M 2010 Ceet 50 Garera Eric Gs 20020485

PROJECT ID: CEET/2010/28
KIGALI INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

INSTITUT DES SCIENCES ET DE TECHNOLOGIE DE KIGALI
Avenue de l'Armée, B.P. 3900 Kigali, Rwanda
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY
A PROJECT REPORT
ON
ASSESSMENT OF TIMBER APPLICATION IN MODERN CONSTRUCTION
AND ITS PROMOTION IN RWANDA
Submitted by
MAJYAMBERE Silas (REG.NO: GS20060262)
Under the Guidance of
Dr. MBEREYAHO Léopold
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN

CIVIL ENGINEERING AND ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY
SEPTEMBER, 2010
KIGALI INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
INSTITUT DES SCIENCES ET DE TECHNOLOGIE DE KIGALI
Avenue de l'Armée, B.P. 3900 Kigali, Rwanda
FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF
CIVIL ENGINEERING AND ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Project Work entitled “ASSESSMENT OF TIMBER

APPLICATION IN MODERN CONSTRUCTION AND ITS PROMOTION
IN RWANDA” is a record of the original bonafide work done by
MAJYAMBERE Silas. (REG.NO: GS 20060262) in partial fulfilment of the
requirement for the award of Bachelor of Science Degree in Civil Engineering and
Environmental Technology of Kigali Institute of Science, Technology during the
Academic Year 2010.
………………..... .........................................
SUPERVISOR HEAD OF Dept. Of CE & ET
Dr.MBEREYAHO Léopold Mr.G.Senthil KUMARAN
Submitted for the Project Examination held at KIST on …………………………

ii
DEDICATION
To Almighty God
To my parents
To my brothers and sisters
Colleagues and friends
This work is dedicated
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Many people have contributed to this project; First and foremost, i would like to
thank our family members for their support from the beginning up to the end for
the completion of this work.
I would like to thank my supervisor Dr.MBEREYAHO Léopold, in his assistance
on carrying out strategies that enabled me to find reliable data that i used in this
project. I would like to thank Mr. MANIRAGUHA ERIC for his guidance in the
laboratory work.
I special thanks to KIST staffs and Lectures for having well organized and
supportive system that help students to complete their projects and many courses
that we had during our undergraduate education.
iii
DECLARATION
I, MAJYAMBERE Silas, declare that the work entitled ” ASSESSMENT OF

TIMBER APPLICATION IN MODERN CONSTRUCTION AND ITS
PROMOTIONIN RWANDA” presented here for partial fulfillment of award of
bachelor degree in civil engineering and environmental technology, has never
submitted anywhere for similar award at any university high learning institution. It
is our own contribution. However, a part of work was referred and the authors
acknowledged in the references.
MAJYAMBERE Silas.
iv
ABSTRACT
This topic was selected based on problem of Assessment of timber application in
modern construction and its promotion in Rwanda. Nowadays, in Rwanda we are
dealing with modern construction but the materials of construction are very
expensive and the populations are poor. Then we can choose others which are very
cheap in the costly like timber. These studies focused on checking the strength of
timber through laboratory test and by help the questionnaires and interview
between researcher and the Engineers, technicians and the users of the building.
And the research was conducted in different regions of Rwanda by selecting the
site where timber has been used as building construction materials in construction
of modern building.
Two types of test have been carried out which are; tensile test and bending test.
After testing; it is clear that the tensile strength and bending strength of timber
variety with types of timber. In my tests, there are three specimens of timber
(Eucalyptus; Greveria and Red wood) for tensile each specimen is 13mm of
diameter but the maximum stress is 47.37N/mm2for Eucalyptus; 29.32N/mm2for
Greveria and 34.59N/mm2for Red wood. About bending test the specimen were of
dimension of 5x5x22cm and the maximum permissible bending stresses are as
follow; 12.3N/mm2for Eucalyptus; 7.9N/mm2for Greveria and 7.4N/mm2for Red
wood. According to the information from the sites through the interviews and the
respondents, It have been seen that the cost of timber is low in comparisons to
others materials of construction; and it is available in Rwanda than others
construction materials. Timber construction buildings have a good appearance and
are used in all conditions like commercially; administrative; residential buildings.
In Rwanda no testing of timber building construction materials is done before
using them to construct different structure elements for inside and out side
location. This report was organized in five chapters. The chapter one contains the
general introduction, problem statement, the objectives, hypothesis, the scope of
study and methodology used in the research; the chapter two contains the literature
reviews; the chapter three contains the research methodology which contains the
presentation of data collection, data analysis and interpretation; the chapter four
gives detail of the test results and discussion; and then chapter five gives the
conclusion and recommendations.
v
Table of Contents
DEDICATION ............................................................................................................ ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................. iii
DECLARATION ........................................................................................................ iv
ABSTRACT............................................................................................................... v
ABREVIATION AND SYMBOLS .................................................................................. xi
CHAPI .GENERAL INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 1
1.1. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1
1. 2. Problem statement ............................................................................................... 1
1.3. Objectives of project............................................................................................. 2
1.3.1. Main objective .............................................................................................. 2
1.3.2. Specific objectives .......................................................................................... 2
1.4. Hypothesis ........................................................................................................ 3
1.5. Significance of project .......................................................................................... 3
1.6. Scope of project .................................................................................................. 3
1.7. Methodology ...................................................................................................... 4
CHAP II. LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................................... 5
2.1. Definition of timber.............................................................................................. 5
2.2. Source of timber .................................................................................................. 5
2.3. Advantages of timber ............................................................................................ 5
2.4. Disadvantages of timber ........................................................................................ 6
2.5. Mechanical properties ........................................................................................... 6
vi
2.5.1. Tensile strength ............................................................................................. 7
2.5.2. Compressive strength ...................................................................................... 7
2.5.3. Shear strength ............................................................................................... 8
2.5.4. Bending strength ............................................................................................ 8
2.5.5. Cleavability .................................................................................................. 8
2.5.6. Brittleness .................................................................................................... 8
2.5.7. Torsion strength ............................................................................................. 9
2.5.8. Hardness ..................................................................................................... 9
2.6. Strength characteristics of timber according to Indian standards ....................................... 9
2.6.1. Permissible stresses. ........................................................................................ 9
2.7. Classification and grading of timber .........................................................................12
2.8. Moisture in timber ..............................................................................................15
2.9. Hygroscopic nature of timber .................................................................................15
2.10. Water in wood .................................................................................................15
2.11. Shrinkage .......................................................................................................16
2.12. Permissible moisture content ................................................................................16
2.13. Determination of moisture content .........................................................................17
2.14. Defects in timber ..............................................................................................17
2.14.1. Natural defects ............................................................................................18
2.14.2. Defects due to seasoning ................................................................................18
2.14.3. Due to manufacturing or use ...........................................................................18
2.15. Decay of timber ................................................................................................19
vii
2.15.1. Damage due to fungal attack ...........................................................................19
2.15.2. Control of fungal attack .................................................................................19
2.15.3. Damage due to insects ...................................................................................19
2.15.4. Control of insect pests ...................................................................................20
2.16. Seasoning of timber ...........................................................................................20
2.16.1. Objectives of seasoning .................................................................................20
2.16.2. Principles of seasoning ..................................................................................21
2.16.3. Kiln seasoning ............................................................................................22
2.16.4. Chemical seasoning ......................................................................................22
2.16.5. Electrical seasoning ......................................................................................23
2.17. Preservation of timber ........................................................................................23
2.18. Shear capacity of beams ......................................................................................24
2.19. Bearing capacity of beams ...................................................................................25
CHAP III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY........................................................................27
3.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................27
3.2. Study population ................................................................................................27
3.3. Type of the study ................................................................................................27
3.4. Data collection...................................................................................................28
3.4.1. Sources of data .............................................................................................28
3.4.2. Data collection methods ..................................................................................28
3.4.3. Data collection instruments ..............................................................................29
3.5. Sample size ......................................................................................................29
viii
3.6. Data analysis .....................................................................................................30
3.7. Presentation of collected data .................................................................................31
3.7.1. Building on Site 1: Gikondo (Nyenyeri) ...............................................................31
3.7.2. Building on Site 2: Rugunga (Kiyovu) .................................................................33
3.7.3. Building on Site 3: Kinigi 1(Centre). ...................................................................35
3.7.4. Building on Site 4: Kinigi 2(Centre). ...................................................................37
3.8. Data analysis and interpretation ..............................................................................39
3.8.1. Introduction .................................................................................................39
3.8.2. Respondents‟ background characteristics ..............................................................39
3.8.3. Response rate of the total respondents. .................................................................40
3.8.4. Respondent‟s view of the community participation in Rwanda ....................................40
3.9. Data interpretation ..............................................................................................43
CHAP IV: TIMBER MATERIAL TESTING ......................................................................44
4.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................44
4.2. Tensile testing. ..................................................................................................44
4.2.1. Presentation of test results ................................................................................45
4.2.2. Analysis of results and discussion ......................................................................51
4.3. Bending Testing .................................................................................................52
4.3.1. Presentation of test results ................................................................................52
4.3.2. Calculations of bending moments .......................................................................53
4.4. Classification of tested timber ................................................................................54
CHAPV: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .......................................................55
ix
5.1. Conclusion. ......................................................................................................55
5.2. Recommendation ................................................................................................56
REFERENCES ..........................................................................................................57
APPENDICES ...........................................................................................................58
APPENDIX 1 ............................................................................................................59
APPENDIX 2 ............................................................................................................60
x
ABREVIATION AND SYMBOLS
IS: Indian standard

Kg/cm2: Kilogram per Centimeter square
N/mm2: Newton per Millimeter square
t/m2: tone per Meter square
t/cm2: tone per Centimeter
m: Meter
m3: Meter Cubic
cm: Centimeter
mm: Millimeter
mm2: Millimeter square
cm2: Centimeter square
cm3: Centimeter Cubic
%: Percentage
Wd: Is the oven dry weight
Ww: Is the wet timber weighted
As: The shear area
Ap: Bearing area for perpendicular to the grain
b: Width of the beam
d: Depth of the beam
V: Is the value of the maximum shear
ORTPN: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux
RDB: Rwanda Development Board
KN: Kilo Newton
δ : Stress
ε : Strain
xi
F: Load
ΔL : Extension
Lo: Initial length
S: Surface
Km: Is the moment coefficient
W: Applied load
L: length of span
M: maximum bending moment
Zb: Section modulus in bending
δbc : Maximum permissible bending stress in compression
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure :3. 1. Photo of building on site N⁰1 ............................................................31

Figure: 3. 2 Photo of building on site N⁰ 2 ............................................................33
Figure: 3. 3Photo of building on site N⁰ 3 .............................................................35
Figure: 3. 4 Photo of building on site N⁰4 .............................................................37
Figure: 4. 1.Graph showing stress -strain variation for Eucalyptus. .......................46
Figure: 4. 2 Graph showing stress-strain variation for Greveria. ...........................48
Figure: 4. 3Graph showing stress-strain variation for Red wood. ..........................50
Figure: 4. 4.Histogram of comparisons for various stresses....................................54
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
Table: 2. 1.Permissible stresses for Grade I timber ...............................................11

Table: 3. 1.Response rate of the respondents. ........................................................40
Table: 4. 1.Tensile strength results of Eucalyptus. ................................................45
Table: 4. 2.Tensile test strength results of Greveria ...............................................47
Table: 4. 3.Tensile test strength results of Red wood. ...........................................49
Table: 4. 4.Presentation of bending strength test results ........................................52
xiv
CHAPI .GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.1. Introduction
Timber is a construction material which can be used for many kinds of structural
elements such as floor, roofs, beams, columns, piles, etc. Timber is easy to handle
giving it a shape and desired size depending on the place of its utilization. Timber
has a high specific strength, can be easily joined, and possess the properties which
make it able to be used in modern construction of different kinds of buildings or
others structures which being involved in Rwanda.
Because of it availability in Rwanda, its cost is low in comparison to others
buildings materials. There is Eucalyptus, Greveria, Cyprus etc.
Design of timber is a confluence of specifications, structural analysis, detailing and
protection when it is necessary; each process which is involved is of equal
importance if an effective design is to be achieved. There are some important
elements which must be taken into account during the design of timber structural
element such as: climatic condition, soil condition, importance of building or other
structure element .Then it is better to ensure that timber is being applied in modern
construction in Rwanda for not only the economical but also for safety of
population purpose.
1
1. 2. Problem statement
Timber is one of construction materials which is commonly used as a structure
member or component in residential, industrial buildings piles foundation ,bridges,
dams, roof, and it is also used in fabrication of doors and windows …and it is also
employed together with steel members, fasteners.
Actually in Rwanda, we are dealing with modern construction technology but
constructions materials are very high costly and the population is poor. Then it
should be good for them to know about others cheap materials which can be used
in modern construction like timber. Timber is available in Rwanda and has a
relatively low cost in comparison to other construction materials. It is also known
that timber is also an environment friendly material. However, there is a need in
clarification of its mechanicals properties in context of Rwanda, before encourage
the population to be familiarized with its use in their construction.
The purpose of this project is just to make a detailed study of Rwanda timber in
order to promote its application.
1.3. Objectives of project
1.3.1. Main objective

The general objective of the study is to identify the mechanical properties of
Rwandan timber and promote its application in modern construction.
1.3.2. Specific objectives

The specific objectives are:
To prove the availability of timber in Rwanda.
2
To identify the methods used for getting timber materials from the natural
tree.
To identify the quantitative application of timber in Rwanda.
To identify the benefits of using timber in modern construction in Rwanda.
To identify timber mechanical properties which make it a powerful and

competitive material in construction?
1.4. Hypothesis
In this research the general hypothesis is as follows: The timber in Rwanda is not
highly used as one of structural material in modern construction. Below are some
reasons:
Rwandese Engineers are not aware with timber mechanical properties
Rwandan population does not simply consider timber as a modern building

material because of the culture or tradition.
Climate or soil conditions in Rwanda are not helpful
Protection measures are very expensive in Rwanda
1.5. Significance of project

This project helped the researcher to know the ways of using timber properly in
modern construction. It may help Rwandan Society to know the advantages of the
timber application in their modern building than other materials
1.6. Scope of project

This study was conducted in two provinces of Rwanda: Kigali city and North
province. In this study I assessed the timber application, found out some
3
mechanical properties of Rwanda timber, but did not covered the design of Timber
structure.
1.7. Methodology
This project was conducted through the following stages:
Documentation: internet and books allowed identifying the mechanical
properties of timber according to the different aspects.
Visit to some construction projects sites: There a questionnaire was used to

get from managers information concerning the timber use in their
construction and other related information.
Statistic accounts of all buildings in Kigali city under construction or already

finished and among them the number of buildings are constructed by using
timber as construction material.
Test of Timber materials to get mechanical properties
Results analysis and Interpretation
Conclusion and recommendations
4
CHAP II. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Definition of timber
Timber is another buildings material which is commonly used as a structure
member, component in residential buildings, piles, foundations, bridges, dams etc.
Since it is usually employed along with steel member, fastener, it is customary to
include a chapter on structures, in a book on steel structures. The commonly used
structure members in construction are (i) beams (ii) columns (iii) trussed beams
(iv)Tension members and (v) struts and ties of roof trusses.
Wood, which is an organic cellular material, is known as timber when it is used for
structures. Botanically, it is classified into two groups: Endogenous or in ward
growing and Exogenous or out ward growing. The first type includes palms and
bamboos while the latter includes all types of commercial timbers used in
structures. A detailed description about the properties of timber, methods of
seasoning of timber, preservation of timber chemical treatment of timber and
common defects in timber may be found any standard text book on „Building
Materials‟. However, some salient terms, which have direct effect on its structural
strength, are discussed here in brief. [1]
2.2. Source of timber

The source of timber supply is the trees in forests. It is a part of life that thrives in
many forms. Though trees are different from other forms of plant life herbs, they
are basically of the same group, both in their structure and growth. They grow
much taller than herbs and take a longer time, to mature. It is important to
understand the nature of trees, i.e. the source of timber, for a good understanding
of the properties, classification and use of timber. [3]
2.3. Advantages of timber

-They are cheap and more economical.
5
-They can be easily stored and transported, without the aid of any heavy
equipment.
-They can be driven very rapidly.
-Because of their elasticity they are better suited to the conditions where piles are
subjected to usual lateral forces.
-They are especially useful when sub-soil water is present. [3]
2.4. Disadvantages of timber

-Timber piles deteriorate on decay very fast when subjected to alternate wetting
and drying. Hence it is essential to cut them below the water line and napped with
concrete.
-They cannot be driven, without damage, in made up grounds.
-They are not very useful in hard, rocky strata.
-They have low carrying capacity, because of its low structural strength.
-Because of restrictions in their length, they cannot be used in situations where
long piles are essential.
-They are easily damaged by over-driving. [3]
2.5. Mechanical properties

Under this category come the strength properties of timber useful in designing
structure and connections. Timber is valuable for its high strength compared to its
weight. But timber has also a non uniform structure resulting in different strengths
along different directions. Strength properties also greatly influenced by moisture
content so that the strength values obtained are usually standardized for particular
moisture content, say 12%.Most of the strength characteristics increase with a
decrease in moisture content. Many defects in the timber also affect the strength
properties. Knots, splits and checks, warping, grain, etc. Affect the strength to
6
varying degrees. These have to be individually evaluated and permissible extents
of defects are usually specified in national codes.
2.5.1. Tensile strength

Timber is heterogeneous material and its strength properties are not the same along
the grain and across it. Timber is stronger in tension along the grain but it is quite
difficult to determine this because of the difficulties in conducting a test. The
specimen will crush and fail due to other causes before failing in tension along the
grain. Tension parallel-to-grain test shall be made on specimens of the shape and
size. So as to have a gauge length of 5cm and minimum cross-section of 7x7mm at
the centre. Tension perpendicular-to-grain test shall be made on specimens of the
shape and size the notches shown in the figure shall be so made as to produce a
failure on 50x20mm area in the radial or tangential surface as desired.
2.5.2. Compressive strength

Compressive strength is also determined form tests and two types of strengths are
identified, along the grain and across the grain. The strength along the grain is
Important for columns, props; etc...In testing this strength, to avoid buckling and
failure in bending before crushing, specimens with a larger cross-sectional area are
used. This will ensure that the specimens fail by crushing.
The strength perpendicular to the grain is important in the case of sleepers, rollers,
wedges, bearing blocks, etc…
A specimen5x5cm in section and 15cm long is laid flat on its long face and
subjected to load through a metal plate compression parallel to grain test in size
.The specimen shall be absolutely free from any defects and shall not have a slope
of grain more than 1in 20parallel to its longitudinal edges
7
2.5.3. Shear strength
Shear strength is important in the case of beam, slab, and etc. Shear strength is
determined only parallel to the grain as shear strength perpendicular to the grain
can not be determined because of failure of the specimen due to other causes
earlier/before the ultimate shear strength is reached. The size of a standard shear
test specimen shall be 5x5x2.65cm, notched in corner. So as to produce a failure on
5x5cm surface in the radial or tangential surface as desired.
2.5.4. Bending strength

This refers to the strength of timber as a beam. Both compression and tension, and
also shear strength play a part when timber acts as a beam. Modulus of rupture and
modulus of elasticity of timber can be determined from the static bending strength.
Static bending test shall make on specimen 5x5x75cm in size. The specimen shall
be absolutely free from any defect and shall not have a slope of grain more than
1in20 parallel to it longitudinal edges. Impact bending is obtained by dropping a
Specified weight on to the beam from a certain height. Shock resistance properties
are important hammer handles, athletic goods, etc.
2.5.5. Cleavability
This refers to the splitting strength of the specimen. The property has to be referred
to directions such as radial and tangential splitting. The grain is important in
assessing this strength. High resist ante to cleavage is important for nailing and
screwing while low splitting strength is important for use as fire wood. Nail pulling
or screw pulling tests shall be made on 5x5x150cm specimen.
2.5.6. Brittleness
The brittleness is used to describe the property of suffering little deformation
before breaking. It does not necessarily imply weakness of timber. Izod and charpy
8
tests are conducted to take into account the brittleness property. The test specimen
is conducted to take into account the brittleness property. The test specimen for
izod tests shall be 22x22mmin cross-section and 125to150mm in length with any
type of notch. The notch is recommended for the test. The specimen for charpy
tests shall be 12.5x12.5mm in cross-section and 125mm in length with the notch
cut. The notch must be on radial faces so as produce the maximum concentrations
of impact stress on a cross-section of 22x12mmat distance of 75mm form the end
for the izod specimen and 10x12.5mm at the centre of specimen for charpy test.
2.5.7. Torsion strength

Torsion test is used to determine the tensional strength of timber and the specimen
is loaded up to failure. Torsion test shall be made on cylindrical specimens of the
Shape and size. So as to have a gauge length of 15cm and cross-sectional diameter
of 25mm.
2.5.8. Hardness
Hardness is important in case of timber for paving blocks, flooring, bearings and
other similar purposes. The resistance to hardness is determined by conducting and
indentation test. This is carried out on specimens 5x5x15cm in size and is cut
radically and tangentially. The specimen must be free from any kind of defect. [3]
2.6. Strength characteristics of timber according to Indian standards .
2.6.1. Permissible stresses.
Basic stress values of different groups of timber are determined on small clear
specimen according to IS: 1708. These values are then divided by the appropriate
factors of safety to obtain the permissible stresses.
The permissible stresses for groups A, B and C timbers for different locations
applicable to Grade I structural timber shall be as given is table below, provided
the following conditions are satisfied.
9
(a) The timbers should be of high or moderate durability and be given the suitable
treatment where necessary. They may be on any location. If the location is inside
and not in contact with the group, low durability timber may be used after proper
seasoning and preservative treatment given, and (b) the load should be continuous
and permanent.
10
Table: 2. 1.Permissible stresses for Grade I timber
Type of stress Permissible stress.
Group A Group B Group C

kg/cm2 N/mm2 kg/cm2 N/mm2 Kg/cm2 N/mm2
1. Bending and tension
along grain
(i) Inside location 182 18.2 123 12.3 84 8.4
(ii) Out side location 152 15.2 102 10.2 70 7.0
(iii) Wet location 120 12.0 81 8.1 60 6.0
2. Shear
(i) Horizontal*, all location 12 1.2 9 0.9 6 0.6
(ii) Along grain**, all 17 1.7 13 1.3 9 0.9
location
3. Compression parallel to
grain
(iii) Wet location 88 8.8 58 5.8 46 4.6
4. Compression
perpendicular to grain
(iii) Wet location 38 3.8 15 1.5 14 1.4
*
The values of horizontal shears to be used only for beams.
11
**
In all other cases, shear along grain to be used.
Note: The original values are in kg/cm2 which have been converted in N/mm2units,
using approximate relation of 1kg/cm2≈0.1N/mm2.
For other grades, the permissible stresses given in table above shall be multiplied
by the following factors to obtain the permissible stresses, assuming that
conditions (a) and (b) laid above are satisfied:
(i) For select Grade timber: 1.6
(ii) For Grade II timber: 0.84
When low durability timbers are to be used on outside locations, the permissible
stresses for grades of timber, arrived at by the above consideration shall be
multiplied by 0.8. [2]
2.7. Classification and grading of timber

Structural timber can be classified according to following criteria:
a. Grade
b. Location
c. Durability
d. Group
e. Treatability
f. Refractoriness to air seasoning, and
g. Avaibility
1. Classification according to grade: This classification is based on defects like
knots, checks etc in the timber. IS 883-1970 classifies the cut sizes of structural
timber, after seasoning, into the following three grades, in order of
preference:(a)Select grade (b) Grade I and (c) Grade II
The timber of select grade is of the best quality, having almost no defects. Grade II
timber is the common grade timer while Grade I timber is the standard grade
12
timber. Prohibited defects: All grades of timber with the following defects shall
be prohibited for structural use:
(i)Timber with loose grain, splits, compression wood in coniferous structural
timber, heart wood rot, sap rot and warp, and
(ii)Worm holes made by powder post beetles and pitch pockets.
Permissible defects: The following defects are permissible for all grade of timber:
(i) Wanes are permitted provided they are not combined with knots and the
reduction in strength on account of the wanes is not more than the reduction with
the maximum allowable knots. Wanes may also be permitted provided there is no
objection to its use as bearing area, nailing edge and general appearance.
(ii)Worm holes other than those due to powder post beetles located and grouped to
reduce the strength of timber shall be evaluated in the same way as knots;
(iii)All other defects which do not affect any of the mechanical properties of timber
shall be permitted.
2. Classification according to location: Three locations are possible, based on the

moisture consideration:
(a)Inside location
(b)Out side location and
(c)Wet location
Inside location denotes the position of timber in the building where the timber
remains continuously protected from rain, and thus remains dry. In the out side
location, the timber is subjected to alternate cycles of wetting (during rains) and
drying. However, in wet location, the timber remains continuously damp or wet,
the common examples being piles, grille foundation etc.
13
3. Classification according to durability: Based on the useful life of the timber,
they are classified as under;
(i) High: Timbers having average life of 120months and over.
(ii)Moderate: Timbers having average life less than 120months but of 60 months
and over.
(iii) Low: Timbers having average life of less than 60 months.
4. Classification according to groups: In this, Indian timbers have been classified
into three groups according to the modulus of elasticity:
(i) Group A: Modulus of elasticity in bending above 120t/m2 (12600N/mm2)
(ii) Group B: Modulus of elasticity in bending above 98 and up to 126t/cm2 (9800
to 12600N/mm2)
(iii)Group C: Modulus of elasticity in bending above 56 and up to 98t/cm2 (5600 to
9800 N/mm2).The common, types of Indian timber that fall in Group A are khair,
dhaman, bullet wood and Sal. Similarly, timbers under Groups B are babul, white
cedar, eucalyptus, dhaman (U.P.) Sal (MP), teak etc. While timbers included in
group C are chestnut, deodar, rosewood, Sassoon, kail, chirr etc.
5. Classification according to treatability. Treatable timbers may be classified as
follows to indicate approximately the degree of resistance offered by the
heartwood of a species to the penetration of preservative fluid under a working
pressure of 1.05N/mm2:
a. Heart wood easily treatable
b. Heart wood treatable but complete penetration of preservative not always
attained
c. Heart wood only partially treatable
d. Heart wood refractory to treatment and
e. Heart wood very refractory to treatment, penetration of preservative being
practical only from side and end.
14
6.Classification according to refractoriness to air seasoning: Timber are
classified as under, depending upon their behavior with respect to cracking and
splitting during normal air seasoning practice suitable for the species concerned:
a. High refractoriness (indicated as‟ High‟)
b. Moderate refractoriness (indicated as‟ Moderate‟)
c. Low refractoriness (indicated as „Low‟)
7. Classification according to availability
The availability of timber is categorized under the following three classes:
(i) X: Most common, 1415 m3 or more per year
(ii) Y: Common, 355m3 to 1415m3 per year and
(iii) Z: Less common, below 355m3 per year [2].
2.8. Moisture in timber

One of the most important characteristic of timber that affects its use and on-the-
site performance is its moisture content. This is a very important factor in timber
utilization and the technology of timber revolves around the efficient methods of
controlling the moisture content of timber [2].
2.9. Hygroscopic nature of timber

Timber by nature is hygroscopic, i.e. in absorbs water from the surrounding air.
Even when it is dried sufficiently before being put to use. There is no guarantee
that the timber will not absorb water from air resulting in swelling and cracking.
Green timber may contain as much as 200% of water by weight. For efficient
utilization, the timber needs to be more or less dry, the permissible moisture
content being from 6 to 20% depending upon the use and the environment of use.
The various seasoning and preservation are aimed at keeping the moisture content
within permissible limits but is necessary to control the environment to keep the
timber in dry condition. [2
15
2.10. Water in wood
It has already been explained that the structure of the tree which being a living
organism consists of cells. The cells consist of cell walls with cell cavities. The
water in wood thus appears in two forms, the free water in the cell cavities and the
hygroscopic moisture in cell walls. [1]
2.11. Shrinkage
Drying of timber causes shrinkage while absorption of water by timber causes
swelling. Timber is not a homogeneous material and hence the shrinkage along
different directions is not uniform. Green timber shrinks least along its length,
much more along the radial direction and maximum along the circumference. The
figures vary considerably for different species of timber but on an average, the
shrinkage is about o.1% along the length, 3 to 5% along the radius and 10to15%
along the circumference. This uneven shrinkage can lead to may defects in timber
like cupping, spring and bow. The method of sawing will also affect the
performance because of differential shrinkage. [3]
2.12. Permissible moisture content

IS: 287-1973 lays down the maximum permissible moisture content for different
zones and for different uses. The country has been divided into 4 zones as per
average relative humidity as:
Zone - less than40%
Zone II-40-50%
Zone III-50-67%
Zone IV-67% and above
The maximum permissible limits of moisture content for seasoned timber required
for various wooden stores and uses in each of the four zones are given in IS: 287-
1973[3].
16
2.13. Determination of moisture content
Moisture content can be determined by the oven drying method .The wet timber
weighted (Ww) and dried in an oven to constant weight (Wd).If Ww is the wet and
Wd is the oven dry weight, moisture content can be determined as
. [3]
Moisture meters
The moisture of wood may be determined indirectly by measuring some other
property that varies proportionately with changes in moisture content. For example
electrical resistance of wood is an index of its moisture content. Now a day‟s
electrical moisture meters have been developed of which are in commercial use.
They are of two types: One evaluates moisture content by measuring electrical
capacitance of wood. The resistance type of moisture meter has electrodes in the
form of spikes, which are driven into the wood. The electrical conductivity of the
wood is used as an index of moisture content, which in some instruments is
directly read from a scale. In the capacity type 0f instruments, surface plates are
clamped on opposite faces of the timber and the capacitance between the plates is
balanced against a variable condenser. While there is some uncertainty about the
accuracy of values obtained using meters, they are very useful if carefully used and
give immediate results. [3]
2.14. Defects in timber

Timber, being a natural product, is seldom free from blemishes and other
imperfections that tend to lower its economic value. These are spoken of
collectively as defects. Feature that in some circumstances is considered as a defect
may, in different circumstances, be held to enhance the appearance of a piece of
wood.
17
Defects caused in timber may be basically classified into two categories. Internal
defects which are due to factors affecting the growing tissue of the tree and
external defects due to external agents or subsequent treatment of timber. The
defects will be discussed under three headings:
(i) Natural
(ii) Due to seasoning
(iii) During working. [3]
2.14.1. Natural defects

Knots are the commonest natural defects in timber from the use‟s point of view. A
tree in natural and favorable surroundings will put forth a number of branches
which grow and produce wood like that of the main trunk. However, many trees, in
course of time, lose most of their branches due to natural or other reasons.
2.14.2. Defects due to seasoning

Bow it is a curvature of the timber in the direction of its length .Cup a curvature in
the transverse direction of the timber. Twist it is a spiral distortion along the length
of the timber spring it is a curvature of timber in its own plans. Case hardening it is
due to the unequal drying of the exterior surfaces under compression and the
interior surfaces under tension due to rapid drying. This happens at heavily loaded
bottom stacks kept for seasoning. Split it is separation of the fibles along the grain
and extends from one end of the plank to the other. Honey combing it is separation
of the fibles in the interior due drying stresses. Shakes these are as explained
before [3]
2.14.3. Due to manufacturing or use

Chipped grain it is a defects caused by the breaking away of timber below the
surface of dressing by the action of the planning tool. Chip mark indentation on the
18
finished surface of timber caused by chips or other small pieces of timber being
carried around the planning knife edges. Wane the original round surface of a tree
which remains on a finished plank. Boxed heart the pith at the centre fully enclosed
within one piece in the process of conversion. [3]
2.15. Decay of timber
2.15.1. Damage due to fungal attack

The durability of timber depends to a large extent upon the conditions under
which, it is used. Fungi are a system of plant organisms which live on and attack
timber and cause it to rot and decay.
There are essentially two groups of destroyers of timber, namely, bacteria and
fungi. Bacteria are the smallest of living organisms and in timber, except for
causing some strain or discolorations, they do not cause any decay. Fungi, on the
other hand, are mainly responsible for the decay of timber and it is of importance
to know how it acts on timber. [3]
2.15.2. Control of fungal attack

One of the prime requirements in the control of fungal attack is the dryness of
timber. Felled trees should be air dried as rapidly as possible without causing splits
and checks. The green wood should never be in contact with the ground. Sawn
timber should be kiln seasoned or air-dried in accordance with good air-seasoning
practice. They should be protected, thereafter, from rain or other sources of
moisture.
2.15.3. Damage due to insects
Damage to timber by insects is quite considerable particularly in warm countries.
The insects under this category include many beetles, bores and white ants. The
damage done by higher animals and birds are only trivial. [1]
19
2.15.4. Control of insect pests
The control of insect pests is much simpler than eradicating fungi. Since insects do
not attack and destroy the whole of the before it is apparent, it is possible to do in
situ prevention. The tunnels made by the insect‟s further help in the deep
penetration of toxic elements that are used to destroy them. A good preservative
against insect attack is yet to be found. The insecticides should not damage the
paint or varnish and should vaporize easily and such vapors should not be
dangerous to human being. It is found that no insecticide can do all these functions
in one application and all treatments against insects require periodic application to
be effective. [3]
2.16. Seasoning of timber

By seasoning of timber we mean the process by which the moisture content is
reduced to a suitable level depending upon the use .We have already discussed
about the moisture in wood and its effect. Seasoned timber is definitely superior to
unseasoned timber. While seasoning does not make timber safe from all
destructive agencies, this is a prime process before timber can be put to use.
By nature, timber is hygroscopic and takes in moisture from air depending upon
many factors. Timber should be seasoned as early as possible after felling because
felled timber is nothing but dead vegetation that will rot and decay due to many
environmental agencies. Once the moisture content is brought down to safe limits
further safety lies in proper care in use and preservation. Drying and wetting of
timber causes shrinkage and swelling, technically called „movement‟. This leads to
many defects in timber. Seasoning can not entirely stop further movement if the
timber is exposed to saturated air conditions. But seasoning does reduce this
tendency and also ensures freedom from many other agencies causing decay. [1]
2.16.1. Objectives of seasoning
20
1. To reduce „movement‟ in timber-to reduce the tendency to split, warp and
shrink.
2. To make it immune from attack by insects.
3. To increase the strength, durability, workability and resilience.
4. To make timber receptive to finish like preservatives, paints and varnish.
5. To reduce the weight and minimize cost of transportation.
6. To make the timber burn readily, if used as a fuel. [1]
2.16.2. Principles of seasoning

Timber dries because of the vapors pressure gradient built up within the timber.
The outer layers of a piece of wood dry depending upon the temperature and
relative humidity of the air surrounding it. As the surface layers dry, the vapors
pressure in these layers falls below the vapors pressure in wetter wood farther
inside and thus a vapors pressure gradient is built up. The steeper the vapors
pressure gradient the faster will be the drying.
Tree factors control this process

1. Humidity
2. Rate of air circulation
3. Temperature of the surrounding.
The humidity of air controls the seasoning process because the ability of the air to
absorb moisture from timber depends upon its humidity and the dryness of the
outer layers of the wood itself. This factor acts along with the temperature in that at
different temperatures the increase in humidity by a constant factor depends upon
the temperature .Thus at lower temperatures comparatively small amount of water
is required to increase the humidity by 1% than at higher temperatures.
21
If the temperature remains constant, as the air absorbs moisture from wood
increasing its relative humidity, the affinity of air for moisture drops and this slows
up the drying process. The rate of air circulation is thus important. The moisture
laden air is thus required to be removed and fresh air brought in so that the drying
up process is uniform and controlled. The effect of temperature has already been
discussed. The higher the temperature the more rapid will be the drying. The
temperature has to be kept at a desired level to avoid too fast a drying. In tropical
climates the problem will be to reduce the rate of drying because of high
temperature and dryness of air. The three factors mentioned thus interact closely
together and whether it is natural seasoning or artificial seasoning in a kiln, these
factors have to be controlled to attain the required moisture content without
causing seasoning defects. [1]
2.16.3. Kiln seasoning

Kiln seasoning is a quicker method of seasoning timber to the desired moisture
content under highly controlled conditions. The drying conditions required for
different species of timber are different and kiln seasoning makes it possible to
provide conditions suited to each species. The advantages of kiln seasoning are
speed, adaptability and precision. [1]
2.16.4. Chemical seasoning

Chemical seasoning rests upon the principle that aqueous solutions of certain
chemicals have lower vapors pressures than pure water. If the outer layer of timber
is treated with such solutions, the vapors pressure of the outer layer is reduced and
a vapor pressure gradient is set up. Further equilibrium moisture content of
chemically treated wood is higher than that of the untreated wood. This makes it
possible to season the timber without the risk of developing seasoning stresses.
22
Common salt (sodium chloride) is one of the chemicals that can be used but has a
corrosive action. Urea is found to be more suitable for the purpose of chemical
seasoning. [1]
2.16.5. Electrical seasoning

The uses of electricity to determine the moisture content of timber using electrical
moisture meters are very common. But its use for seasoning of timber is not
commercially common. In the earlier days of electrical seasoning low frequency
alternating current was used. The principle is to subject the wood by the use of
plates or electrodes at the ends to an electric current. The resistance of the wood
causes heat development which in turn causes drying. But this causes excessive
splitting of the wood. This has been found to be due to the higher resistance
developed by wood as it dries causing considerable output of heat. [1]
High frequency electric currents act as follows:
Poor conductors of electricity when placed in a field of frequency alternating
current become hot due to the frequent re-alignment of the randomly arranged
molecules. This heat causes water movement leading to drying of timber. This is
superior to low frequency current because heat is generated throughout the piece
uniformly. [1]
2.17. Preservation of timber

No timber is immune to deterioration and ultimate disintegration if exposed for a
sufficiently long period to ordinary atmospheric conditions. The principal causes of
deterioration of wood in service are fungal infection, termite and other insects
attack, mechanical failure and fire. The resistance of wood to these agents of
destruction may be increased by the application of a suitable chemical to the wood.
Preservative types
Preservatives can be basically classified into the following four types:
23
Type 1-Oil Coal tar creosote with or without admixture of petroleum, coal tar,
fuel oil or other suitable oils having high boiling range.
Type 2- Organic solvent type Consists of toxic substances dissolved in volatile
spirits like copper and zinc naphthanates, dihedron, etc.
Type3-Water-soluble (leachable) type Water-soluble salts like zinc, chloride,
borax, etc.
Type4-Water-soluble (fixed) type Water-soluble salts with a fixative salt like
copper-chrome-arsenic composition, chromate zinc chloride, etc… [1]
2.18. Shear capacity of beams

Shear forces are almost always associated with bending, that is -
whenever bending is produced by transverse loading, there will be shear

stresses in accordance with elastic bending theory; and
Whenever the bending moment in a beam changes along the length of the
beam, there will be shear forces acting on the beam.
Shear effects in timber beams
Shear failure in most isotropic materials tends to be oriented at 45° to the neutral
axis. However, timber is orthotropic with only loose bonds tending to hold fibers
together. As a result, failures tend to be oriented across those loose bonds giving
failure planes parallel to the fibers. Shear stresses in a beam are the same parallel
to grain as normal to grain; therefore the limiting behavior tends to be shearing
parallel to the grain. Shear failures weaken the member considerably, as the region
affected by the shear failure has a net section modulus that is around half of the
original. Usually the maximum shear forces in both simply supported and
continuous beams are close to a support. Often there are supports at or near the
24
ends of beams, so the maximum shear forces also coincide with the end of the
member. However, the loads on the beam adjacent to supports contribute little to
the shear stresses in the beam .The loads are transmitted to the support by direct
compression perpendicular to the grain of the timber without generating classical
bending actions. In calculating the design shear, only those forces that fall in the
effective shear span are considered. Forces that are applied within 1.5d of the face
of the support are discounted.
Testing has shown that even though timber has very low nominal shear strength, it
is very rare for timber beams to fail in shear, unless a shear failure mechanism is
initiated by end splitting or by notches. Normally in “sound” timber, the failure
mode for the beam will be either in bending, or bearing compression perpendicular
to the grain.
The shear area (As) that is used to find the shear capacity of the section corrects
the expression for the shape of the shear stress distribution across the cross-section.
For rectangular cross-sections, the use of is equivalent to multiplying the
Average shear stress given by by 1.5. This is the value of the maximum shear
stress for a classic parabolic shear stress distribution in a rectangular cross-section.
[4] and [5]
2.19. Bearing capacity of beams

Bearing capacity either over a support or under a load plate is a function of the
crushing strength of the wood fiber.
Where the bearing capacity is exceeded, local crushing occurs.
Bearing strength is related directly to the crushing strength of timber fiber, a
function of the timber species. It is mainly influenced by the thickness of the cell
25
Walls. Dry density of timber is also a function of the thickness of cell walls, so dry
density tends to be a good indicator of bearing strength. So, unlike bending,
tension, compression and shear strength, characteristic bearing strength of timber
members is related to the strength group (species) of the member rather than the
grade or manufacture of the member.
The direction of the force also affects the bearing capacity.
Bearing (crushing) capacity is significantly stronger parallel to the grain compared
with bearing capacity normal to the grain. This is because timber fibers have
higher strength and stiffness longitudinally than laterally. The mechanics of
crushing timber parallel to grain differs substantially from the mechanics of
crushing timber perpendicular to grain.
Ap Bearing area for loading perpendicular to grain
This is simply the surface area of wood where the crushing will take place. It is
generally the length of the bearing times the width of the timber.
Bearing parallel to grain is a less common phenomenon that can only occur in
beams where inclined struts are cut into the beam .Edge effects does not play a role
in the bearing capacity of timber parallel to grain.
Bearing at an angle to grain
In some cases, the bearing will be at an angle to grain. [4] and [5]
26
CHAP III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1. Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to describe the methodological approach and the
technique used to collect data, and presents the area of study and survey
population. The chapter further describes the various methods used in the sample
selection.
Methodology refers to set of methods and principles that are used when studying a
particular subject or doing a particular kind of work. It usually includes
descriptions of the research design, the sample design, data gathering procedures,
and measuring instruments. This chapter describes the ways in which data will be
collected and analyzed.
3.2. Study population

The population consisted with timber modern buildings located at KINIGI in North
province and VULGILE house (Pasadena) situated at GIKONDO in Kigali city,
Kicukiro (air-force buildings) located also at Kigali city.
3.3. Type of the study

The study was an analytical whereby both qualitative and quantitative data were
used. It was done between June and July 2010.The study was a retro prospective
involving Modern timber buildings construction cost, durability, comfort ability,
safety and appearance surveyed from June to July 2010 at Kigali city, North
province and western province. Populations were also interviewed about different
factors affecting the timber application, timber construction and some measures
about how to protect them correctly and effectively
27
3.4. Data collection
3.4.1. Sources of data

We have two types of data; primary sources and secondary sources of data
Primary sources of data
According to Audrey J Roth (1989:57) Primary sources came straightly from
people or works being researched and are therefore the most direct kind of
information that can be collected.
Primary data sources were important for they provided first hand information.
Primary data was obtained through self-administered questionnaires distributed to
the Engineers, Builders and users. And interview was used as a tool of data
collection. Respondents were population owner of buildings and population living
near the buildings.
Secondary source of data
According to Grinnell Jr M.Richard and William Margaret (1990-219), secondary
data is data that exists already in boxes, in some organizations‟ basement or
internet websites. They are one step from the original and are often examination of
a study someone else has made on a subject or an evolution of commentary on, or
summary of primary materials. Critical biographies, journals, textbooks, articles,
internets and research papers were used to get data.
The secondary data was also collect by the researcher from projects reports and
official documents.
3.4.2. Data collection methods

The study used an analytical method, with both quantitative and qualitative
(information from the interviewed populations) research methods. Information on
how certain factors influenced the timber construction was collected using
28
questionnaires and focused group conversation with building owners, building
economic users and safety providers.
3.4.3. Data collection instruments

These are tools used by the researcher to gather information data from the
respondents and other sources that are relevant to the study. All the data was
collected using questionnaires, interview schedule or documentary.
3.5. Sample size

The total number of 36 people is interviewed by help of a structured questionnaire.
Where a total number of 6 people for each considered site of modern timber
building are taken into account and at the same time 2 quantitative questions have
been count simultaneously for every site visited.
I) Questionnaires
Manheim, J.B and Rich. R.C (1995:447) defines questionnaires as a survey
instrument intended for use in mailed or self-administered surveys. The researchers
used questionnaires because are easy to administer and save time.
II) Direct observation method
According to Teresa Kakooza (1992:32) observation is not confined to seeing only
but also by hearing, touching and testing. As it was used in the earliest, it remained
the most dominant method of inquiry, it was used in the study and it generated the
rich first hand information on the area of the study.
III) Interview schedule
According to Teresa Kakooza (1992:33) defines an interview as a conversation in
which the researcher tries to get information formation the interviewer. She
commented that interviews are useful when the subjects cannot read and write or
when the researcher is investigating complex and sensitive issues. This was the
preferred tool to be employed by the researcher in order to get a rich source of the
29
information. The importance of this method of data collection was that, during the
interview the researcher was able to repeat questions, which are not clear to the
respondents. In the interview, the interviewer was able to come across new ideas
which required follow up. The researcher was able to notice and record a lot of
information from the respondents‟ social and physical environment.
3.6. Data analysis

As Bog man and Taylor (1975:81) wrote, analysis is an ongoing process in
participation observation research method. Data analysis in this study was well
done throughout the research stages. It was based on direct interpretation of
insistences first impression and meanings.
During this phase, several stages were undergone to process the data collected.
They include the examining of the questionnaire and the interview responses
whereby consistency, accuracy and competency of the response were ensured.
Interview guide notes were organized the researcher compared them with literature
review to ascertain uniformity, consistence and undergoing of questions.
After primary data was collected, they were edited, coded, tabulated, analyzed and
presented as actual findings of the research.
30
3.7. Presentation of collected data
Data from different sites:
3.7.1. Building on Site 1: Gikondo (Nyenyeri)

Building under study;
Figure: 3. 1. Photo of building on site N⁰1
Use of building: commercial building

Location: KIGALI city; KICUKIRO district
Building description
Materials of construction timber and bricks for columns ,here some columns are
constructed by using timber and others by using bricks and the slab is constructed
by using timber only. The stairs and beams are being constructed in timber
materials. Some walls are in timber and others are in masonry works
Some answers from the questionnaire
1. Reason of using timber as construction materials: because timber is
available in Rwanda than others building materials.
2. The cost of using timber as construction materials in comparison to other
building materials is cheap.
3. The timber were not tested for knowing their strength
31
4. There is no information about the strength of timber.
5. There is no information about the climatic condition of the site known, and it
was not taken into account during the design.
6. The soil test was not done.
7. The construction of timber buildings did not require high skilled persons.
8. Some measures have been taken into account for preventing timber to be
affected by the humidity from soil moisture and rainfall, such as to cast the timber
in concrete and providing the plaint of cement at each column of timber
9. The temperature effect on the strength of timber materials did not take into
account during the design process.
10. There are others types of effects which may affect the strength of timber
materials and the durability of the whole building.
11. Such as; insects (termites), wind, seismic forces and flood water.
12. Insects and humidity have been prevented by applying some chemicals
materials on the surface of timber which have direct contact with the soil and
putting cement plate at each column.
13. The flood is prevented by providing adequate drainage ways around the
building.
14. The required standard for timber building is not known by owner of the
building and the designer was not informed about those standards.
15.The owner of building is advising others Rwandan population to use timber as
construction materials because timber is available in Rwanda and can be used for
any kind of structure element in place of masonry works and reinforced concrete
and also is cheap in comparison to those materials.
32
3.7.2. Building on Site 2: Rugunga (Kiyovu)
Figure: 3. 2 Photo of building on site N⁰ 2
Use of building: KIGALI ARTISTS VILLAGE
Location: KIGALI city (RUGUNGA) NYARUGENGE district

Materials of construction timber, here whole buildings are constructed by timber
construction materials except roofs cover and foundation.
Walls are constructed with timber materials.
1. Reason of using timber as construction materials: because timber is available
in Rwanda than others building materials and doesn‟t require skilled persons
during their construction.
4. There is no information about the strength of timber.
33
5. There is no information about the climatic condition of the site, and it was not
taken into account during the design.
6. The soil test was not done. Some measures have been taken into account for
preventing timber to be affected by the humidity from soil moisture and rainfall,
such as to cast the timber in concrete and providing the plaint of cement around the
whole building about 20cm above the pavement.
7. The effect of temperature on the strength of timber materials have not been
taken into account in design process.
8. The other things which may affect the strength of timber and it durability are:
insects (termites) wind, seismic forces and flood water.
9. Insects and humidity have been prevented by applying some chemicals materials
on the surface of timber which have direct contact with the air and putting cement
paste at about 20cm above the pavement for interior walls.
10. The flood is prevented by providing adequate drainage system around the
building.
11. About the knowledge on the standards of timber to be used as construction
materials no information.
12. Yes; it is advisable for all Rwandan population to use timber as construction
materials in instant of using other materials because timber is available in Rwanda
than other building materials and is less cost and also it doesn‟t need more skill
during the construction
34
3.7.3. Building on Site 3: Kinigi 1(Centre).
Figure: 3. 3.Photo of building on site N⁰ 3

Use of building: Guest House building
Location: NORTH PROVINCE; MUSANZE district
Materials of construction timber and bricks for columns ,here some columns are
constructed by using timber and others by using bricks and the slab is constructed
by using timber only. The stairs are constructing in timber materials.
The beams are of timber. Walls are of timber building materials.
1. Reason of using timber as construction materials: because timber is available
in Rwanda than others building materials and is cheap.
3. The timber was not tested for knowing their strength.
35
4. The climatic condition of the site is not known, and it was not taken into account
during the design.
5. The soil test was not done. The construction of timber buildings did not require
high skilled persons.
in concrete and providing the plaint of cement at each column of timber
7. To prevent timber against insects the timber must be painted chemical materials
able to fight against insects.
8. The temperature effect on the strength of timber materials did not take into
account during the design process because they don‟t have any information about
it.
9. Yes; there are others types of effects which may affect the strength of timber
materials and the durability of the whole building.
10. Such as; insects (termites), wind, seismic forces and flood water.
11. Insects and humidity have been prevented by applying some chemicals
materials on the surface of timber which have direct contact with the soil and
putting cement plate at each column or by covering the lower party of timber
which is in direct contact with soil by use of plastic materials.
12. The required standard for timber building is not known by owner of the
building and the designer was not informed about those standards.
13. The owner of building is advising others Rwandan population to use timber as
construction materials because timber is available in Rwanda and can be used for
any kind of structure element in place of masonry works and reinforced concrete
because is cheap in comparison to those materials.
36
3.7.4. Building on Site 4: Kinigi 2(Centre).
Figure: 3. 4 Photo of building on site N⁰4
Use of building: ORTPN/RDB

Location: NORTH PROVINCE; MUSANZE district
Materials of construction timber, here whole buildings are constructed by timber
construction materials except pavement and foundation. Walls are constructed with
timber materials.
1. Reason of using timber as construction materials: because timber is available in
Rwanda than others building materials and doesn‟t require skilled persons during
their construction also it gives a good looking and at the same time the comfort to
the users of building.
37
4. No information about the climatic condition of the site, and it was not taken into
account during the design.
5. The soil test was not done.
in concrete and providing the plaint of cement around the whole building about
20cm above the pavement.
7. The effect of temperature on the strength of timber materials have not been
taken into account in design process because they were not known.
8. The other things which may affect the strength of timber and it durability are:
insects (termites) wind, seismic forces and flood water.
9. Insects and humidity have been prevented by applying some chemicals materials
on the surface of timber which have direct contact with the air and putting cement
paste at about 20cm above the pavement for interior walls.
10. About the prevention of wind and seismic force they do not thing about them
because the buildings are single and light in weight.
11. The flood is prevented by providing adequate drainage system around the
building. The standards of timber to be used as construction materials they have no
information.
12. Yes; it is advisable for all Rwandan population to use timber as construction
materials in instant of using other materials because timber is available in Rwanda
than other building materials and is less cost and also it doesn‟t need more skill
during the construction while it can be used at any kind of building structure
element.
38
3.8. Data analysis and interpretation
3.8.1. Introduction
This part presents the analysis and interpretation of data from the field (Sites). The
study involved the sample size of 16 respondents who in this case were end users,
2Engineers, 8 Builders and 10 Peoples. According to the objectives, the researcher
examined whether the community participation in selection construction materials.
For the purpose of this research, data analysis analyzes information on the use of
timber as construction materials in Rwanda and how people are informed about the
selection of kinds of timber to be used for different works and to know what they
take into account during their design for safety of building.
3.8.2. Respondents’ background characteristics

The background characteristics of the respondents were categorized using the
interest in project. This part gives the summary of the result from the survey
conducted at the unit of the study among the selected respondents.
The total sample was 36 respondents of which 2 representing 5.5% were
Engineers, 8 Builders representing 22.2% and 10 peoples representing 27.7% were
and 16 end users representing 44.4%. The respondents were selected using
purposive and Simple random sampling methods; this is why the researcher
considered Engineers, Builders, peoples and end-users during the data collection.
39
3.8.3. Response rate of the total respondents.
Table: 3. 1.Response rate of the respondents.
Respondent Number of Number of Percentages

Distributions Questionnaires Questionnaires
Distributions Returned
Engineers 2 2 100%
Builders 8 6 75%
Peoples 10 5 50%
TOTAL 20 13 90%
Note: For the end users, the structured interviews were used
Source primary data
From the table, above it can be seen that a total of 20 questionnaires were
distributed but only 13 returned to the researcher. Administered questionnaires
were of two types closed questionnaires and open. Out of 2 questionnaires
distributed to the Engineers, all of them were filled and returned representing a
100% response rate. Out of 8 questionnaires distributed to the builders only 6 were
filled and returned representing a 75% response rates. Out of 10 questionnaires
distributed to the peoples only 5 filled and returned representing a 50% response
rates.
The reason of not having 100% response rate in the questionnaire distributed is that
most of the respondents (peoples) were fear of the Researcher as the some builders
and they give also a reason that they are busy.
Reason why they failed to get time for filling the questionnaires.
3.8.4. Respondent’s view of the community participation in Rwanda

Section one: Engineer’s view
40
This section presents the data analysis that was obtained from the Engineers, under
this section the sample size was 2 respondents of which 2 questionnaires were
distributed to the Engineers and were filled and returned to the researcher.
The Engineers said that the community participation is the best way to use for the
selection of timber to be used as construction materials. But the problem in
Rwanda is that the populations are not informed on the standards requirement
when you are constructing in Rwanda then for him as advice it is better if Rwandan
government prepare the training centers initiated and implemented for reason of
decentralizing the use of timber in modern construction. Hence their input is not
properly ensured. For them, the scope of work is generally adapted to the
community‟s skills, but because of the late sensitization delay in evolution of using
timber in modern construction and it‟s the major cause of the small number of
population using timber in modern buildings.
They said that the percentage of success in selecting types of timber to use during
the construction process .The community participation and those without
community participation is 40 percent and 70 percent respectively. They agreed
that in Rwanda the success of the community participation in using timber in
construction of building is evaluated at 50 percent.
They agreed that the community participation is successful only when the
concerned community is informed on the importance of using timber as
construction material from the initiation of the project to the completion of the
project. They said that if the community participation can be effective, its benefits
are greater than its disadvantages.
Section two: Builder’s view
All the Builder responded to the questionnaire said that the community
Participation is the major cause of project failure, due to the lack of knowledge
organization and commitment by the beneficiary communities. 90 percent of the
41
respondents said that it should be abolished in public procurement, because of its
ineffectiveness and 10 percent of the respondent said that it should be carefully
designed to be effective and this can be achieved by participation of government in
forming the population on the selection of timber materials.
Section three: People’s view
All the People responded to the questionnaires said that the community
participation can be the major cause of project failure, due to the lack of skill about
use of timber construction materials. 80 percent of the respondents said that it
should be abolished in public procurement, because of its ineffectiveness and 20
percent of the respondent said that it should be carefully designed to be effective.
Section four: End user’s view
All the respondents in this category, they said that the purpose of the community
participation is in development of Rwanda community is good for economy
sustainability. But the population is informed at the final stage of the project, i.e.in
the execution phase Due to this delay in sensitization of the local communities,
their availability is uncertain then the project of construction fail according to the
lack of knowledge about choose of types of timber and how to protect them
against the effects which can destroy them.
They said that if they are sensitized from the initiation of the selection of timber
and how to use them to the final stage of preventing them during the finishing of
the whole building, their input can be assured. They said that if, they bring their
input to the project voluntarily, they are confident of that and the development in
modern construction in Rwanda is sustainable.
42
3.9. Data interpretation
After analyzing the data collected from different sites and answers from direct
interview it seems that the timber has low cost as the building construction
materials which can be available for all the population of Rwanda.
However, the community participation in selecting timber building construction
material, for different structure elements of the building and also by considering
site characteristic for location of structure elements is very low.
And 80% of respondents said that the contribution of the government is needed for
increasing number of people skilled in that flied of building construction. And this
can be achieved by providing training to the technicians and sensibilization the
population about the Rwanda climatic characteristic and the standards which must
be respected during the construction of timber modern buildings.
The climate conditions in Rwanda are not favorable for the application of timber
materials. For that the protection measures are required.
43
CHAP IV: TIMBER MATERIAL TESTING
4.1. Introduction
Timber is a material which can be used for different purpose in construction of
different structure element such as columns, slabs, beams as building structure
element and can be used in construction of bridge structure element, and for other
element. For safety of building and building users the timber must be tested for
shear, bending, tensile and compressive forces. For this study the tensile and
bending test were conducted. Because of the luck of the suitable materials like
machine other tests were left out.
For tensile test, I have taken samples of three types of timber and test them on the
tensile strength. The specimens were of 13mm diameter, and the length of each
specimen before testing was 15cm.And for bending, I have taken samples of three
types of timber and test them on the bending strength the specimen were of
5x5x22cm dimension and each of length 18cm.
During those tests I have recorded the load at different intervals of time and at the
same time by recorded the extensions or deflection for bending test. The recordings
were taken same regular interval of time, after recoding the information about
extension or deflection and the load applied for each interval of time. I have
calculated their corresponding stress and strain and drawing the graph
demonstrating the variation of stress-strain relationship for tensile strength. Then
the strength of specimen corresponds to the maximum stress observed on the
graph. And for bending test I have to calculate the corresponding maximum
permissible bending stresses.
And then classified the timber of Rwanda according to the result from the tensile
and bending tests.
44
4.2. Tensile testing.
4.2.1. Presentation of test results

Table: 4. 1.Tensile strength results of Eucalyptus.
Number Extension(mm) Load(KN) Stress(N/mm2) Strain
1 0 0 0 0
2 1.6 1.5 11.28 0.01
3 4.2 2.4 18.05 0.03
4 5.9 3.0 22.56 0.04
5 7.2 3.4 25.56 0.05
6 8.4 3.8 28.57 0.06
7 9.5 4.2 31.58 0.07
8 10.7 4.4 33.08 0.07
9 11.9 4.7 35.34 0.08
10 12.9 5.1 38.35 0.09
11 14.0 5.2 39.10 0.09
12 15.3 5.6 42.11 0.10
13 16.4 6.0 45.11 0.11
14 17.4 6.3 47.37 0.12
15 19.0 2.0 15.04 0.13
16 21.0 0.9 6.77 0.14
45
Formulae for calculating stress and strain;
Stress (δ) = (N/mm2)
F: Load (N)
S: Surface (mm2)
Strain (ε)
: Extension (mm)
Lo: Initial length (mm)
Figure: 4. 1.Graph showing stress -strain variation for Eucalyptus.
46
Table: 4. 2.Tensile test strength results of Greveria
Number Extension(mm) Load(KN) Stress(KN/mm) Strain

1 0 0 0 0
2 1.1 0.6 4.51 0.01
3 2.3 0.8 6.02 0.02
4 3.6 1.3 9.77 0.02
5 4.9 1.5 11.28 0.03
6 6.0 1.7 12.78 0.04
7 7.2 1.9 14.29 0.05
8 8.4 2.0 15.04 0.06
9 10.9 2.4 18.05 0.07
10 12.1 2.7 20.30 0.08
11 13.3 2.9 21.80 0.09
12 14.5 3.0 22.56 0.10
13 15.7 3.1 23.31 0.11
14 16.9 3.2 24.06 0.11
15 18.2 3.4 25.56 0.12
16 19.3 3.6 27.07 0.13
17 20.5 3.8 28.57 0.14
18 21.7 3.9 29.32 0.15
19 23.2 1.4 10.53 0.16
20 25.0 0.7 5.26 0.17
47
F: Load (N)
S: Surface (mm2)
Strain (ε)
: Extension (mm)
Figure: 4. 2 Graph showing stress-strain variation for Greveria.
48
Table: 4. 3.Tensile test strength results of Red wood.
Number Extension (mm) Load (KN) Stress Stain

(N/mm2)
1 0 0 0 0
2 1.2 0.5 3.80 0.01
3 2.6 0.9 6.80 0.02
4 3.8 1.5 11.28 0.03
5 4.2 1.7 12.78 0.03
6 6.4 2.0 15.04 0.04
7 7.7 2.5 18.80 0.05
8 8.9 2.7 20.30 0.06
9 10.6 2.9 21.81 0.07
10 12.3 3.1 23.31 0.08
11 13.6 3.3 24.81 0.09
12 14.9 3.6 27.07 0.10
13 15.2 3.9 29.32 0.10
14 16.8 4.0 30.08 0.11
15 18.2 4.2 31.58 0.12
16 20.8 4.4 33.08 0.14
17 23.2 4.6 34.59 0.15
18 26.7 2.4 18.5 0.18
19 28.0 1.7 12.78 0.19
49
F: Load (N)
S: Surface (mm2)
Strain (ε)
∆L: Extension (mm)

Figure: 4. 3Graph showing stress-strain variation for Red wood.
The stress of each timber is correspond to the maximum stress at which the timber
were breack .then the strength are presented as follow:
50
Eucalyptus strength is = 47.37N/mm2.
Greveria the strength is = 29.32N/mm2.
Red wood the strength is = 34.59N/mm2.
After testing these three types of timber and analysing their tensile strength the
results can be presented as follow;
Figure: 4. 4.Histogram of comparisons for various stresses.
4.2.2. Analysis of results and discussion

From tests results it has seen that the tensile strength of the eucalyptus is very high
than that of Greveria and Red wood. The tensile strength of red wood also is high
than the tensile strength of Greveria, the tensile strength of Greveria is the lowest
tensile strength of the three test results. Then it is seems that the Eucalyptus timber
building materials can be used for the structures of high load carrying capacity than
the others type of timber under study. The Red wood also comes at the second
place after Eucalyptus. And then the Greveria as their tensile strength is lower than
that of Eucalyptus and Red wood, during the selection of timber to use as
construction materials can be selected at last place.
51
4.3. Bending Testing
For bending test, I have taken samples of three types of timber and tested them.
The specimens were of the dimension of 5x5x22cm with a length of span is18cm.
During this test I recorded the load at different intervals of time and at the same
time I have recorded the deflection corresponding to the applied load. Here the
record to be considered is the load causing the maximum deflection;
4.3.1. Presentation of test results
Table: 4. 4.Presentation of bending strength test results

Types Maximum Load(KN)
Deflection(mm)
Eucalyptus 11 25
Greveria 10 16
Red wood 7.5 15
For knowing the maximum permissible bending stress I have first to calculate the
maximum bending moment at the mid-span of the specimen under testing; in my
case the bending moment at mid-span is calculated as follows: M=KmWL
Where Km is a moment coefficient, it depends upon the distribution of load. For
uniformly distributed load, Km= while for concentrated load at the mid-span,
Km= .
W: applied load (KN)

L: length of span (mm)
Then for my experience Km=
52
4.3.2. Calculations of bending moments
i) Bending moment for Eucalyptus
Maximum bending moment at the mid-span:
Formulae
M=KmWL= WL= 1125x103Nmm
ii) Bending moment for Greveria

Maximum bending moment at the mid-span
M=KmWL= WL= =72x104Nmm
iii) Bending moment for Red wood

Maximum bending moment at the mid-span
M=KmWL= WL= 675x 103Nmm
4.3.3. Calculations of maximum permissible bending stresses

i) Maximum permissible bending stress for Eucalyptus
Formulae
δbc= =; where Zb is the section modulus (mm3)
Zb = = = 9.16x104mm3
Where b is the width of beam and d is the depth of the beam.

For all specimens the section modulus is the same because they have same
dimension and same sections.
δbc= = = 12.3N/mm2
ii) Maximum permissible bending stress For Greveria
53
δbc= = = 7.9N/mm2
iii) Maximum permissible bending stress for Red wood
δbc= = = 7.4N/mm2
4.4. Classification of tested timber

After testing the Rwandan timber about tensile strength and bending strength
By using table 2.1. It is seen that the timbers of Rwanda are classified as follow:
i) Eucalyptus can be classified in group B and can be used for inside location
during the building construction.
ii) Greveria can be classified in group C, and can be used for out side location
iii) Red wood can be classified in group C, and can be used for out side location
54
CHAPV: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1. Conclusion.
The general objective of this research was the assessment of timber application in
modern construction and its promotion in Rwanda. The timber is used in
construction of different structural elements of modern buildings in different areas
of Rwanda, and it is clear that the buildings are performing their intended use, and
they have a good appearance. They resist to the external loads as other buildings
constructed by using different building materials such as steel building, concrete
building and masonry work building.
However, the community participation in selection of timber building materials to
be used for different purposes in construction of modern building is not efficient.
Because their skills in choosing timber to use according to the importance of
structure to be built are lower. And they don‟t know the requirements of standards
according to the climatic characteristics.
According to the test results of tensile strength and bending strength, the strength
of timber varies from specie to another. This can be proved by the reason that the
Eucalyptus is very stiffer than Red wood, which is also stiffer than Greveria in
tensile strength and bending strength.
According to the Indian standards the Rwanda timber have good performance as
the test results of tested timber for tensile and bending and the Rwandan timber can
be used for inside location and out side location during the building construction.
The Eucalyptus can be classified in Group B, Greveria and Red wood can be
classified in Group C. These classifications are chosen based on the table 2.1 as it
is provided by Indian standards so, that they can be used at any location during the
construction of building structures. For this reason the Rwanda timber may be
used in construction of modern building and give a good performance.
55
The cost of modern building built using timber materials is lower in comparison to
the cost of other buildings built using different construction materials, such as
masonry buildings, steel buildings and concrete building. In Rwanda, the
community is not well informed about the climatic characteristics, and the level of
seismic condition to be taken into account during the design of timber buildings.
5.2. Recommendation
The results from this study allow us to make the following recommendations:
 MININFRA should provide the standards which must be followed during
the design of modern buildings to be constructed by using timber
construction materials.
 MININFRA also should provide all necessary equipment required for testing
timber to be confidant and safe of their use.
 The government of Rwanda should encourage the population about the
importance of using timber as construction materials for modern building.
 The high learning technical Institutions should also try to equip their labs
with all necessary equipments to allow practical research to students and
staff.
56
REFERENCES
[1]. D.N.GHOSE (Ex. General Manager Consulting Engineering Services

Calcutta)
1989, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, Materials of construction.
[2]. Dr.B.C.PUNMIA, ASHOR KUMAR JAIN, ARUN KUMAR JAIN (First
Edition: August, 1995; Second Edition: Sept. 1998), Design of steel structures.
[3]. D.N.GHOSE (EX. General Manager Consulting Engineering Services
Calcutta) 1992, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, Civil
Engineering Materials.
[4]. Internet; http/www.redletture.com.au (Basic strength and elastic properties of
wood).
[5]. Antonio, 2oo4, New Advance for the Application of Eucalyptus as a Structural
wood, lisboa, Portugal. http://www.wood technology.pc.ca/application.
[6]. Notes from the sites.
57
APPENDICES
58
APPENDIX 1
1. Questionnaire for research project

Q1.What is your function in this organization?
Q2.Why do you prefer to use timber for your construction? Available or Cheap or
simply you like it.
Q3.What do you think about the cost of timber material in comparison to other
building materials?
Q4. Have you tested the timber to know their strength characteristics? Yes: No:
Q5. If yes, what are these strength characteristics?
Q6.Do you know the climatic condition of the area?
Q7.Have you consider that conditions during your design?
Q8.Do you know the soil condition of the area? What is the strength of the soil?
Q9. Does the construction of timber require a high skilled person?
Q10. Do you take any measures to prevent timber for humidity? Yes: No:
Q11. If yes, how it is done?
Q12. Do you take in consideration in design the temperature effect on the timber
structures? Yes: No:
Q13. If yes, how it is done?
Q14.Do you know other effects which may affect the durability and strength of
timber? Yes: No: ; if yes, what are them? How do you prevent them?
Q15. Q17.Do you know the required standards of timber to be used in
construction?
Q18. Are you ready to propose the use of Timber in Construction to your
colleagues?
59
APPENDIX 2
2. Materials for test
SAMPLE TENSILE TEST ALL SAMPLES
TESTING MACHINE BENDING TEST EUCALYPTUS
GREVERIA RED WOOD
60

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PROJECT ID: CEET/2010/28

KIGALI INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN

CIVIL ENGINEERING AND ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY

This is to certify that the Project Work entitled “ASSESSMENT OF TIMBER

SUPERVISOR HEAD OF Dept. Of CE & ET

Dr.MBEREYAHO Léopold Mr.G.Senthil KUMARAN

Submitted for the Project Examination held at KIST on …………………………

I, MAJYAMBERE Silas, declare that the work entitled ” ASSESSMENT OF

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................. iii

ABREVIATION AND SYMBOLS .................................................................................. xi

CHAPI .GENERAL INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 1

1.1. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1

1. 2. Problem statement ............................................................................................... 1

1.3. Objectives of project............................................................................................. 2

1.3.1. Main objective .............................................................................................. 2

1.3.2. Specific objectives .......................................................................................... 2

1.4. Hypothesis ........................................................................................................ 3

1.5. Significance of project .......................................................................................... 3

1.6. Scope of project .................................................................................................. 3

1.7. Methodology ...................................................................................................... 4

CHAP II. LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................................... 5

2.1. Definition of timber.............................................................................................. 5

2.2. Source of timber .................................................................................................. 5

2.3. Advantages of timber ............................................................................................ 5

2.4. Disadvantages of timber ........................................................................................ 6

2.5. Mechanical properties ........................................................................................... 6

2.5.2. Compressive strength ...................................................................................... 7

2.5.3. Shear strength ............................................................................................... 8

2.5.4. Bending strength ............................................................................................ 8

2.5.5. Cleavability .................................................................................................. 8

2.5.6. Brittleness .................................................................................................... 8

2.5.7. Torsion strength ............................................................................................. 9

2.5.8. Hardness ..................................................................................................... 9

2.6. Strength characteristics of timber according to Indian standards ....................................... 9

2.6.1. Permissible stresses. ........................................................................................ 9

2.7. Classification and grading of timber .........................................................................12

2.8. Moisture in timber ..............................................................................................15

2.9. Hygroscopic nature of timber .................................................................................15

2.10. Water in wood .................................................................................................15

2.11. Shrinkage .......................................................................................................16

2.12. Permissible moisture content ................................................................................16

2.13. Determination of moisture content .........................................................................17

2.14. Defects in timber ..............................................................................................17

2.14.1. Natural defects ............................................................................................18

2.14.2. Defects due to seasoning ................................................................................18

2.14.3. Due to manufacturing or use ...........................................................................18

2.15. Decay of timber ................................................................................................19

2.15.2. Control of fungal attack .................................................................................19

2.15.3. Damage due to insects ...................................................................................19

2.15.4. Control of insect pests ...................................................................................20

2.16. Seasoning of timber ...........................................................................................20

2.16.1. Objectives of seasoning .................................................................................20

2.16.2. Principles of seasoning ..................................................................................21

2.16.3. Kiln seasoning ............................................................................................22

2.16.4. Chemical seasoning ......................................................................................22

2.16.5. Electrical seasoning ......................................................................................23

2.17. Preservation of timber ........................................................................................23

2.18. Shear capacity of beams ......................................................................................24

2.19. Bearing capacity of beams ...................................................................................25

CHAP III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY........................................................................27

3.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................27