ROCKS

A rock is a relatively common aggregate of mineral grains. Some rocks consist

essentially of but one mineral species (mono mineral, such as quartzite which is
composed of quartz); others consist of two or more minerals (polymineralic, such as
granite which is composed of quartz, feldspar and biotite). Rock names are not given to
those rare combinations of minerals that constitute deposits such as quartz, pyrite and
gold. In the popular sense, rock is considered also to denote a compact substance, one
with some coherence, but geologically friable volcanic ash is also a rock.

Petrology, the study of rock, has developed from observation of hundreds of

thousands of rock samples found in all parts of the world. From these samples,
scientists have tried to find out how rocks were formed, and what determines their
variation in composition or structure.

ROCK AGE DETERMINATION

Age determination of rocks and minerals are based on radioactivity of certain

chemical elements that occur within them. Measurements of rock ages have enabled
geologists to reconstruct the geologic history of the earth from the time of formation 4.6
x 109 years ago to the present. Age determination of rocks from moon has also
contributed to the knowledge of the history of the earth and may someday be used to
study rocks from Mars and other bodies within the solar system.

ROCK ORIGINS

The composition of rocks reveals much about their origin. Most rocks are a
mixture of minerals. Some rocks, such as coal, are of organic origin. As we have seen,
the rock-forming minerals are relatively few. However, the number of possible mixtures
are many. This makes classification difficult. One type of rock grades into another by
small degrees. The colors, textures, and other properties of the minerals cause great
variety of appearance. Nevertheless, certain features of the rocks provide clues to the
circumstances under which the rock masses were formed. These features indicate
whether the rocks are igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic. Sometimes, it is obvious
that metamorphic rocks however, may be so changed that their origin cannot be
determined.

ROCK CYCLE

Igneous rocks exposed at the earth’s surface are subject to weathering, which
alters them chemically and physically. Such material when transported, deposited, and
consolidated becomes sedimentary rock, which then through heat and pressure may be
converted to metamorphic rock. Both sedimentary and metamorphic rocks may also be
weathered and transformed into younger sediments. Deeply buried metamorphic rocks
may be remitted to yield new igneous material.

GENETIC CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS

IGNEOUS

Intrusive

Plutonic (deep)

Hypabyssal (shallow)

Extrusive

Flow

Pyrolastic (explosive)

SEDIMENTARY

Clastic (mechanical or detrital)

Chemical (crystalline of precipitated)

Organic (biogenic)

METAMORPHIC

Cataclastic

Contact metamorphic and pyrometasomatic

Regional metamorphic (dynamothermal)

HYBRID

Metasomatic

Migmatitic

An exception to the requirements that rocks consist of minerals is obsidian, a volcanic

rock consisting of glass and coal, a sedimentary rock which is a mixture of organic
compounds.

IGNEOUS ROCKS
 Igneous rocks are those that have undergone solidification from a molten
condition. The parent magma – a natural hot, mutual solution of silicates with minor
amounts of water and other volatiles. Igneous rocks are dividing into these which
crystallized before magma reached the surface (intrusive rocks), some as layers of lava
(the extrusive flow rocks) and others as pyroclastic debris in explosive eruption.

Chief elements in igneous rock are oxygen, silicon, sodium, aluminum, iron,
magnesium, calcium, and potassium. Composition ranges from about 40% Si02
(peridotites) to as much70% siO2, (granites)

The hot liquid magma which is the source of igneous rock comes from within the earth
crust; scientists believe that the material below the earth surface through very hot is
kept in a rigid state by the great pressures in the depths. If the magma pressure is
lessened at any place, the material becomes liquid, this form a body of magma. The
magma may work its way cause the rock above to move or break up. This makes room
of the magma to rise. The process is probably hastened by melting of the overlying rock
the hot magma may then break through cracks in the earth surface. Then the molten
rock or lava spreads over wide areas of the land. A small cone or large mountain of
rock may at the opening. The term volcano is use for both the opening and the
accumulation of material. Magma that reaches the surface cools to form extrusive rocks.
Literally, these rocks that have been “pushed out” are usually glassy or finely crystalline
in texture. Large crystals do not have to develop. Sometimes the rock that overlies the
mass of magma prevents it from reaching the surface. Then the magma cools slowly to
form intrusive or plutonic rocks. These have a coarser texture, composed of masses of
larger crystalline grains of varying sizes. Intrusive rocks are often exposed by erosion of
overlying rocks.

Igneous rock differ according tp their mineral content. They generally contain
minerals such as micas, olive, hornblende, and pyroxene, with orthoclase and
plagioclase feldspar and quartz. Those rocks that have least of the iron magnesium
minerals such as amphiboles and pyroxene are light in weight. These are acidic or
siliceous rocks, containing a high proportion of silica. The rocks that are richer in iron
and magnesium are darker and heavier and are called basic.

Igneous rock may also classify according to their texture. Differences in the rate
of cooling produce gradation of crystal sixe. Granite is an acidic light colored rock
composed of quartz and orthoclase feldspar; it is coarsely granular. Synite, diorite,
gabro, and peridotite are other coarse—grained intrusive rocks. They contain the
darker-colored minerals in varying proportion. Under some conditions, both extrusive
and intrusive rocks may cool slowly at first and at some instance more rapidly. This
process produces the porphyries. The have fairly large mineral crystals set in a mass of
very fine crystals. Rhyolite and basalt are lavas. Obsidian and tacylite are glasses
formed when extruded magma cools very quickly

Some other igneous rocks are of special interest. Pegmatite is a very coarse-
gained variety of granite. Pumice is rhyolitic lava that cools very quickly. The gases do
not escape before the rock hardens, so pumice has a sponge-like structure because of
the trapped gas bubble. Some samples of pumice rea light enough to float in water

Igneous intrusions the manner in which the magma cools affect the texture of the
rock. Thus, it is important to know the various forms in which intrusions occur.

Batholiths a large mass of intrusive igneous rock, whose lower limit is indefinite,
is called batholith. Such structure commonly forms the course of mountain range. They
are uncovered as erosion stipes off the overlying rock. Therefore their extent can only
be determined by the area that is exposed. Batholiths are chiefly comes of granite and
reacted rock. This is true because the slow cooling of huge masses of magma at great
depth results in the formation of large crystals. Rock at the center of batholith tend to be
coarser-grained than that of the edge since the center of the mass cools more slowly
than the areas in the outer parts. A batholith of relatively small extent may be called
stock.

Laccoliths magma is sometimes intruded between layers of sedimentary rocks,

causing them to arch upward. The intruding magma forms a laccolith. It spreads out
between the layers and forces them to up to height of 1000 feet over ab area of up to
100 square miles. Unlike the batholith or stock, a laccolith has definer floor. This is
revealed when erosion reaches the rock layers beneath the intrusion. The rock pf a
laccolith are similar Io those of batholith, but vary in texture with the size of the mass.

Dikes a mass of magma that fills a crack or fissure in existing rock called dike.
Dikes are often outgrowths from a batholith. They normally cut across the rock
structure. Cooling other magma in a dike is similar to that in a sill. Sometimes, the rocks
of the dike may show very large crystal. These develop because magma containing
large amounts of gases and water vapor remains fluid for an unusually long time. Thus,
crystals of quartz, feldspar, and mica several feet in diameter have been found in dikes

Intrusive bodies such as dikes and sills are often associated with extrusive rocks
as around a volcano. When a volcano becomes extinct, the magma ha fills the
passageway does not reach the surface. It cools slowly, forming a volcanic neck made
up of rock similar those dikes.

Metallic Ores in Igneous Rocks

 The ore of metals valuable to man are often associated with igneous rock. Such
ore deposits occur mainly in and around intrusive masses. In magma, atoms and ions of
metals are mixed with those of other elements. As the magma works its way upward
toward the surface, the composition of the mixture changes due to the changes in
temperature and pressure. Some of the minerals are no longer soluble In the magma.
These are precipitated in cracks or crevices of the cooling igneous rock or the
surrounding rock layers. A mass of such material is called a vien. Viens are usually
definitely distinguishable from the surrounding rock. Sometimes, small quantities of the
mineral are present in the rocks around the vien. A system of viens that can be
profitably mined is called a lode.

Sedimentary Rocks

Clastic sedimentary rocks (consisting of mechanically transported particles) are

subdivided on the basis of particle size. Those having intermediate and fine grain size
are further subdivided on the basis of composition. Other significant clastic rocks are
those consisting of detrital calcite, calcarenites. Description of the texture of clastic
rocks is derived from grain size, sorting form, and arrangement. Form includes
sphericity measurement of the sharpness of edges and corners. Only glacial
sedimentary rocks are those precipitated from the ocean.

Organic sedimentary rocks include (1) silicious type made up opaline test
diatoms (diatomite) or radiolarian (radiolarite); (2) calcareous types, consisting of calcite
shells namely, limestone and coguina, and; (3) carbonaceous types, consisting of coal
and other accumulation of altered plant debris.

The Formation of Sedimentary Rocks

The weathering of granite illustrates the general process of formation of

sedimentary rocks. First, a large mass of granite may be exposed when overlying rocks
are weathered and eroded. Gradually, wind and weather breaks up the surface to form
part of the residual soil. Some of it is carried away by wind or streams and deposited
elsewhere making up part of thr transported soil. A considerable amount of soil and
broken bit of rocks is carried by streams to bodies of water like oceans. The streams
themselves help to break up the granite as they flow over its surface, carving out a bed.
The faster a stream flows, the more it can carry away

Thus, the materials are carried away in two forms. Solid fragments of both
decomposed undecomposed rock (clays, sand, pebbles, and boulders) are
mechanically carried. Materials derived from chemical decomposition of materials
(carbonates of potassium, magnesium, sodium, calcium, iron, and the like together with
sulfates and chlorides of the above elements) are carried in solution.

When the solid materials enter a sea or lake, assorting (grading) takes place. In
this respect, the sea may be likened to a series of graded sieves. As a stream enters
the sea, it slows down; therefore, its ability to transport solid material is lessened. This
cause the stream to drop the coarsest materials of its load first. This, if left undisturbed,
may later form a conglomerate. As the stream proceeds, its speed becomes less and
less. Correspondingly, finer and finer materials are deposited, ranging from coarse
sand to very fined sand. These materials will become sandstone. Finally, the force of
the stream is essentially and entirely spent. There still remain suspended in the sea
exceedingly small particles of clays and finely divided materials. These particles often
give the ocean a muddy appearance near the mouth of a river. The particles drift out to
deep water, where they eventually settle in layers to form shale.

The amount and quality of the rock waste entering the sea vary from very large amounts
to practically nothing, depending on the weather and other factors such as current
entering the sea. As a result, zones of sedimentary vary in location, and deposition is
subjected to continual variations, overlapping, and interruptions. The variations cause
the layers of sediments to stand out more or less distinctly. The deposits show bedding
planes or sediments lines which are often conspicuous in sandstone and shales.

As time goes on, these sediments are converted into rock. The sands are slowly
cemented together by small amounts of substances, usually dissolved from the sands
themselves. These cementing substances are redeposited upon and between the sand
particles gradually filling the spaces between the grains of sand. The main cementing
substances are silicon dioxide, calcium carbonate, and ferric oxide.

Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks owe their complexity of composition and texture not only on
the existence of several ways and types of metamorphism but also to the application of
these types under different intensities to a variety of parent rocks. Both sedimentary and
igneous rocks may be metamorphosed. Regional metamorphic rocks are distinguished
by foliation, a parallel of platy or prismatic minerals.

Types and Formation of Metamorphic Rocks

The effects of forces that shape the surface of the earth are far-reaching. The
rocks of the crust are warmed, folded and compressed by tremendous heat and
pressure. These may result from broad adjustment of the crust to igneous intrusion the
weight of accumulated sedimentary rocks, and earth movements due to various other
causes. Heat and pressure bring about physical and chemical changes in the rock-
forming minerals. Thus, the rocks may also very altered by these factor. The heat at the
contact areas of intrusion may cause recrystallization minerals in the surrounding rocks.
Beds of sedimentary rocks also be folded so sharply that there is tearing, stretching,
and mashing of the minerals. Gases and liquids escaping from the magma of intrusions
may penetrate the surrounding rocks. Some new minerals are formed by this process.
Chemical reaction between existing minerals may produce large crystals of garnet or
other common metamorphic minerals. When rocks are burden deeply the heat of the
depth of the earth also brings about chemical changes.

The most noticeable effect of metamorphic on rocks is foliation. This

characteristics serve to divide rocks into two groups. In foliated that contains mica or
iron magnesium minerals shows foliation. These minerals tend to form flakes or needles
growing larger in certain direction only. This tendency is increase by pressure that
squeezes and mashes the grains as they form.

The simpler metamorphic rocks are formed directly from sedimentary rocks. The
changes are largely due to the recrystallization of existing minerals in the rocks. Very
few new minerals are formed. For example, slate commonly fors from shale. It is very
fine-grained and usually does not show banding but splits very easily into thin slabs.
The surfaces that results from slitting of the slate make this rock valuable for roofing,
sidewalks, and blackboards.

Rock Structure

Stratification

Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, considered as broad masses,

tend to occur in characteristics structures. Some rocks are in definite layers, roughly
parallel to each other. These layers are called beds or strata, and the rocks in which
they are found are called stratified rocks. Others show no apparent strata, and are said
to be massive or unstratified.

Sedimentary rocks are almost always stratified. The strata part readily shows
along their surfaces or bedding planes. Igneous rocks usually occur in massive
formations. Some lava flows may show stratification, with beds of volcanic dust or
fragments lying between the layers of the lava. Metamorphic rocks may be either
stratified or massive, depending on their composition and on the conditions under which
they were formed.

Jointing

A characteristic of all kinds of rock is the presence of cracks or joints in the fairly
regular patterns. These joints are due to various causes. In the igneous rock, they are
probably formed during cooling process. Such joints develop at right angles to the
cooling surface.

In sedimentary rocks, jointing may be the result of contraction during drying of

beds by folding. It may also result from strains on the rocks when the beds are uplifted
or bent by folding. The joints are at right angles to the bedding planes. They may form
systems which divided the rocks into clearly defined blocks. These often determine the
shape of the cliffs formed by the rocks.

Jointing in metamorphic rock is the result of great stress and high temperature to which
they are subjected.

Description of some Common Rocks

Most rocks can be identified by recognizing one or more of the minerals

constituents and observing the texture. However, the following will commonly be
considerable help.

1. If possible, find out where the sample was obtained as this may suggest
what it is.
2. If the sample looks water-worn, be alerted for chert.
3. If the sample was purchased or contains fragile-looking crystal, it may be
relatively rare or in a crystal form which is difficult to identify.
4. Check automatically for hardness, for reaction to diluted HCI and whether
or not you can see more than one mineral constituent.
5. Be sure you have fresh surface to observe – this generally means be
prepared to chip off a piece.

Brief descriptions of some common rocks which will aid in their identification are
as follows:

IGNEOUS ROCKS

Basalt (Volcanic or Plutonic). Very fine-grained, fairly heavy, black rock.

Individual crystals are generally too small to be recognized even with a hand lens.
Plutonic varieties are very dense; volcanic varieties may contain cavities (gas vesicles).
Basalt has a general hardness of about 6 and dense varieties break with a conchoidal
fracture.

Gabbro (plutonic) medium to coarse-grained, dark green to black rock. Contains

abundant pyroxene (augite) and feldspar (plagioclase); may have olivine, amphibole
(hornblende), hematite or magnetite.
 Granite (Plutonic) medium to coarse, light-colored (gray to pink) rock. Contains
abundant quartz and feldspar (both plagioclase, orthoclase or microcline). Biotite mica
or less commonly amphibole (hornblende) is prominent as a dark mineral.

Obsidian (Volcanic) transparent to translucent, generally black glass. Obsidian

has a conchoidal fracture and hardness of about 7.

Pumice (Volcanic) Very fine-grained, light-colored (gray to almost white), frothy

glass. Pumice is very light in weight (some samples will float in water).

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Chert extremely fine-grained rock composed of quartz. It occurs in a variety of

colors, most commonly gray, tan, or brown. Conchoidal fracture and hardness of 7.
Abundant ass water-worn pebbles and cobbles. Indians commonly used varieties of
chart, flint and jasper for artifacts.

Conglomerate rounded rock fragments ranging in size from pebbles to boulder

cemented together.

Limestone fine-grained, light gray to tan or even balck-colored rock. Composed

of calcium carbonate (calcite) particles precipitated and cemented together. Commonly
limestone contains fossils. It has a hardness of 3. Limestone will effervesce (bubble
and foam) from contact with diluted HCI.

Dolomite similar to limestone but does not react to diluted HCI unless it is
powdered.

Sandstone fine to coarse sand grains (mainly quartz) cemented together.

Hardness and color of sandstones depend on the nature of the cementing materials.
Individual grains can usually be obtained by rubbing the sample on a hard surface. It
may contain fossils.

Shale fine particles (clay) compacted. Usually, shale is gray or black in color”
shale slits into thin plates and may contain fossils. Shale is soft and can be easily
scratched.

METAMORPHIC ROCK

Gneiss banded or steaked appearance commonly alternating light and dark-

colored minerals bands. Generally medium or coarse-grained. Color depends on
minerals composition (which may vary widely).
 Marble generally white and coarse crystalline (with sparkly crystal face). Marble
is recrystallized limestone. Thus, it has the properties of calcite-hardness of 3 and will
effervesce with diluted HCI.

Quartzite generally white, gray, tan or other light colors. Quartzite is

recrystallized quartz sandstones. Hence, it has the properties of quartz- hardness of 7
and conchoidal fracture.

Schist fine to medium-grained rock with platy minerals (such as chlorite, biotite
mica, muscovite, mica, talc) commonly oriented in flat lying layers. Color and
composition depend on the minerals it contains.

Slate extremely fine- grained rock, generally black but may be blue, gray, green,
or other colors. Formed by metamorphism of shale, it is characterized by parting along
flat planes (slaty cleavage) and thus can be used for blackboards and slate shingled
roofs.

Uses of Rocks

1. Rocks were used by prehistoric men as tools and weapons in hunting for food
and against their enemy.
2. Rocks contain minerals which can be used for various purposes such as jewelry
and decorations.
3. Rocks may contain fossils which can be used as specimens in the laboratory to
determine the existence of life millions of years ago.
4. Rocks may also serve as territorial boundaries in certain regions.
5. Mineral content of Rocks may be used to fertilize the land and soil.
6. Food is grown in soil, which is weathered Rocks. One kind of rock is eaten every
day. This is salt, rock composed of the mineral halite. Granite, limestone,
sandstone, slate, and marble are rocks known as building stones. They are
removes from the earth by quarrying.
7. Rocks can be made into decorations. Rocks are also as a source of income.
8. Rocks are for building bridges, infrastructure, and the like.