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Unstable equilibrium. A
small displacement
3 possible
produces an overturning
moment tending to displace conditions of
the body further from its
equilibrium position. equilibrium
Neutral equilibrium. The
body remains at rest in any
position to which it is
displaced.
2.1.2 Concepts of pressure
Pressure is the normal compressive Two important principles
force acting per unit area. about pressure were
F
described by Blaise Pascal, a
p seventeenth-century scientist:
A Pressure acts uniformly in all
Units: Pa, Nm-2 directions on a small volume
of a fluid.
Dimensions: ML-1T-1
In a fluid confined by solid
boundaries, pressure acts
perpendicular to the
boundary.
Figure shows the pressure acting uniformly in all Figure shows the direction of fluid pressure on
directions on a small volume of fluid. boundaries.
Pascal’s Law for pressure at a point
By considering the equilibrium of a small fluid element below a relationship can be
established between the pressures px in the x-direction, py in the y-direction and pϴ
normal to any plane inclined at any angle θ to the horizontal at this point.
Taking summation of the forces in z direction,
Weight of element
F z 0
1
0 p z .b.x p .b.s.Cos .x.z.b. .g
2
x
Substituting, Cos x, z , b Are very small quantities, therefore, the 3rd term
s
is negligible compared to the other 2
x 1
p z .x p .s. .x.z.b. .g 0
s 2
p z p
Taking summation of the forces in x direction,
F x 0
p x .b.z p .b.s.Sin 0
Since pz = px = pϴ , this concluded that the pressure
p x .z p .s.Sin 0
at a point is the same in all direction
z
Substituting, Sin
s
Pascal’s Law:
z
p x .z p .s. 0 ‘The pressure, p, at any given point in a fluid is independent of its direction’
s Blaise Pascal
p x p
Pressure variation in
a fluid at rest
Figure shows a cylindrical fluid
element of constant cross
sectional area A, inclined at angle
ϴ from the vertical. There is no
shear acting because the fluid is
at rest.
Summing up all forces along the axis,
pA p dp A gAdsCos 0
dp gdsCos
Pressures
Gauge pressure p gauge gh
Pressure head
p
Pressure head, h
g
Elevation = 60 m
Try yourself
Determine the pressure at the bottom of the tank shown in Figure.
Try yourself
A mountain lake has an average temperature of 100C and a maximum depth of 40 m.
The barometric pressure is 598 mm Hg. Determine the absolute pressure at the
deepest part of the lake.
1 2 3
2.1.3 Pressure
measurement Barometers Piezometers Manometers
Barometers
Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a
barometer; thus patm is often referred to as the
barometric pressure.
The pressure at point B is equal to the atmospheric
pressure, and the pressure at A can be taken as zero
since there is only Hg vapor above point A and the
pressure is relatively low to patm and can be neglected.
Piezometers
One end is connected to the point
where pressure to be measured and
other is open to the atmosphere.
The rise of liquid gives the pressure
head at point A,
PA gh
Manometers
Used to measure the pressure difference between two points in a pipe or in two
different pipes.
Consists of a U-tube, containing a heavy liquid, whose two ends are connected to the
points, whose pressure difference to be measure.
Most common types:
U-tube differential manometer
Inverted U-tube differential manometer
Different types of manometers
Example
The mercury manometer in the
Figure is used to measure the
pressure difference between two
conduits A and B. Determine the
pressure difference if the conduits
are filled with water.
Solution:
pB p A w g zC z A Hg g z D zC w g z D z B
pB p A (9810 0.6) (13600 9.81 0.5) (9810 1.5)
57.88kPa
Example
Conduit A and B, in the Figure, are
filled with air at a density of 1.5
kg/m3. If the pressure at A is 50
kPa, what is the pressure at B?
Solution:
pB p A air g z A zC Hg g z D zC air g z B z D
pB 50000 1.5 9.81 0.4 13600 9.81 0.2 1.5 9.81 0.5
23.32kPa
2.1.4 Hydrostatic forces on plane surface
For plane horizontal surface, the
pressure is given by:
p gh
p gh
9810 2.5
24525Pa
2.5 m
F p A
3m 24525 6 3
6m 441.45kN
Hydrostatic forces on inclined surface
A plane surface is immersed in a liquid, inclined at an angle ϴ as shown below
Consider an elemental strips The resultant force F will act at a
where the pressure p is constant single point known as the centre
and the elemental force dF can of pressure CP. The location of
be written as: this point is determined by
dF pdA consideration of moment
equilibrium, taking moment
ghdA about O.
The resultant hydrostatic force F Moment due to resultant force:
is obtained by integrating dF over
the entire immersed surface: hP
M F
sin
F g hdA Distance from free gAhG
hP
A
water surface to the centroid sin
F gAhG of the immersed area gAhG hP
sin
Summation of moments due to Using parallel axis theorem:
elemental forces: 2
hG
A
2
M sdF s dA I A
G
A
sin
2
Ah
sghdA I G 2G
A
sin
AhG hP sin 2 s 2 dA
A Second moment of area
sin 2 2 of the immersed area taken
hP
AhG A s dA about O
Example
An inclined rectangular gate, 1.5 m by
1.0 m with water on one side is shown
in Figure. Determine the total resultant
force acting on the gate and locate its
centre of pressure.
A 1 .5 1 .0 1 .5 m 2
hG 2 0.5 sin 60 2.433m
F 1000 9.81 1.5 2.433 35.8kN
1 .5 1 .0 3
IG 0.125m 4
12
0.125 sin 2 60
hP 2.433 2.46m from free surface
1.5 2.433
Example
A circular butterfly gate pivoted about a horizontal axis
passing through its centroid is subjected to hydrostatic
thrust on one side and counterbalanced by a force F,
applied at the bottom as shown in Fig. If the diameter of
the gate is 4 m and the water depth is 2 m above the
gate, determine the force F required to keep the gate in
position.
89.68
Hydrostatic force on CD: tan 1 49
78.48
FCD 9810 2 1 5 98.1kN
FCD acts vertically at the surface centroid FBC passes through the origin O
Example
A radial gate whose face is part of a
circle of radius 3.0 m holds water at its
back as shown in Figure. The sector of
the circle represented by the gate has
an angle of 30° at its centre. Water
stands to a depth of 1.5 m above the
top of the gate. The other side of the
gate is open to the atmosphere.
Determine the total resultant force
acting on the gate and its direction. The
width of the gate is 2m.
Consider the weight of water
above the surface to calculate FV
x 3 cos 30 2.6m
DE 3.0 2.6 0.4m
30
AACE 32 2.356m 2
360
AACD 0.5 2.6 1.5 1.95m 2
Project the curved surface onto a AADE 2.356 1.95 0.406m 2
vertical plane to calculate FH A AEFH 0.406 0.4 1.5 1.006m 2
y 3 sin 30 1.5m Vd 1.006 2 2.012m
hG 1.5 0.5 1.5 2.25m FV 9810 2.012 19.74kN
A 1.5 2 3m 2
FR 66.22 2 19.74 2 69.17 kN
FH 9810 2.25 3 66.22kN
19.74
tan 1 16.9
66.22
2.1.6 Pressure diagram
The resultant force and centre of pressure can be found graphically for walls and
other surfaces of constant vertical height for which it is convenient to calculate the
horizontal force exerted per unit width.
General principal:
Hydrostatic force per unit width of immersed surface is given by the area of the
pressure diagram.
The FR is given by the volume of pressure prism.
CP is given by the location of the centroid pressure diagram.
Consider ABC the pressure diagram of a vertical wall of a tank containing a liquid.
AT yT A1 yc1 A2 yc 2 A3 yc 3
A1 yc1 A2 yc 2 A3 yc 3
yT
AT
2825.28 2 0.8 8475.84 0.8 0.5 1.2 7063.2 0.8 2 1.2
3 3
18364.32
1.344m from the free surface
End of Topic 2.1