Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Prof. A. Shanmugam and Mrs. S. Vairamani
Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology
Annamalai University
as intermediate host for many trematode parasities. Based on the
structure of the molluscan assemblages, the pollution damage in
mangrove forests can be assessed.
Thus gastropods have a significant ecological role to play in the
mangrove ecosystems. However very little information is available on
the gastropod biodiversity of mangroves. Hence it is necessary to
document the biodiversity of the group of threatened ecosystems.
Bivalves in Mangrove Ecosystem
Mangroves are highly zoned, typically occupying the upper half of the
eulittoral and dominating the supra littoral fringe. They grow best in the
soft mud and these two aspects alone partially explain the lack of the
data on mangrove bivalves; the bivalves are in general best adopted to
lower tidal levels and to firmer deposits. Lasaea rubra, for example, is one
of the few bivalves capable of colonizing the high inter tidal almost
world wide (Morton, 1960), although, as well as seen, the Spartina marsh
associate Geukensia demissa has similar adaptations to a high zoned life
(Lent, 1969), as do deposits by a filter feeder enhance the very real
problem of the gill clogging and sediment removal.
Thus, little is known of mangrove bivalves, especially those few
species which appear to be endemic components of the mangrove
forests. As will be seen, large number of bivalves have been recorded
from the seaward fringe of the mangroves, and their status as true
mangrove associates is dependable apart from the obvious difficulties of
working in a mangrove forest, numerous authors (Warner, 1969;
Sasekumar, 1974; Murty and Balaparameswara Rao, 1977) ignored the
bivalves in favor of the more active and therefore more conspicuous
mangrove associates (the gastropod) (Robertson, 1960; Brown, 1971;
Vermeiji, 1974).
Coomans (1969) has drawn attention to the inherent interest in
mangrove molluscs and Bouchet (1977) has provided data on West
Africa mangrove molluscs, drawing on the data by Binder (1968) on
Ivory coast mangrove and by Coomans (1969) on the Caribbean fauna to
compare the molluscan fauna of various mangrove regions. However,
even these authors emphasize the mangrove gastropods, although there
are mangrove bivalves of some interest and occasionally, such as the
mangrove oysters (especially Crassostrea rhizophorae in the Caribbean) of
much wider economic potential.
A. Shanmugam and S. Vairamani 373
Method of Collection
For the quantitative analysis, the mangrove molluscs were collected by
hand picking in a transect of known area or using a quadrate of known
size. At the same time the foulers like mussels and oysters were
collected by scrapping those using knives or spatula from a known unit
area either using a quadrate. Further the infaunal bivalves were
collected by hand digging the substratum (Alfred et al., 1997). The
arboreal forms were collected from the stems, roots and other parts of
the mangrove trees vertically at every 25 cm height by hand picking
(Sasekumar, 1974).
The diagrammatic profile of a mangrove swamp showing a
scheme of the essential features of animal zonation is depicted below.
Identification of Gastropods
The shell characters such as shape, spire length and shape, mouth
opening, opercular shape, umbilicus shape and size, colour and
ornamentation of the shell are used mainly for the identification of
gastropods apart from the internal characters of which the important
one is radula.
Identification of Bivalves
The bivalves are identified mainly based on the shell morphology. The
shell comprises of two valves. If the valves are similar, the shell is said to
374 Molluscs in Mangroves : A Case Study
Molluscan species in India
We made a molluscan survey along the east coast of India, which
occupies 57% of total Indian mangroves. This coast is endowed with
the world’s largest single block of mangrove forest, the Gangetic
Sunderbans in West Bengal with an area of 2109 km2 in India. The coast
is also colonized with luxuriant mangrove forests in the States of Orissa,
Andra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
Table 1. Distribution of molluscan species on east coast of India
Name of mangrove areas in east coast of
India
No. Name of species
Bhitarkanika
Muriaganga
Sundarbans
Pichavaram
Mahanadi
Muthupet
Godavari
Krishna
1 Amphineura sp. ●
2 Assiminea beddomeana ● ●
3 A. brevicula ● ● ● ● ●
4 Auricula gangetica ●
5 Bactronophorus sp. ●
6 Bankia spp. ●
7 Cassidula nucleus ● ● ●
8 Cerithidea cingulata ● ● ● ● ● ●
9 C. obtusa ● ● ● ● ●
10 C. alata ● ● ●
11 Crassostrea gryphoides ●
12 C. madrassensis ● ● ● ●
13 C. cuttackensis ●
14 Dicyathifer sp. ●
15 Dostia crepidularia ● ●
16 Ellobium aurisjudae ● ● ●
17 Littorina melanstoma ● ● ●
18 L. scabra ● ● ● ●
19 Lyrodus sp. ●
20 Martesia sp. ●
21 Melampus ceylonicus ● ●
22 M. pulchella ● ● ● ●
23 Meretrix meretrix ● ●
24 Modiolus metcalfei ●
25 Nassa sp. ●
376 Molluscs in Mangroves : A Case Study
26 Nausitora sp. ●
27 Nerita articulata ● ● ●
28 N. violacea ●
29 Pseudonerita sulculosa ●
30 Neritina (Dostia) violacea ● ● ●
31 Nodilittorina ●
32 Nototeredo sp. ●
33 Onchidium sp. ●
34 O. tenerum ●
35 O. tigrinum ●
36 O. typhae ●
37 Perna viridis ●
Pila globusa (fresh water
38 ●
phyla)
39 Polymesoda bengalensis ●
40 Potamacmaea fluviatilis ●
41 Pythia plicata ● ● ● ● ● ●
42 Saccostrea cucculata ●
43 Stenothyra deltae ●
44 Tanysiphon rivalis ●
45 Telescopium telescopium ● ● ● ● ● ●
46 Teredora sp. ●
47 Thais sp. ●
Biodiversity Measurement
1. Species Diversity (Shannon and Weaver, 1949)
S
H ' = ∑ ni / N log 2 ni / N
i =1
2. Species Richness (Gleason, 1922)
S −1
SR =
Log e N
3. Dominance Index (Mc Naughton 1967)
100(n1 + n 2)
δ=
N
A. Shanmugam and S. Vairamani 377
4. Evenness (Pielou, 1966)
Factors affecting biodiversity and conservation, in general
The following are some of the important factors that are affecting
H'
J '=
Log 2 S
molluscan diversity in general.
1. Irrational and Over‐exploitation
In some locations, Parangipettai coast, Kakinada Bay and canal,
the molluscs are exploited mainly for lime production and
ornamental purposes and now to certain extent animal feed in
aqua‐industry. For example nearly 22 bags of T. telescopium and
2‐3 bags of other gastropods were fished and sent to the lime
industry every week during the six month long period of
observation during 1986 from Pichavaram mangroves and Vellar
estuary areas along the east coast of India (Kasinathan and
Shanmugam, 1988).
2. Human activity stress in the natural bed or habitat (mangrove
vegetation)
3. Human Exploding population:
The population increase has led to the increase in the production
of wastes both industrial and domestic. The dumping of wastes
in the breeding grounds of mollusks led to the mass mortality of
molluscan forms (for example oyster beds) apart from making
those sites unfit for any molluscan culture. Further for the
recolonisation of the molluscan fauna in such areas shall take
longer period.
4. Natural Calamities:
The sudden heavy downpour, floods, cyclones, draught and
Tsunamies cause mass mortality of the burrowing mollusks.
Further the mollusks in the rivers and estuaries are being carried
by the flood water into coastal water where these molluscan
forms die.
378 Molluscs in Mangroves : A Case Study
5. Expansion of Agricultural diversity in India
The usage of fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides to increase the
agriculture production to meet out the demand of the exploding
human population lead to the arrival of excess / unutilized
fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides into the coastal ecosystem
via the rivers not only spoils the natural habitats of the mollusks
but also pave the way for the bioaccumulation of the pollutants
in many species of mollusks making them unfit for human
consumption.
6. Habitat Destruction due to reclamation activities such as dam
construction, factories, highways, mining operations (sub‐fossil
collection) etc.
7. Illegal trade and poaching of the species under danger
8. To a lesser extent the professional shell collection is also affecting
the molluscan resources.
Conservation Strategies
Biodiversity is the hot topic like hole in the ozone layer and global
warming all over the world. There are biodiversity conventions signed
by many countries to save their biological diversity. In the past one
decade it has taken its momentum and its protection is the talk and need
of the hour. The studies on biodiversity will not only give a clear idea
about the resource assessment of any biotope / ecosystem but also
ensure the sustainable use of coastal habitats which include biodiversity.
The resource assessment is the basic pre‐requisite hot only for any type
of biodiversity or faunal assemblage studies but also form the basis for
IUCN categorization of the same in any biotope / ecosystem.
a. Regulation of mesh size of the hand dredge and dredging mainly
in estuarine and shallow coastal habitat – Kalanadi estuary &
Vembanad Lake – P. malabarica, M. casta & Villorita sp.
b. Strict vigilance in exploitation of undersized animals –
Ashtamudi estuary – P. malabarica
c. Issuing license for fishing (like chank) & Lime shell fishing rights
issue of license as practiced by the State Dept. of Mining &
eeology (Kerala Miner Minerals Concession Rules, 1967)
d. Imposing ban on fishing in the spawning season (“Fishing
Holidays”) – undersized chanks and Egg masses in Trawl
catches along TN coast
A. Shanmugam and S. Vairamani 379
e. Educating the fisherfolk about the need for conservation
f. Commercial leasing out of estuaries and natural beds – in
consultation with experts from National Committee on Marine
Parks
g. Demarcation of the area for dredging of the subfossil resources
after thorough and detailed Geological investigations. For
example, the mining of subfossil deposite in the estuaries and
river beds in Kalanadi and Vembanad lake damages the natural
habitat and adversely affect traditional occupation of fisherman
(Nayar et al., 1984; Achari, 1988).
h. To replenish the clam resources, “Clam sanctuaries” or” Clam
Park” in known clam fishing estuaries.
i. Clam farming by semi – culture (transplanting the seed clams
from dense beds to other suitable places in the estuary) is
suggested to augument production.
j. Identification of the species under threat and ranching (Giant
clam in Lakshadweep and Andaman & Nicobar Islands).
k. If possible, paying some compensation or providing basic
amenities or arranging some alternating job / income source
during the fishing closing season
l. Since the pearl oysters in the natural beds are influenced by
many biotic and abiotic factors in terms of their recruitment,
growth, health etc. a “Pearl Breeding Reserve” in the same
habitat (GOM) may be maintained; Likewise the “Chank
Breeding Reserve”
m. Declaration as Prohibited areas for fishing ‐ In Andaman Nicobar
islands – Trochus & Turbo – overexploitation by Divers lead to a
decrease in the landings in recent years. So areas around Little
Andamans, Nicobar, Katchai and Comorta islands upto 500 m
from shore line
n. Resource survey should be intensified to collect more
information on distribution of species / population /
communities and their economic potentials and IUCN
categorisation
A Case Study
Until 1994, there was no licensing system in Ashtamudi Lake. In 1994,
State Government after having discussions with clam fishermen,
380 Molluscs in Mangroves : A Case Study
scientists and government officials laid down the following conservation
measures.
i. Imposing ban on clam fishing (Fishing Holidays) from October
to January when spawning and spat settlement occur
ii. Mesh size regulation in the dredge ‐ Paphia : more than 30 mm &
other clams : more than 20 mm
iii. Meat count of clams exported ‐ always less than 1400 nos/kg
iv. Strict vigilance in exploitation of undersized clams
References
Alfred, J.B., R.K. Varshney and A.K. Ghosh (Eds.) (1997). An assessment
manual for faunal biodiversity in South Asia. SACEP/NORAD
publication series on Biodiversity in South Asia No. 1: 181pp.
Binder, E. (1968). Repartition des Mollusques dans lalaguna Ebrie (Cote d’
Ivoire). Cah. ORSTOM, Ser. Hydrobiol, 2 : 2‐24.
Bouchet, P. (1977). Distribution des mollusques dans les mangroves du Senegal.
Malacologia, 16 : 67‐74.
Brown, D. A. (1983). Gonad development and spawning in Anadara granosa (L.)
(Bivalvia: Arcidae). Aquaculture, 30 : 211‐219.
Coomans, H.E. (1969). Biological aspects of mangrove molluscs in the West
Indies. Malacologia, 9 : 79‐84.
Kasinathan, R. and Shanmugam, A. (1988). Overexploitation of molluscan fauna
in the Vellar estuary and Pitchavaram mangroves. Galaxea, 7 : 303 – 306.
Lent, C.M. (1969). Adaptation of the ribbed mussel, Modiolus demissa (Dillwyn),
to the intertidal habitat. Am. Zool., 9 : 283‐292.
Morton, J.E. (1960). The functional morphology of the British Ellobiidae
(Gastropoda: Pulmonata) with special reference to the digestive and
reproductive systems. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. (B), 239 : 89‐160.
Murty, A.S. and Balaparameswara Rao, M. (1977). Studies on the ecology of
mollusks in a South Indian Mangrove Swamp. J. Moll. Stud., 43 : 223 –
229.
Robertson, R. (1960). The mollusk fauna of Bahamian mangroves. Bull. Am.
Malacol. Union, Inc., Annu. Rep., 26 : 22‐23.
Sasekumar, A. (1974). Distribution of the macro fauna on a Malayan mangrove
shore. J. Anim. Ecol., 43 : 51‐69.
Vermeij, G.J. (1980). Drilling predation in a population of the edible bivalve
Anadara granosa (Arcidae). Nautilus, 94 : 123‐125.
Warner, G.F. (1969). The occurrence and distribution of crabs in a Jamaican
mangrove swamp. J. Anim. Ecol., 38 : 379‐389.
A. Shanmugam and S. Vairamani 381
Animals in the field
Melampus – crawling on the mud Pythia plicata – found on the
mangrove leaf of Sonneratia sp.
C. obtusa found on the stem of Littorina melanostoma found
Avicennia sp. on the mangrove Leaf of
Rhizophora sp.
Onchidium crawling on the mud Pythia plicata crawling on the
mangrove root system
382 Molluscs in Mangroves : A Case Study
Animals in the field
Ellobium found on wooden crevices Faecal matter of Ellobium found
inside the damaged stem
C. cingulata crawling on the mud N. articulata found attached to the
along with Assiminia dykes
Assiminea crawling on the Quantitative assessment of
muddy substratum T. telescopium using quadrate