TQM Approach

The Qualitative Report Volume 12 Number 1 March 2007 40-66
http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR12-1/psychogios.pdf
Understanding Total Quality Management in Context:

Qualitative Research on Managers’ Awareness of TQM
Aspects in the Greek Service Industry
Alexandros G. Psychogios
City College, The University of Sheffield, Thessaloniki, Greece
Constantinos-Vasilios Priporas
University of Macedonia, Edessa, Greece
This study addresses managers’ awareness and familiarity with Total

Quality Management (TQM). Eighteen (18) semi-structured, in-depth
interviews were conducted with managers working in a variety of service
organizations in Greece. The major argument of the study is that although
the acronym TQM and some of its concepts and practices are known by a
range of public and private sector managers, actual awareness of its
“soft” side is often superficial, and managers have a relatively poor
understanding of it. TQM is neither resisted nor directly absorbed by
them, but they tend to see it from the technical point of view, being aware
only of the importance of its “hard” aspects. Key Words: Managers, Total
Quality Management, Soft and Hard Side of TQM, Greek Service
Organizations, and In Depth Interviews
Introduction
Oakland (1989) argues that “TQM needs to gain ground rapidly and become a
way of life in many organizations” (p. 15). However, Total Quality Management (TQM)
cannot become a way of life in organizations immediately. Time is needed in order to
integrate the appropriate quality principles and techniques into the culture of the
organization (Goetsch & Davis, 1994). Time, however, is not the only resource that TQM
requires. Human resources are equally important for TQM success. Therefore, it could be
said that people’s awareness of quality is central to TQM’s purpose. For Crosby (1984),
quality awareness is not just promoting quality within an organization, but it is also
spreading information around. He also points out that quality awareness extends to the
way in which managers act and talk about quality. Thus, quality awareness begins from
management and spreads throughout the entire organization. Nevertheless, research
evidence (Morgan & Murgatroyd, 1997) has shown that quality awareness is sometimes
limited. Moreover, quality messages can be interpreted differently by managers working
in different national business contexts. How can TQM become “a way of life” within an
organization when managers are not really aware of it? Therefore, the purpose of this
paper is to explore the extent to which managers in a specific national context are aware
of the TQM approach.
41 The Qualitative Report March 2007
This article presents the results of a qualitative study that was carried out in the
Greek service industry. It draws on eighteen (18) interviews that were conducted with
managers working in the specific industry. The purpose for using qualitative techniques
was to dig beneath the quantitative data of the study, examining the meaning that
respondents gave to the concepts of TQM, and their views of its links with wider
individual and organizational processes. Also, the qualitative research gives more
evidence towards Greek managers’ understanding of the “soft” side of TQM. The
significance of this side of TQM to the Greek service industry is associated with two
main reasons. Firstly, the majority of Greek service organizations concentrate in adopting
“hard” management practices and systems towards their willingness to improve quality
(Vouzas, 1997, 2004). A prime example is the wide adoption of ISO 9000 systems.
Moreover, this is linked to the second reason of the significance of the “soft” aspect of
TQM, which is the critique that TQM is accepted by many authors and management
thinkers. This critique is very well-represented by a group of literature that is called the
Contingency approach to TQM (Psychogios, 2005). This approach sees TQM from a
more pragmatic point of view rather than arguing that TQM is either an ideal
management model with universal application (Goetsch & Davis, 1994; Oakland, 1989)
or a new and sophisticated method for work intensification/exploitation (Braverman,
1974; Delbridge, Turnbull, & Wilkinson, 1992; Sewell & Wilkinson, 1992). The
contingency approach suggests that TQM’s implementation and its impact depend on the
ability of organizations to adopt and apply its “soft” concepts and ideas (Psychogios). In
other words, this approach does not see TQM negatively or positively, rather its view
depends on several individual, organizational, and national contexts.
In this respect, the major argument of the article is that although the acronym of
TQM and some of its concepts and practices are known by our interviewees, actual
awareness of its “soft” side is often superficial and people have a relatively poor
understanding of it. Managers tend to see TQM from a technical point of view, being
aware only of the importance of its “hard” aspects.
This paper is organized in six sections. The first section of this paper examines
the meaning of TQM. The second and the third sections analyze the “soft” and “hard”
sides of TQM in more depth. The fourth part summarizes the literature on managers’
awareness towards TQM approach. The next section describes the methodology used in
the present study. The fifth section analytically presents and discusses the findings, whilst
the final section comes up with major conclusions concerning the application of TQM in
the Greek service industry.
The Meaning of TQM
A baseline technical definition of what TQM is all about has been given by the
American Federal Office of Management Budget Circular (cited in Milakovich, 1990, p.
209), “TQM is a total organizational approach for meeting customer needs and
expectations that involves all managers and employees in using quantitative methods to
improve continuously the organisation’s processes, products and services.”
Alexandros G. Psychogios and Constantinos-Vasilios Priporas 42
In addition, the American Federal Office of Management (cited in Morgan &

Murgatroyd, 1997) defines TQM as,
…a total organizational approach for meeting customer needs and

expectations that involves all managers and employees in using
quantitative methods to improve continuously the organization’s
processes, products, and services. (p. 7)
According to the latter definition TQM is not merely a technical system. In fact,
TQM is associated with the organisation itself, which is also a social system. Pike and
Barnes (1996) argue that organizations are not only technical systems, but also human
systems. In addition, Oakland (1993) states that TQM is an attempt to improve the whole
organisation’s competitiveness, effectiveness, and structure. For Dale (1999),
TQM is the mutual co-operation of everyone in an organisation and

associated business processes to produce products and services, which
meet and, hopefully, exceed the needs and expectations of customers.
TQM is both a philosophy and a set of management guiding principles for
managing an organisation. (p. 9)
From the above definitions, we can identify two important aspects that comprise
TQM: management tools and techniques as well as management concepts and principles.
The techniques refer to what has been referred to as the “hard” aspects of TQM, while the
principles refer to the “soft” side.
The “Hard” Side of TQM
Deming (1986) has stated that “in God we trust - all others must use data.” This
statement emphasizes the importance of management techniques, tools, and systems that
compose the “hard” side of TQM. Using the definition given by Goetsch and Davis
(1994) management tools are means of “collecting and displaying information in ways to
help the human brain grasp thoughts and ideas that, when applied to physical processes,
cause the processes to yield better results” (p. 382). The quality management literature
provides a wide range of quality management tools, techniques, and systems. Some of
them are quite simple, while others are more complex. Table 1 shows the “hard” aspects
of TQM most commonly found in Quality Management Literature.
Table 1
“Hard” TQM Practices Identified in Quality Management Literature

TQM Techniques, tools and systems
Statistical Process Control
ISO 9000 series
Pareto Analysis
Matrix Diagram
Histograms
Tree Decision Diagram
Critical Path Analysis
Fishbone or Ishakawa Diagram
The first TQM tool is the Statistical Process Control (SPC). SPC is a statistical
method through which managers can control the production or the service delivery
process, in order to make shifts attempting to improve it (Goetsch & Davis, 1994). As
Dale and Oakland (1991) argue the basic objective of SPC is to reduce variation, which is
inherent in many processes. SPC is one of the most well-known management methods.
The second technical aspect of TQM is the ISO 9000 Series. The International
Standards Organization (ISO) 9000 is perhaps the most popular quality improvement
system. It is an international set of documents widely known as standards written by a
worldwide organization known as the ISO/Technical Committee 176 (Lamprecht, 1992).
This set of standards ensures that a company has a specific quality improvement policy,
which makes it more competitive in the market. This aspect of competitiveness is one
that makes ISO 9000 very popular among Greek firms (Tsiotras & Gotzamani, 1996;
Vouzas, 1997).
Another significant TQM tool is Pareto Analysis. It is a tool through which the
management team can eliminate problems that occur in the operation processes (Bicheno,
1998). According to Dale (1999), “it is an extremely useful tool for considering a large
volume of data in a manageable form…” (p. 296). A fourth technique is the Matrix
Diagram. This is a tool that allows managers to identify, analyze, and rate the
relationship between two or more variables, and in this way to encourage them to think in
terms of relationships, their strengths, and any patterns (Besterfield, Besterfield-Michna,
Besterfield, & Besterfield-Sacre, 1999).
Histograms are also useful TQM tools. Histograms graphically demonstrate the
relative number of occurrences of a wide range of events (Bicheno, 1998). The most
important causes are shown on the diagram and correcting actions take place. The Tree
diagram, which is also known as systematic diagram method (Dale, 1999), is a tool
through which someone can arrange targets, problems, or customer’s needs in a specific
order (Bicheno).
The seventh technique is critical path analysis (CPA). This tool is associated with
managing projects. It is related to TQM because project management is critical to the
implementation of quality programs within an organization (Bicheno, 1998). CPA seeks
to establish, through the use of a network of arrows or nodes, a logical order of activities
in terms of time and importance for the completion of a project (Bicheno).
The final technique is one of the classic TQM tools called fishbone or Ishakawa
diagram. The fishbone diagram is used to identify causes of a problem without using
statistical methods (Bicheno, 1998; Goetsch & Davis, 1994). According to Goetsch and
Davis, the fishbone diagram serves as an excellent reminder for the things that have to be
done.
The “Soft” Side of TQM
The investigation of the “soft” side of TQM resulted in the identification of nine
(9) key principles most commonly found in quality management literature (Table 2). The
first of these principles is that TQM, in contrast to previous quality management
initiatives, involves everyone in an organization. It is widely accepted that the increase
of employees’ participation in the overall quality strategy brings an increased flow of
information and knowledge, and contributes in the "distribution of intelligence" to the
bottom of the organization for resolving problems (Powell, 1995). As Morgan and
Murgatroyd (1997) note, the “total” element of TQM implies that every organizational
member is involved in quality improvement processes. In addition, Oakland (1989)
points out that “… [TQM] is essentially a way of organizing and involving the whole
organization; every department, every activity, every single person at every level” (p. 14).
Table 2
“Soft” TQM Concepts Identified in Quality Management Literature

TQM Concepts
Total Employee Involvement
Continuous Improvement
Continuous Training
Teamwork
Empowerment
Top-management Commitment and Support
Democratic Management Style
Customer/Citizen Satisfaction
Culture Change
The second principle is associated with continuous improvement. According to

TQM theory the best way to improve organizational output is to continually improve
performance (Dale, 1996; Goetsch & Davis, 1994; Ho & Fung 1994). Quality
improvement is not a task that has an end, as it is not static. The emphasis is on seeking
improvement opportunities, not just holding the status quo. The focus is on planning,
prevention, and anticipation (Dale, 1996). According to Oakland (1989), in order “to
maintain a wave of interest in quality, it is necessary to develop generations of managers
who…are dedicated to the pursuit of never-ending improvement in meeting external and
internal customers needs” (p. 296). In addition, Juran (1988) notes that quality
improvement requires the establishment of a quality council, which is the driver, to
ensure that improvement is continuous and never-ending. Quality improvement can be
achieved if an organization develops a management philosophy of continuous
improvement, and provides the necessary supporting organizational practices (Juran,

1993). Quality experts like Deming, Juran, Scholtes, and Crosby state that organizations
must approach quality improvement from a long-term perspective: They also warn us that
achieving some quality improvement can breed complacency (cited in Longenecker &
Scazzero, 1996).
A third principle of TQM is related to the concept of teamwork (Conti & Kleiner,
1997; Hill, 1991; Lawler, 1994; Waldman, 1994; Wilkinson, Marchington, Goodman, &
Ackers, 1992). Within the context of TQM, teamwork is an important outcome and a
condition for continuous improvement (Coyle-Shapiro, 1997) Teams are generally
viewed as more powerful and effective work entities than individuals. Teams, according
to Lawler should be catholic, including employees from all the hierarchical levels, layers,
and from all the departments of the enterprise. Scholtes (1992) argues that teams are
needed for all organizations in order to make them work more flexibly and to develop
mutual trust among members. In traditional management approaches each department
needs to take care of its own problems. In a TQM context the whole organization needs
to care about quality improvement and not just in a departmentalized way. In this respect,
organizations need cross-functional work groups that will deal with inter-departmental
management problems.
Empowering the employee is another important principle of TQM. According to
Besterfield et al. (1999),
Empowerment is an environment in which people have the ability, the

confidence, and the commitment to take the responsibility and ownership
to improve the process and initiate the necessary steps to satisfy customer
requirements within well-defined boundaries in order to achieve
organizational values and goals. (p. 77)
Wilkinson (1998) argues that TQM offers ways in which empowerment of

employees can support an organization's efforts not only in quality improvement, but in
empowerment as well. Its approach places the responsibility for an organization's
processes in the hands of those who know these processes best, and helps them to
participate directly in the organization's mission or purpose. In particular, the plan-do-
study-act cycle lies at the heart of the improvement process and represents the key to
employee empowerment in that process.
According to Cleary (1996) while employers seek the commitment and
empowerment of their employees, increased control over the work process is a
cornerstone of TQM. Under TQM, continuous improvement is undertaken by those
involved in a process and this introduces elements of bottom-up issue identification and
problem solving. As a result, TQM may empower employees by delegating functions that
were previously the preserve of more senior organizational members and as a result
institutionalize participation on a permanent basis (Hill, 1991; Vouzas, 2004). Teams
within organizations help employees become involved in issues that were previously top-
management’s responsibility (Morgan & Murgatroyd, 1997). Gatchalian (1997) argues
that empowered employees know how to better incorporate their skills in day-to-day
work tasks, and thus, they can exercise better judgment and a sense of responsibility.
The fifth basic concept of TQM is continuous training. Oakland (1989) believes
that training is the single most significant component in trying to improve quality. He
points out that “quality training must be continuous to meet not only changes in
technology, but also changes involving the environment in which an organization
operates, its structure, and perhaps most important of all the people who work there” (p.
263). According to Dale (1999), continuous training contributes to the establishment of
“a common language throughout the business” (p. 11). A study by Mathews et al. (2001)
found that “top managers and shop-floor workers receive more training in the areas of
“soft” quality tools, quality awareness and customer focus than in statistical approaches.
Middle managers and quality specialists receive most quality-related training”.
Furthermore, effective TQM implementation calls for a training policy, which will be
part of the overall quality strategy and aims at improving the necessary skills for
continuous quality improvement (Brown, 1994; Marchington, Dale, & Wilkinson, 1993;
Patel, 1993; Walley & Kowalski, 1992). According to Motwani, Frahm, & Kathawala
(1994), the future of training on issues related to quality should emphasise better training
evaluation processes. Organizations spend a lot of money on training and, thus, need to
check whether training is meeting strategic goals. He also supports the view that training
can be evaluated by specific indicators like customer satisfaction, market share, and
employee performance.
The sixth element is customer satisfaction. In a total quality context customer
satisfaction is the driving force for an organization to improve its performance (Moore,
Hopkins, & Hopkins, 1998; Zairi, 2000). Juran (1993) argues that there are two different
kinds of customers: the external (clients, government regulatory bodies, the public) that
defines the quality of the service delivered and the internal (employees, different
departments) that defines the quality of the processes associated with the delivering of
services. Both external and internal customers have needs. A contemporary approach to
quality such as TQM stresses the importance of satisfying those needs (Centre for the
Evaluation of Public Policy and Practice, 1992). According to Rampersad (2001) “to
realize customer satisfaction, everyone within the organization should consider
continuous improvement as something normal” and urge organizations to make an
inventory of customers’ data, customers’ complaints, and benchmarking in order to
improve the customer orientation. Lagrosen (2001) states that although customer focus is
revered, methods for developing a deeper understanding of the customers' situation are
not sufficiently integrated into TQM.
The above principles of TQM require top management commitment and support.
Dale (1999) argues that top managers “have to take charge personally, lead the process,
provide direction, exercise forceful leadership, including dealing with those employees
who block improvement and maintain the impetus” (p. 10). In addition, Torrington and
Hall (1998) argue “senior managers need to define the quality objectives of the
organization to provide direction and clarity and to communicate these continually within
the organization” (p. 300). According to Ahire and O'Shaughnessy (1998), companies
with high top management commitment have the ability to produce high quality products,
in contrast with firms with low top management support.
Beyond management’s commitment and support to TQM, an open and
democratic/participative management style is identified. The importance of management
style in TQM has been pointed out by Crosby (1979). Later authors argue in favor of a
more democratic management style. For example, Morgan and Murgatroyd (1997) note
that the fundamental difference between TQM and other management approaches “is that
it is more democratic” (p. 15). Additionally, Goetsch and Davis (1994) claim that the
most appropriate style of management within a TQM context is the participative one,
which “…involves soliciting input from empowered employees” (p. 224).
Finally, a supportive organizational culture is the common denominator of all the
“soft” aspects of TQM (Atkinson, 1990; Coulson-Thomas, 1992; Grant, Shani, &
Krishnan, 1994; Sousa-Poza, Nystrom, & Wiebe, 2001; Van Donk & Sanders, 1993). In
other words, quality culture binds together all of aforementioned TQM concepts. As Hill
(1991) points out it nurtures high-trust social relationships, and it develops a shared sense
of membership as well as a belief that continuous improvement is for the good of
everyone within the organisation. Similarly, Corbett and Rastrick (2000) argue that
organizational culture affects and alters employees’ actions and perceptions of all aspects
of their work in order to include quality. In addition, Sinclair and Collins (1994) support
the view that culture acts as a force for cohesion in organizations and therefore can
support or inhibit the process of change towards TQM application.
In conclusion we can argue that in exploring the concept of TQM we can identify
two major components: the “what” and the “how” of TQM (Goetsch & Davis, 1994). As
the component of “what” diverges in almost every single study and textbook, the “how”
component distinguishes TQM from other quality management approaches and includes
basic principles that are generally accepted. These principles and concepts comprise the
“soft” side of the TQM approach (see Table 2). Nevertheless, as Wilkinson, Redman, &
Snape (1993) argue, the TQM gurus focused on the “hard” side of TQM by emphasizing
the importance of statistics and operations in the quality assurance process within
organisations. In this respect, TQM is a whole management theory that includes both
“hard” and “soft” aspects. The question that rises, however, is whether managers are
equally aware of both sides of it.
Managers’ Awareness Towards TQM
Although, the above distinctive elements of the “soft” and “hard” side of TQM
are well documented, little has been said about how one can assess managers’ awareness
and understand them. The extant literature consists of a few qualitative studies that have
examined managers’ attitudes towards TQM (Brennan, 1991; Hill, 1991, 1995; Tsiotras
& Gotzamani, 1996). For example, Taylor (1995) found that awareness of ISO 9000 was
very high among executives in his study in Northern Ireland. Almost nine out of ten
executives (88%) had heard of the quality systems standard ISO 9000, whereas an earlier
study revealed only 32% awareness. He also mentioned that activities related to quality
were frequently misunderstood, and often quality was equated with the checking activity
of quality control or interpreted in the context of product grade or excellence.
Particular interest on the awareness and perceptions of managers on TQM is
related to middle management level (Dopson, Risk, & Stewart, 1992; Institute of
Personnel Management, 1993; Vouzas, 1997; Wilkinson et al., 1993). Ishikawa (1985)
considers middle managers to be the key people in quality management and the key
players in breaking the status quo. He calls this layer of management “traffic policemen”.
He believes that middle managers are at the crossroads: They have to obtain crucial
information and acquire the ability to make judgements based on a broad perspective.
Research has shown that even though middle managers want to participate in the
early stages of TQM, top management has no trust in them (Vouzas, 1997). Wilkinson et
a1. (1993) argue that lack of commitment from middle management has been the case in
nine out of ten organizations they studied. The study also suggested that the effect of
TQM on middle managers was substantial; made their jobs more demanding; and
emphasized team work, people management skills, and technical knowledge. Another
study by Marchington et al. (1993) suggests that middle managers are concerned with a
loss of authority or increased workload associated with TQM. Collard (1989), on the
other hand, found that in order for middle managers to be role models in a TQM
environment they need to upgrade their communication and presentation skills, skills for
working with groups, and group leadership skills. Furthermore, middle managers’ beliefs
and attitudes regarding the quality approach to organizational change seemed to be more
related to organizational context rather than the type of organization or the role of the
middle manager (Collard, 1989; Hill, 1991, 1995; Ishikawa, 1985).
The majority of the latter studies were based on the assessment of managers’
awareness towards a specific principle or practice of TQM like ISO 9000, teamwork,
training, etc... However, this often resulted in missing the whole picture of TQM.
Moreover, different individual perspectives make the measurement of the awareness of
the two sides even more difficult. The variety of perspectives is derived from many
factors such as age, educational background, and the level of managerial experience. The
above factors are related to the human side of the organizations. On the other hand, there
are factors closely related to the organization itself that alter the perspective of TQM,
such as the size, years of existence, and the specific domain that they operate.
In conclusion, as the “hard” side of TQM includes a wide range of techniques,
systems, and tools. The “soft” side is sometimes the missing link that makes the
implementation of TQM paradigm less successful. In this respect, this paper seeks to
analyze TQM in a national context in order to investigate in more depth its underlying
assumptions of the “hard” and “soft” sides in contemporary Greek organizational life.
Research Methodology
Creswell (2003) argues that for an exploratory study the use of a qualitative
approach is considered appropriate (Christy & Wood, 1999; Goodman, 1999). In
addition, as Gilmore and Carson (1996) point out qualitative research methods are well
suited for the nature of service industry. According to Creswell exploratory qualitative
study means “that not much has been written about the topic or the population being
studied, and the researcher seeks to listen to participants and build an understanding
based on their ideas” (Creswell, p. 30). This is the case of the present study. More
specifically, the aim of this qualitative study was to investigate four particular areas of
TQM application in services industry: managers’ awareness of the TQM, managers’
understanding of the “hard” side of TQM, managers’ understanding of the “soft” side of
TQM, and the differences of public and private managers on TQM aspects. These issues
cannot easily be explored through a survey or questionnaire.
For the purpose of this study, in depth interviews with managers were used as a
data collection tool. This method reduces the “distance” between interviewer and
interviewee (Johns & Lee-Ross, 1998). Palmerino (1999) points out that this method
should be considered more often by researchers, since it provides more qualitative
information, more depth, more representation, more efficiency, and more value. In
addition, this type of interviewing reflected the exploratory nature of the study by
exploring awareness of specific aspects of TQM as well as giving explanations why
things happened. The “free” and open discussion with the interviewees on these issues
resulted in two things. First, each interviewee had the opportunity to express his/her
opinion in any way he/she wished. Second, this discussion provided researchers a better
understanding of the subjects’ attitudes towards several issues.
For the in depth interviews, a simple semi-structured questionnaire was developed
on the basis of the literature. The interview’s instrument covered the following general
topics: personal information, managers’ role in the organizations, meaning of quality,
approach to quality, TQM issues, and finally, general issues associated with management
style, power, trust, communication, etc... Moreover, it needs to be pointed out that during
the interview two lists, including the identified “soft” and “hard” TQM items from the
quality management literature, were being demonstrated to interviewees, requiring their
comments in order to identify their awareness and familiarity with both sides of TQM.
The sample of this study was purposeful and selected from a larger field study,
which was a survey among 400 managers working in the Greek service industry. The
sample of 400 managers was randomly drawn from the directories of the Greek
Management Association (mainly private sector managers) as well as the Greek
Administrative Chamber (mainly public sector managers), which are the most important
management associations of the country. The target was to cover a wide range of
different managers, working in various organizations in both sectors of employment.
A valid and reliable range of responses for the qualitative study was obtained by
following two specific criteria in selecting interviewees. The first criterion refers to the
managers themselves and it is related to their (1) age, (2) educational background, (3) the
level of experience of each respondent represented by their years of work in the particular
position, and (4) the functions that they employ (HR, operations, administration,
accounting/auditing, engineering, etc). The second criterion was related to managers’
organizations and includes (1) the size of the organization (number of employees), (2)
years of existence, (3) the domain that they operate (public-private), and (4) evidence
(policies and procedures) towards quality improvement efforts.
Eighteen (18) managers working in a variety of private and public service
organizations were interviewed. If we observe the profile of interview participants (see
Appendix A) we can conclude that their demographic characteristics vary across age-
groups, educational backgrounds, years of experience, and work specializations. This
indicates a representative range of responses according to the criteria that have been set
for the selection of the larger field study.
The in depth interviews took place in the period between March and April 2004.
The researchers contacted the managers via telephone to schedule appointments (day and
time) for the interview session. In addition, researchers explained the purpose of the
research (Seidman, 1998). All interviews took place at the interviewees’ work places.
Each interview lasted about 70 minutes. Throughout the discussions a professional tape
recorder was used, after the approval of the respondents, in order to avoid any ethical
concerns and dilemmas (Malhotra & Peterson, 2001). The researchers also took hand
written notes during the sessions. After all the interviews were completed, the discussions
were transcribed, the data obtained from the interviews with the managers were coded,
and then forwarded to the respective respondents for review and approval.
For the purpose of data analysis, open–ended answers were subjected to content
analysis and close ended choice answers were straightforwardly tabulated (Priporas,
Gatsoris, & Zacharis, 2005). Content analysis is “a thorough research technique which
allows replicable and valid inferences from data to their context” (Krippendorff, 1980,
p21). The first step in content analysis is to formulate a research question. In this study
the main research question was, “Are managers in services enterprises aware of the TQM
concepts?” In analyzing the data from the interviews the researchers followed the
procedure given below.
1. Listening to the taped discussions and examining the hand written notes;
2. Delineating units of general meaning;
3. Delineating units of meaning relevant to the TQM principles;
4. Clustering units of relevant meaning again, according to the TQM practices; and
5. Determining themes from clusters of meaning, and identifying general and unique
themes from the interviews.
Findings
A Four-Fold Framework of Analysis
In order to present and analyze the findings that emerged from the collected
qualitative data, a four-fold analytical framework was used. This framework consists of
four main areas of analytical interest. The first area is related to the level of managers’
awareness with TQM and its significance in the modernization of organizational
operations. The second area is related to the importance and use of the “hard” side of
TQM that includes techniques, tools, and systems. On the other hand, the third area of
interest is associated with the opposite TQM side; the “soft” one, which includes ideas,
concepts, and human resource practices. Finally, the fourth area is related to the
comparative interest among public and private sector managers, regarding their
awareness and familiarity with TQM paradigm.
Managers’ awareness of TQM in service organizations
All of our interviewees seemed to accept the fact that the Greek economy, in
general, and management system, in particular, needs to be modernized. According to
their responses, the modernization movement was mainly caused by the great demands of
full EU membership as well as by increased international market competition. These two
developments led companies and public bodies to give greater emphasis to quality
improvement efforts. Therefore, the modernization process stressed the importance of
quick and direct results of quality management for organizational effectiveness. The
interviewees supported the view that this caused the adoption of practical methods, which
mainly focus on improved outcomes. A prime example of these kinds of methods is
TQM. As our evidence indicates, the majority of our respondents understood quality
improvement from the “scientific” or “expert” point of view. They relate quality
improvement efforts primarily to the classical notion of organizational effectiveness, and
to specific performance standards like ISO 9000. As they indicated, this is due to the
accuracy of these quality improvement systems as well as their quick and, generally,
effective implementation that led to an increased demand for such international awards.
“…. I believe that international performance standards are the most important guide to
improving things. We need something specific in order to understand what to improve
and in what way” (Quality assistant manager – Insurance services). “…Last year we were
awarded with an ISO 9000. We were operating in increasingly competitive market and I
think this award indicates how important is total quality to us” (Technical equipment
manager – Health diagnostic center).
The last statement also indicates that the concept of total quality seems to be most
favoured among the Greek service managers that participated in the research. Two
reasons have been suggested by them. The first is associated with the fact that TQM has
entered the organizational agenda in Greek service industry, becoming a fashionable
management concept. This seems to be the message from several interviewees.
...Of course we know about it [TQM]. Actually, a lot of training

programmes refer to it. Once, they [refers to the people in the upper
management level] have called an expert on TQM to give a lecture on its
advantages for banking services. Although, quality improvement is not my
specialised area, I found it very interesting. (IT manager – Banking
services)
…Two weeks ago I participated in a conference, which was called ‘TQM

in The Public Sector’. I think this is strong evidence towards the fact that
TQM is here [in public organizations] as well. (Special scientific advisor –
Government department)
The second reason is related to the issue of the educational background of many
people who graduated from Anglo-Saxon (UK or US) universities. This is associated with
the fact that the total quality idea has been transferred mainly from these countries to
Greece.
… I personally have an MBA degree from Southampton Business School

and I have specialised in quality assurance. Actually, my dissertation was
about TQM in financial services. Therefore, I believe that many of us
[managers] know very much about it. (Quality manager – High technology
services)
Moreover, the above interviewee indicates another important issue. It seems that
in managers’ minds the total quality idea is closely related to a technocratic procedure
with specific guidelines, steps, and tools rather than to a more sophisticated management
philosophy that also includes “soft” principles. Moreover, it is characteristic that almost
all of our interviewees defined TQM by using either well-known phrases, such as “just in
time”, “right first time”, or associating it with international standards. This is illustrated
by the statements of our interviewees, who defined total quality improvement as, “…A
process of following specific rules and procedures in delivering the right service the right
time” (Assistant quality manager – Insurance services). “…An improvement of service
delivery through improvement of specific procedures such as speed of service as well as
through the reduction of the cost of services” (Product manager – Banking and financial
services). “… [TQM means] to set targets, to analyze the cost-benefit of operations, to set
performance evaluation measures and to evaluate the results all the time every time”
(Audit coordinator – Tax service).
Managers’ understanding of the “hard” side of TQM
In previous sections we have seen that the TQM paradigm has been categorised
into two major sides: the “hard” and the “soft” one. The majority of our respondents
agree with a group of the nine “soft” TQM principles. On the other hand, most of them
are familiar with the majority of “hard” TQM practices. However, the qualitative
evidence also questions the actual understanding and awareness of the “soft” side of
TQM among the managers of our sample. It is a fact that TQM became a fashion in
private firms as well as in public services. Thus, it is reasonable that many of our
interviewees in our sample know what concepts and principles TQM theory includes.
Nevertheless, the critical point is whether these concepts are really understood and
applied by them.
…This firm promotes total quality improvement through specific

techniques and methods applied by specialists that they work here. I do
not think that the whole organisation needs to change [its culture] in order
to improve some things that we know that they need improvement.
(Operations manager – Telecommunication services)
This statement illustrates not only managers’ positive attitudes towards the “hard” side of
TQM, but also the fact that in their minds “soft” TQM does not matter very much. TQM
techniques and tools are seen of having great importance in people’s minds. The analysis
of their responses offers several arguments towards this conclusion.
The first argument is associated with the views of our interview participants, who
see the quality message of achieving customers’ requirements through the use of specific
methods and tools as the core of the TQM initiative. Moreover, almost all of our
interviewees argue in favour of an approach that is associated with technical aspects of
management. Only HR managers seem to have a more open view recognising the
importance of human capital in the TQM approach. For them TQM involves people and
it is something more than a simple technique. “… [TQM means] to take advantage of all
human resources within an organisation and to involve them in goal achievement” (HR
manager – Telecommunication services). “… [TQM] can be considered as a philosophy

or new management logic rather than a technique. It is a new management sphere of
organizational performance, which has a strong human-oriented side” (HR manager –
Insurance services).
The second argument is related to the fact that, as mentioned above, TQM was
brought to Greece by people that have been educated mainly in Anglo-Saxon countries.
In other words, educational background plays a dominant role in whether managers are
familiar with, and use, TQM techniques and tools. However, it does not seem to be
important to whether managers are aware of “soft” TQM concepts. This finding supports
the view that postgraduates can easily understand and apply “hard” TQM practices. On
the other hand, their educational background does not seem to help them understand and
apply “soft” TQM principles.
…Since I began to work in this department [the Quality department of the

company] I have realised that someone is more likely to be employed by
this Firm if you are a postgraduate degree holder and moreover if you
have taken your degree from abroad. I think the combination of both
makes someone a very strong candidate employee in every single
enterprise. (Assistant quality manager – Insurance services)
A third argument in support of the importance of the “hard” side of TQM in

managers’ minds is associated with the favourable concept of “specialist” (in contrast to
“generalist”) among our participants. According to them, management techniques, tools,
and systems are mainly related to the expert knowledge of people. This seems to be
confirmed by almost all of the interviewees who commented on the list of techniques and
systems which were shown to them. “…Go to the Quality department. Over there you
can find a lot of experts to explain to you how these things are working here” ([IT
manager – Private hospital). “…I am not an expert on quality improvement. I think that
you need to speak with someone who knows about these things” (Administrator –
Government department).
…My job mainly is to recruit and select new employees. These techniques
have nothing to do with my job here. I believe that most of them relate to
the work of a specialist, who has studied the “hardcore” of management
science. I think that the best you can do is to find a person like this to
comment on whether we use such techniques. Go to the Quality
department. (HR manager – Telecommunication services)
Furthermore, the quality “experts” interviewed, give a great degree of

consideration to the “hard” aspects of TQM and a lower degree to the “soft” principles
like employee empowerment and cultural change. It is characteristic that from their point
of view, the latter is included in the knowledge field of a human resource “specialist”!
Although they agree that the TQM paradigm includes a variety of “soft” concepts, they
do not recognize these concepts as part of their day-to-day responsibility. “…I am here
to contribute mainly to quality assurance rather than to motivate people do their jobs”
(Assistant quality manager – Insurance services).
…I am familiar with the majority of quality improvement techniques.

Actually, I have an MSc in Quality Control. However, I strongly believe
that in changing the culture of the Firm we need the help of “specialists”
like those working in Human Resource Department. (Operations manager
– Telecommunication services)
Furthermore, another argument in favour of the importance of the “hard” side of

TQM is related to the fact that according to our respondents this side is mainly significant
for organizational performance and processes. Two points support this view. First, the
majority of our interviewees, when asked to comment on the relation between “soft”
concepts of TQM and organizational aspects (performance and process), turned the
conversation to the “hard” side of TQM, arguing that management techniques are the
most significant elements in improving major organizational processes and outcomes.
Actually, two different reactions have been observed associated with managers’ attitudes
towards the “hard” and the “soft” side of TQM and organizational outcomes. More
specifically, some interviewees seem to confuse “hard” and “soft” aspects of TQM,
emphasizing for example the practice of empowerment as a “technique” or a “procedure”
that can be applied or implemented following specific steps. “…How can you empower
employees in such an environment [he/she refers to the public organizational culture]?
We do not have the ‘practical means’ of doing so” (Audit coordinator – Tax service).
…Private companies have the resources to implement empowerment

programmes. Public management is rather different. I know very few
public service departments where the employees are really looking
forward to do better job. In public administration there is a lack of
motivation. (Patient transaction manager-Public hospital)
Managers’ understanding of the “soft” side of TQM
The above evidence indicates that Greek managers understand the application of
TQM mainly from its “hard” side. Their awareness of the importance of the “soft” side is
vague. Although, they recognize that “soft” TQM concepts are essential to many
organizational aspects, they still emphasize the importance of techniques and systems in
achieving organizational quality outcomes. Such an emphasis can be mainly found in
their statements about training, which is seen as a good method of improving the
technical skills of people, and consequently promoting organizational trust and
employees’ involvement, while improving organizational performance.
…In recent years various training programmes have been offered to civil
servants in order to improve their skills and individual performance. I
think that these programmes are the best – and maybe the only – policies
towards TQM that the Government initiated. I need to admit though that
sometimes [the training programmes] have great results, especially those
concerning the use of a new software system or various management tools,
on the general performance of the organisation. (Special scientific advisor

– Government department)
…Top-management would be much more reliable to me and to the

majority of my colleagues when trying to introduce a new policy, if it
offered specialised training courses in order firstly to convince us of its
advantages and secondly to demonstrate to us practical ways of
implementing it. (Assistant quality manager – Insurance services)
In addition, they view teamwork as a good work practice through which team-
members can share their experiences, and consequently learn about new methods and
techniques. According to several interviewees, learning through teamwork can promote
organizational communication and motivate people to participate in teams.
…I remember that last year we needed to teach employees the ‘know-

how’ of a new software management tool. We have decided to separate
them in teams mixing those who knew more about it with those who knew
less. Although we still have some little problems with some people, the
majority of them learned to use the tool effectively. I observed this method
contribute to the development of a good communication network
[electronic mail], which many times help them deal with some particular
problems. (HR manager – Telecommunication services)
In other words, there are some managers who seem to recognize the advantages of
the awareness of “soft” TQM concepts, but these are seen as complementing “hard”
management techniques and systems that are central to improving organizational
processes and outcomes. This perception leads us to the second point of our argument in
favour of the importance of the “hard” side of TQM on organizational aspects. “Soft”
TQM concepts are presented as ideal aspects of an ideal management paradigm.
Therefore, someone who would respond negatively to them can hardly be found. Also,
the people who have the most positive views about these “soft” TQM concepts also tend
to have positive views about organizational processes and outcomes. These people are
more favourable in seeing a linkage between “soft” TQM concepts and organizational
outcomes. Nevertheless, according to them, TQM techniques will be those that will
affect, positively or negatively, organizational aspects.
Private versus public sector managers’ awareness of TQM aspects
A further confirmation of the greater importance of the “hard” side of TQM can
be given if we consider separately the situation in public and private services. First, the
majority of both public and private sector managers agree with the “soft” aspects of
TQM. A further analysis of the qualitative data though can show us to what extent
managers’ are really aware of the “soft” side of TQM. The qualitative data suggest that
public as well as private sector managers doubt the application of the “soft” TQM ideas
in their organizations. Both of them had the same negative responses when we asked
them to evaluate the importance of these aspects for their organizations.
…Changing the culture of a group of people or of an organisation is not

always an easy job. Therefore, I strongly believe that if we would like to
improve our operations quickly as well as effectively, we need to forget
about culture and concentrate upon more realistic targets. (Audit manager
– Banking services)
…All these principles are very good in theory. They more likely fit in an
ideal organisation. But public organizations are not ideal in management
terms. We have much more serious problems that we need to deal with
than, for example, to try to convince all the personnel to be involved in
decision-making process. I believe that more practical methods would
have much better application and result. (Budget control administrator –
Social security agency)
Although the fact that awareness and use of TQM techniques and tools are lower
in the public sector, according to many of our interview participants, it is reasonable
insofar as the use of most management practices was, and in some cases is still, very
limited in public services. In contrast, according to participants from the private industry,
many companies have incorporated TQM or similar practices for many years in their
operations. However, it seems that during the last years similar practices have entered
public organizations, despite the fact that public managers are not so familiar with them.
Here is the comment of a public manager when she was shown a list of techniques and
asked her to confirm whether she and her colleagues know and/or use these tools.
…Although I am not so much familiar with many of these [she refers to

the list of TQM techniques] and we have never used them here, I do admit
that it would be good for our practices to know at least the most important
of them. Let’s hope that the next generation of employees will be much
more familiar with these. (Administrator – Local government)
One last point concerns the way that private and public managers see the
effectiveness of TQM in the Greek service industry. Private sector participants see the
implementation of the TQM paradigm in a more positive way than public sector ones.
Moreover, they see TQM as having some potential to reduce bureaucratic formalities, to
enhance employees’ involvement in decision-making process, and to promote personal
career development. In contrast, public managers that have participated in interviews
have a more pessimistic view about TQM implications. This is related, according to our
interviewees, to the existence of a widely held pessimism within the public organizational
culture.
…According to my experience, it is not easy to change the situation in

public services. If they [he refers to the whole work force of public
services] do not want to adopt and apply new practices in their jobs, then it
is very difficult to convince them doing so. As an old politician used to
say if someone wants to change the situation in public administration he
needs first to ‘change’ all the civil servants: Dismiss them all and then
come to discuss new revolutionary work practices. (Special scientific
advisor – Government department)
Discussion and Conclusions
The above findings indicate that the concept of total quality seems to be most
favoured among the Greek service managers that participated in the research. There are
two reasons that explain this favoured attitude of Greek managers. The first is that TQM
has entered the organizational agenda in Greek service industry and become a fashionable
management concept. Also, the educational background seems to be the second reason.
The majority of managers that are in favour of TQM are postgraduate degree holders and
they have been graduated mainly from Anglo-Saxon universities. Those that have been
educated (MSc/MA/MBA and/or PhD) in foreign countries seem to be much more
familiar with “hard” aspects of TQM than those have been educated in Greek
universities. Most of these people have good educational background (mainly at the
postgraduate level) and sometimes working experience taken in countries like UK and
US. When they returned to Greece they try to apply what they learned and experienced
abroad (Papalexandris, 1992; Papalexandris & Nikandrou, 2000). Most of the time, these
individuals operate as “change agents,” bringing a lot of management practices and
concepts to Greek organizational environments. This results in much more emphasis on
the technical side of management than on the “soft” one. In other words, we can argue
that postgraduates can easily understand and apply TQM practices. In contrast, this
educational level does not seem to positively contribute to the understanding and
application of “soft” TQM principles. The most plausible explanation is associated with
the fact that “soft” management concepts can more easily be accepted by everyone
without any particular educational background, but its actual application is more difficult
as far as it requires mutual understanding from many people.
This argument seems to be further supported by our findings and especially by
our respondents’ view of TQM as a scientific and systematic procedure. Moreover, the
qualitative evidence also questions the actual understanding and awareness of the “soft”
side of TQM among the managers of our sample. The evidence suggests that Greek
managers are far from being fully aware of “soft” TQM principles, and, consequently,
apply them in their day-to-day work. In Greek private and public organizations the
acronym of TQM is not very much related, in their minds, to “soft” management aspects
(like cultural change, empowerment, and involvement), but more with “hard”
management techniques and practices.
Furthermore, the importance of the “hard” side of TQM in managers’ minds is
associated with the favourable concept of “specialist” (in contrast to “generalist”). The
work culture in Greece promotes the concept of “specialist” (Bourantas, Anagnostelis,
Mantes, & Kefalas, 1990; Papalexandris, 1992; Papalexandris & Nikandrou, 2000).
Management techniques, tools, and systems are mainly related to the expert knowledge of
people. In their minds, the notion of expert is associated with someone who knows and
applies “hard” management practices rather than “soft” and human related concepts. The
quality improvement effort is seen as a job of experts, who mainly work in the relevant
business departments or units. Moreover, the people working in these departments seem
to acknowledge themselves as “experts” or “specialists” in quality improvement policies.

Therefore, the concept of “specialist” seems to be well established within the Greek
management culture. The majority of managers try to be “specialists” in the things that
they are dealing with, and usually they have studied, rather than “generalists” dealing
with a wide range of responsibilities in their day-to-day work.
Moreover, the evidence does not suggest only that in managers’ minds “soft”
TQM principles are not of much importance, but that “hard” TQM is seen as being
critical for both sectors of employment. However, it seems that TQM concepts and
techniques have been much more well-introduced in private industry rather than in public
one. An explanation is related to a strong belief shared among civil servants that public
bureaucratic pathologies cannot be easily overcome. In other words, within public
services there is a well-established culture that inhibits any substantial attempt to
restructure and reform the public management system (Makridimitris & Michalopoulos,
2000; Michalopoulos, 2002; Michalopoulos & Psychogios, 2003). Nevertheless, the last
decade saw many policies aimed at towards public administration reform (Department of
Internal Affairs, Public Administration and Decentralisation, 1998; Makridimitris, 2001;
Michalopoulos, 2001, 2002; Michalopoulos & Psychogios, 2003; National Bank of
Greece, 1998). One of them is the introduction of management techniques taken mainly
from the private domain. Also, it is a fact that many civil servants have realised the need
for the introduction of “hard” management practices within public organizations
(Michalopoulos & Psychogios).
The overall conclusion of this study is that despite managers’ awareness of “soft”
TQM concepts and ideas, their level of understanding and knowledge towards these
concepts is superficial. Without any doubt TQM has become a substantial issue on the
Greek managerial agenda. Nevertheless, Greek managers have to undertake many steps
towards the TQM approach before it could be said to be a core organizing principle.
Moreover, there is evidence that TQM has affected Greek managers’ perceptions on
several aspects of their day-to-day work. However, this effect came mainly from their
familiarity with “hard” management practices rather than from their awareness of “soft”
notions. This fact suggests that managers hold a realistic view of TQM. According to
their view, although the “soft” side of TQM is something “good” and useful in their
minds, it has little to do with organizational reality. The one that really matters is the
“hard” side.
From our analysis, we can argue that TQM, as a whole new management
philosophy with a set of concepts and tools, has started to enter the consciousness of
managers in Greek service organizations. We can also argue that there is no particular
opposition on the adoption of TQM. Most of the people seem to accept it and tend to see
it as part of particular policies attempting to modernize the Greek management system.
Nevertheless, the TQM paradigm has not cut very deep into service organizations in
general and managers in particular. It has not yet become a driving force. Managers see
TQM from a more pragmatic view insofar as, firstly, they focus on the importance of the
“hard” side of it and, secondly, they hold a sceptical approach to the actual implications
and effectiveness of several “soft” ideas like empowerment and involvement.
Bearing that in mind, we can suggest a variety of scenarios concerning the
application of TQM in the Greek business context. A pessimistic scenario would be the
rejection of TQM. In the past there have been many examples of rejection of practices
adopting from other business systems (Makridimitris & Michalopoulos, 2000). The
special features of the Greek business culture might prove to be an obstacle to the
implementation of TQM, owing to system’s distinctness from Anglo-Saxon ones. This
scenario can be further supported if we consider the research evidence of Vernon and
Rees (2001). According to their study several special characteristics of national political
economies continue to count even when globalization presses strongly to undermine
them. In other words, special features of the nature of the Greek system may strongly
resist the adoption of TQM. On the other hand, an optimistic scenario would suggest that
the pressure of globalization of the economy and international competition could lead to
the dominance of the modernization agenda. This would mean a continuous adoption of
modern management approaches such as TQM that have been applied in other business
systems. It would also mean a pressure on the system to implement approaches that are
still relatively novel.
The study’s view however, suggests that a contingency scenario is more likely to
occur. According to this scenario, TQM has some potential for successful implementation
in Greek organizations as far as it can be adapted to the Greek management culture. This
scenario is even stronger if we consider the fact that “quality mania” has found
considerable support from many ministers as a new method of improvement in the Greek
civil service. Similarly there are many voices among senior managers and business
owners that are keen on TQM.
With respect to similar studies, the present one has expanded the academic
dialogue on the application of TQM in other than Anglo-Saxon business systems, from
which it emerged and developed. However, there are some limitations of this study that
should be addressed. Firstly, the particular sample of managers was selected from the
service sector. An additional sample with managers from manufacturing or other sectors
would give a more clear view of the TQM awareness in the Greek business system.
Secondly, although the number of participants was valid for the purposes of this study, a
wider number of participants would strengthen the current findings.
Additional qualitative research should be developed in other business
environments, attempting to investigate the implementation of TQM. In other words,
what is now needed is to develop the analysis of the changing human side of
organizations. Whether specific management approaches can contribute to system change
needs to be seen. Advancing Wilkinson and Willmott’s (1995) thoughts whether TQM
can really promote concepts like employee empowerment and involvement in different
national contexts “…must remain an open question” (p. 17). For example, have specific
features of the Greek management culture, such as the authoritarian style, been affected
by such approaches? TQM may have begun to encourage these changes.
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Appendix A
Profile of Interview Participants
Public Sector
Job Title Organizati Gender Age Education* Experience
on Group **
Special Scientific Government Male 30-39 PhD in 8 years
Advisor Department Administrative
Science
(Greece)
Administrator Government Female 40-39 MSc in Public 12 years
Department Policy and
Public Finance
(Greece)
Administrator Local Female 30-39 BA in Politics 9 years
Government (Greece)
Audit Tax Female 30-49 BSc in 11 years
Coordinator Service Economics
(Greece)
HR Manager Public Male 50-59 BSc in 13 years
Enterprise Economics
(Greece)
Budget Control Social Male 40-49 BSc in 9 years
Administrator Security Economics
Agency (Greece)
Patient NHS Female 50-59 BA in Law 10 years
Transaction Hospital (Greece)
Manager
Product Manager Public Male 20-29 BSc in 7 years
Bank Accounting
(Greece)
Private Sector
Job Title Organizati Gender Age Education* Experience
on **
Quality Manager High Male 20-29 MSc in Quality 5 years
Technology Assurance
Services (UK)
Operations Telecommu Male 20-29 MBA 6 years
Manager nications (US)
Services
Assistant Quality Insurance Female 30-39 BSc in 7 years
Manager Services Economics
(Greece)
HR Manager Telecommu Male 50-59 MBA 12 years
nication (Greece)
Services
HR Manager Insurance Male 20-29 MA in HRM 5 years
Services (UK)
IT Manager Banking Female 40-49 MSc in 8 years
Services Business
Studies
(UK)
IT Manager Private Female 30-39 BSc in Business 6 years
Hospital Administration
(Greece)
Audit Manager Banking Male 30-39 MSc in 7 years
Services Accounting
(UK)
Product Manager Banking and Male 50-59 BSc in 11 years
Financial Economics
Services (Greece)
Technical Health Male 40-49 BSc in 9 years
Equipment Diagnostic Mechanical
Manager Center Engineering
(Greece)
* It is the higher education level
** Experience in the present position
Author Note
Dr. Alexandros G. Psychogios holds a BSc in Political Science and Public

Administration and an MSc in Public Policy and Public Finance from the University of
Athens (Greece), a MA in Services Management from the University of York, and a PhD
in Industrial and Business Studies from the University of Warwick (Warwick Business
School, UK). Currently, he is a Lecturer and Academic Research Coordinator in the
Department of Business Administration and Economics of City College (Affiliated
Institution of the University of Sheffield, UK). He is also Adjunct Lecturer at the
University of Macedonia and Associate Researcher in GNOSIS Research Group at the
University of Liverpool, Management School. His contact details are: City College -
Affiliated Institution of the University of Sheffield, Department of Business
Administration and Economics, SEERC Building, Room 353, 17 Mitropoleos Str., 546
24, City Centre, Thessaloniki, Greece; Email: a.psychogios@city.academic.gr
Dr. Constantinos-Vasilios Priporas is affiliated with the University of Macedonia,

Department of Marketing & Operations Management, Edessa, and The Greek Open
University, Greece. He holds a BSBA in marketing from Drexel University (USA), an
MBA in marketing and management from Cleveland State University (USA), and a PhD
in marketing from University of Newcastle Upon Tyne (UK). He has published in several
international academic journals. He is a member of American Marketing Association,
European Marketing Academy, Greek Marketing Academy. His contact details:
University of Macedonia, Department of Marketing and Operations Management, 49 Ag.
Dimitriou, 58200 Edessa-Greece, email: cvpriporas@yahoo.com
Copyright 2007: Alexandros G. Psychogios, Constantinos-Vasilios Priporas, and

Nova Southeastern University
Article Citation
Psychogios, A. G., & Priporas, C. V. (2007). Understanding total quality management in

context: Qualitative research on managers’ awareness of TQM aspects in the
Greek service industry. The Qualitative Report, 12(1), 40-66. Retrieved [Insert
date], from http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR12-1/psychogios.pdf

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The Qualitative Report Volume 12 Number 1 March 2007 40-66

Understanding Total Quality Management in Context:

This study addresses managers’ awareness and familiarity with Total

The Meaning of TQM

In addition, the American Federal Office of Management (cited in Morgan &

…a total organizational approach for meeting customer needs and

TQM is the mutual co-operation of everyone in an organisation and

The “Hard” Side of TQM

“Hard” TQM Practices Identified in Quality Management Literature

The “Soft” Side of TQM

“Soft” TQM Concepts Identified in Quality Management Literature

The second principle is associated with continuous improvement. According to

improvement, and provides the necessary supporting organizational practices (Juran,

Empowerment is an environment in which people have the ability, the

Wilkinson (1998) argues that TQM offers ways in which empowerment of

Managers’ Awareness Towards TQM

A Four-Fold Framework of Analysis

Managers’ awareness of TQM in service organizations

...Of course we know about it [TQM]. Actually, a lot of training

…Two weeks ago I participated in a conference, which was called ‘TQM

… I personally have an MBA degree from Southampton Business School

Managers’ understanding of the “hard” side of TQM

…This firm promotes total quality improvement through specific

manager – Telecommunication services). “… [TQM] can be considered as a philosophy

…Since I began to work in this department [the Quality department of the

A third argument in support of the importance of the “hard” side of TQM in

Furthermore, the quality “experts” interviewed, give a great degree of

…I am familiar with the majority of quality improvement techniques.

Furthermore, another argument in favour of the importance of the “hard” side of

…Private companies have the resources to implement empowerment

Managers’ understanding of the “soft” side of TQM

on the general performance of the organisation. (Special scientific advisor

…Top-management would be much more reliable to me and to the

…I remember that last year we needed to teach employees the ‘know-

Private versus public sector managers’ awareness of TQM aspects

…Changing the culture of a group of people or of an organisation is not

…Although I am not so much familiar with many of these [she refers to

…According to my experience, it is not easy to change the situation in

Discussion and Conclusions

to acknowledge themselves as “experts” or “specialists” in quality improvement policies.

Besterfield, H. D., Besterfield-Michna, C., Besterfield, H. G., & Besterfield-Sacre, M.

Psychogios, G. A. (2005). Towards a contingency approach to promising business

Wilkinson, A., & Willmott, H. (1995). Introduction. In A. Wilkinson & H. Willmott

Profile of Interview Participants

Dr. Alexandros G. Psychogios holds a BSc in Political Science and Public

Dr. Constantinos-Vasilios Priporas is affiliated with the University of Macedonia,

Copyright 2007: Alexandros G. Psychogios, Constantinos-Vasilios Priporas, and

Psychogios, A. G., & Priporas, C. V. (2007). Understanding total quality management in

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