OR gate is a logic circuit with two or more inputs and one output.
The output
of an OR gate is LOW only when all of its inputs are LOW. For all other possible input
combinations, the output is HIGH. This statement when interpreted for a positive logic
system means the following. The output of an OR gate is a logic ‘0’ only when all of its
inputs are at logic ‘0’. For all other possible input combinations, the output is a logic ‘1’.