Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Rationale

Water is one of the most essential needs of human beings to survive. It is used

for many daily activities such as drinking, cooking, and cleaning. Although advance

technology has provided us with methods for easy access of the resource, there are still

those who choose the old process in collecting water such as deep wells. Deep wells

have been a known method of extracting water for centuries. But as years pass by, with

the continuous and excessive extraction of deep wells, fresh water supply is constantly

depleting bringing with it issues such as saltwater intrusion.

Seawater intrusion and its related effects with saline ground were observed in

Metro Cebu’s coastal aquifer for the past three decades. The intrusion of saltwater has

led to the decrease of freshwater resources. Talisay City, one of the many cities in the

Metro Cebu, is geologically abundant in ground water but there are parts of this city that

suffers from water shortage due to the intrusion of seawater.

Barangay San Roque lies in the coastal line of the city of Talisay City, Cebu. It

houses 16,750 residents in 2010 and predicted to increase by 2020 to 27,652. Due to its

geographical advantage of being close to the ocean, a large concentration of the

population of the place is located near the bay area. The high rate of increase in

population also increases their demand for water supply. The government unit used

artesian wells to supply the residence, having low budget incomes, with water for

domestic uses that could lessen the monthly expenditures.

Some of these artesian wells showed signs of seawater intrusion as the

researchers went around the area. A few complaints had reached the barangay officials

1
about the conditions of the wells. The wells are used for household purposes, such as,

bathing, washing clothes and dishes, watering the yard and garden, and even washing

the dog. It is also used for drinking. Water for household use poses no threats because

there is no intake of the water. But the water for drinking purposes could affect the health

of the residents because of the seawater intrusion in the area. That is why the people,

especially those who cannot afford a private connection from MCWD, find it hard to

obtain potable water.

Seawater intrusion is the movement of seawater into fresh water aquifers due to

natural processes or human activities. According to some studies, Metro Cebu faces

multiple climate change threats which includes landslides, flooding, sea level rise and

saltwater intrusion. The researchers came up to this study because it has been an issue

for how many years which results to the scarcity of potable water in Metro Cebu

especially in coastal areas. The researchers also bring forth to this study in the interest

of the information and perception shared by one of the instructors of Cebu Institute of

Technology – University particularly in Civil Engineering Department. In line with this, the

researchers gather report regarding saltwater intrusion in one of the vicinities of Masbate

City. The problem of the said place makes the researchers to go forth with the study.

While researching some information regarding saltwater intrusion, the

researchers discovered that Talisay City Cebu has become one of the victims of

saltwater intrusion. With the help of the government of Talisay City, the researchers

gained data about places where this type of problem occur. The researchers interviewed

the residence who lived in Talisay regarding the said issue and they confirmed that there

are lots of complaints about that issue.

2
 The problem of saltwater intrusion is by no means limited in the Philippines.

Incidents of saltwater intrusion have been detected and are a growing issue in areas

including China, Australia, North Africa, Mexico, the Middle East, the Mediterranean,

United States and Southern California. In China, saltwater intrusion led to the

abandonment of more than 1500 wells between 1990 and 1997, and soil salinization

resulting from saltwater intrusion has caused a significant decrease in crop productivity

(Shanzhong et al.,2007). In Australia, the government is restricting water use from

backyard “garden” wells in an effort to control saltwater intrusion (Banks, 2007). In

Manila, Philippines, water levels are decreasing by 6 to 12 m/yr putting the region’s

aquifers at risk for saltwater intrusion (IDRC). Roughly half of the world’s population lives

within 200 km of a coastline, an area only taking up to 10% of the earth’s surface

(Hinrichsen, 2007). There is an immense demand for freshwater in coastal communities

around the world. As governments struggle to supply their citizens with freshwater, they

will be forced to contend with saltwater intrusion along their coastlines.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The study aimed to analyze the extent of seawater intrusion in the artesian wells

of Brgy. San Roque, Talisay City and proposed awareness of the affected artesian wells

to the residents. Specifically, the study answered the following questions:

1. What were the levels of salinity of the water gathered from the different artesian

wells?

2. What recommendations did the researchers offer in mitigating saltwater intrusion

in Barangay San Roque, Talisay City?

3
1.3 Objectives

1. To determine the salinity content of the water gathered from the different artesian

wells of the barangay.

2. To find out the possible ways to lessen saltwater intrusion.

1.4 Significance of the Study

1. RESIDENTS

Through this study, residents will become aware of the problem of saltwater

intrusion in Brgy. San Roque, Talisay City and be given the knowledge of such

problem. They will be able to take action and control about the usage of water

from artesian wells.

2. GOVERNMENT

Results could help the government as guidance in making future plans and

improve present activities about saltwater intrusion.

3. MCWD

The data gathered will provide further insights and information to MCWD about

saltwater intrusion which could help benefit for their future researches.

4. RESEARCHERS

Researchers may find the findings useful to further understand the mechanics of

saltwater intrusion and take into consideration the principles and concepts in

dealing the problem of saltwater intrusion.

4
1.5 Conceptual Framework

INPUT

To find a place where probable seawater intrusion is present in artesian wells

in Talisay City

To determine the boundaries of the specific area to be studied

To gather water samples from a number of artesian wells during high tide or

low tide

PROCESS

To bring the water samples to the water resource laboratory for the

determination of the salinity

To determine the seawater level of the specific artesian wells

To analyze the results of the test conducted by the water resource laboratory

on the samples

OUTPUT

Identify which artesian wells are not suitable anymore for domestic use

Give the extent of seawater intrusion through a contour map based on the

results gathered

Give possible ways to mitigate saltwater intrusion

FIGURE 1.1: Conceptual Framework

5
1.6 Scope and Limitations of the Study

The study focused on artesian wells in Brgy. San Roque and a few on the boundary

between Brgy. San Roque and Brgy. Tangke, Talisay City, Cebu.

It involved determining which artesian wells with salinity level over the allowable level for

consumption.

Factors involved in this study only includes the following: salinity and relative distance of

artesian wells from the sea.

The research sampling was done only once and during low tide.

6
1.7 Definition of Terms

Aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing permeable

rock, rock fractures or unconsolidated materials (gravel,

sand, or silt) from which the groundwater can be

extracted using water well.

Injection well is a device that places fluid deep underground into

porous rock formations, such as sandstone or limestone,

or into or below the shallow soil layer.

MCWD Metropolitan Cebu Water District, a water service

provider for Metro Cebu

Mitigate to lessen or to make less severe

Recharge the replenishment of an aquifer by the absorption of

water

Salinity is the measure of all salts dissolved in water, usually in

parts per thousand

Saltwater-Freshwater the region where freshwater and salt water meet

Interface

Saltwater Intrusion is the movement of saline water into freshwater aquifers,

which can lead to contamination of drinking water

resources and other consequences

Upconing is a process by which saline water underlying freshwater

in an aquifer rises upward into the freshwater zone as a

7
result of pumping water from the freshwater zone

8
 Chapter 2

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

2.1 Theories

Salinity is the saltiness or dissolved salt content of a body of water. In

oceanography, it has been traditional to express salinity not as percent, but as parts per

thousand (%), which is approximately grams of salt per kilogram of solution. Other

disciplines use chemical analyses of solutions, and thus salinity is frequently reported in

mg/L or ppm (parts per million).

According to Ghyben-Herzberg’s concept of sea water intrusion, in coastal

aquifers there exist a transition zone of certain width where the density varies between

sea water to that of fresh water. The density is proportional to the dissolved salt content

in it. This means that Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Chloride and other salt content

distribution across the fresh water lens will also be of the same nature as that of density

distribution. Hence it is obvious that the average density and consequently average

TDS, Chloride and other individual salt contents of the floating fresh water lens available

at that point remains same. Keeping this idea in mind, it has been logically expected that

at any point of time, average salinity of the fresh water lens will increase as one

approaches to the shore. At all points in the coastal aquifer salinity will increase with the

lowering of the fresh water table. The rate of increase of salinity with the lowering of the

fresh water table will increase as one goes nearer to the shore. And also, beyond a

critical distance from the salt water body, the salinity of the fresh water lens will be

independent of the depth to the water table and its temporal fluctuations.

9
2.2 Review of Related Literature

Saltwater intrusion is the movement of seawater into the freshwater aquifer. This

migration of saltwater emphasizes that there is over extraction of groundwater than the

normal recharge amount of the aquifer.

As groundwater is located underground, it has an advantage of being protected

from contaminants found in surface waters. However, coastal aquifers are vulnerable to

saltwater intrusion which threatens the quality of the water produced near the coast.

Groundwater aquifers are important source for water supply. In many years,

groundwater resources have been developed since it has been the main source of water

for the water supply of many areas. In Metro Cebu, MCWD has been using groundwater

for the water supply since 1959. Before this, private wells were the only reason for

groundwater abstraction. (Water for all Cebuanos, 2006:10).

Saltwater intrusion is a serious problem and posts a threat to the public water

supply. Since groundwater is the main source of Metro Cebu’s water supply, it is

important that this problem be dealt with accordingly and accurately.

Shortages of potable and clean water have been one of the major concerns of

the world today. For the effective management of water resources, it is necessary to

understand the natural systems affecting the groundwater.

According to Davis and Cornwell (2013:436), freshwater aquifer near oceans or

above saline aquifers may become contaminated with saltwater when water is pumped

from wells that draw water that is too close to the freshwater-saltwater interface.

10
 A zone of contact (salt-freshwater interface) is formed between the lighter

freshwater flowing to the sea and the heavier, underlying, seawater. Even natural

conditions without any anthropogenic activity, the freshwater from the aquifer flows into

the sea (outflow face). While in greater depth, saline water penetrates into the pore

space of the aquifer. The saltwater wedge at the bottom of an aquifer may move long

distances against the natural gradient of the freshwater table. Additional pumping of

groundwater induces upconing and further movement of seawater inland towards the

groundwater extraction. The mixing of seawater with ground water affects the quality and

the normal usefulness of groundwater (SCHOLZE et.al. 2002).

FIGURE 2.1: Groundwater Flow Patterns (Ranjan, 2007)

In 2003, Barlow stated that the natural balance between freshwater and saltwater

in coastal aquifers is disturbed by groundwater withdrawals and other human activities

that lower groundwater levels, reduce fresh groundwater flow to coastal waters, and

ultimately cause saltwater to intrude coastal aquifers. Other hydraulic stresses that

reduce freshwater flow in coastal aquifers, such as lowered rates of groundwater

recharge in sewered or urbanized areas could also lead to saltwater intrusion.

11
 As Kohout, (1960:2133-2141) mentioned, during heavy recharge, freshwater

head is high enough which causes the freshwater, seawater, and the zone of diffusion to

move seaward. When the freshwater head is low, saltwater in the lower part of the

aquifer intrudes inland, but some of the diffused seawater in the zone of diffusion

continues to flow seaward.

Groundwater extraction reduces coastal freshwater discharge and therefore

alters the position of the freshwater and seawater interface (Custodio and Bruggeman:

1987). The decrease in groundwater head due to extraction can produce an equivalent

localized rising (upconing) of the underlying seawater wedge as well as a more regional

shift in the position of the saltwater wedge landward.

A high demand for domestic water supply caused the over extraction of

groundwater. Groundwater extraction from artesian wells, especially in the coastal

areas, draws the freshwater-saltwater interface closer to the land. In normal conditions,

the freshwater flows to the sea. However, over-pumping may result in inversion of the

groundwater flow from the sea towards the inland causing saltwater intrusion.

Also the rise in sea level due to the climate change accelerates the intrusion of

saltwater into the aquifers which reduce the fresh groundwater resources. Coastal

aquifers are affected by the rise in the sea level due to climate change and global

warming. With the impact of sea level rise and over pumping combined together the

problem becomes even more serious and requires fast solutions.

The equilibrium between subsurface saltwater and freshwater regimes in

groundwater aquifers is delicate. Prolonged over pumping of groundwater can lead to

12
vertical upconing of the interface (transition or mixing zone) between these regimes. This

causes salt contamination of freshwater aquifers and soil salinity.

FIGURE 2.2: Waterways (St. John River Water Management District, 2008)

A common approach for managing saltwater intrusion has been to reduce the

rate of pumping from artesian wells or to move locations of withdrawals further inland.

Reductions of coastal withdrawals allow groundwater levels to recover from their

stressed levels, and fresh groundwater to displace the intruded saltwater.

Another alternative to reduce groundwater withdrawals is to artificially recharge

freshwater into an aquifer to increase groundwater levels and control the movement of

the intruding saltwater. Artificial recharge can be accomplished through injection wells or

by infiltration of freshwater at the land surface.

13
 Chapter 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design

The research was a quasi-experimental research which explore the extent of

seawater intrusion through the analysis of the data collected.

The researchers used the information gathered about the artesian wells from the

residents and looked into the results of the laboratory test of the water samples.

The data gathered were analyzed for the study of the extent of seawater

intrusion.

Figure 1.1 showed the flow of the study to be conducted. The input phase

showed the gathering of the data from the location of the study. The process involved

the laboratory tests and the analysis of the gathered water samples. The output was the

extent of seawater intrusion and the necessary recommendations needed for further

study.

3.2 Research Environment

Barangay San Roque is bounded

by the City of Cebu on the North, Bohol

strait on the East, Barangay Tangke and

Cansojong on the South, Barangay San

Isidro and Barangay Tabunok on the

West. It has a land area of 232 hectares

with 5 sitios. The barangay belongs to the

middle-income class of the City of Talisay. FIGURE 3.1: Administrative Map of Brgy.
San Roque, Talisay City

14
The observed artesian wells are located in Barangay San Roque, Talisay City, Cebu.

3.3 Research Procedure

Data Gathering

The researchers located a place with a report about seawater intrusion. With the

location determined, the researchers found specific wells as the subject of investigation.

Information including the physical aspects of the well and the demography of the place

were noted. The researchers obtained the samples from chosen artesian wells.

Testing

The water samples gathered were sent to a research laboratory to test the

salinity level of the water in the wells that could help in the study of seawater intrusion.

The researchers gathered water samples during low tide.

Analysis

The salinity of the water samples were analyzed by the researchers to pinpoint

which artesian wells have salinity levels that exceeded the allowable level for

consumption.

15
 Chapter 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Introduction

The results of the salinity test conducted using the Conductivity Benchtop

Meter at Metropolitan Cebu Water District Laboratory are presented in this

chapter. Furthermore, extent of the seawater intrusion through the seawater-

freshwater interface will be discussed in the chapter.

4.2 Results

4.2.1 Salinity vs Distance from the Shore

Figure 4.1: Salinity vs Distance from the shore

3.4
3.2
3
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
2100

All of the twenty-four (24) wells showed a salinity level of more than 0.1

ppt which implies that the water from these wells shouldn’t be used for

consumption (see Appendix D). Also, none of these wells have salinity of 0.2 ppt

16
and below which insinuates that water from these wells are also not suitable for

agricultural irrigation.

In relation to the figure, the line graph shows the trend of salinity versus

the distance from the shore of different artesian wells in Brgy. San Roque and a

few between the boundaries of Brgy. San Roque and Brgy. Tangke. From the

graph, at 500 m from shore, the salinity level was about 1 ppt. At 1000 m from

shore, the salinity level was about 0.58 ppt. The salinity levels were about 0.6 ppt

and 0.5 ppt at 1500 and 2000 m from the shore, respectively. Although it is not

that consistent, probably due to some unknown factors, the majority of the points

show that the closer the wells from the shore, the higher is its salinity level, and

as the distance increases, the salinity decreases. Thus the relationship, salinity

being inversely proportional to the distance from the shore.

4.2.2 Mitigation of High Salinity Level

A lot of different measures have been used to control seawater intrusion

and to protect the groundwater resources. The main objective of this protection is

to increase the volume of fresh groundwater and reduce the volume of saltwater.

Todd (1974) discussed various means of preventing saltwater from

contaminating groundwater sources including: (1) reduction of the abstraction

rates, (2) relocation of abstraction wells, (3) subsurface barriers, (4) natural

recharge, (5) artificial recharge, (6) abstraction of saline water, and (7)

combination of injection and abstraction systems. Large-scale research has been

done to investigate saltwater intrusion in coastal aquifers but only few of these

have been developed to further study the control of saltwater intrusion. The

reduction of abstraction rates aims to minimize the pumping rates and use other

17
water resources. The relocation of well aims to move the wells further inland and

reduce the wells along the coasts. Subsurface barriers aim to prevent the inflow

of seawater into the aquifer. Natural recharge aims to recharge aquifers with

additional surface water. Artificial recharge aims to increase the groundwater

levels, using surface spread for unconfined aquifers and recharge wells for

confined aquifers. The sources of water for injection may be surface water,

groundwater, treated wastewater or desalinated water. The abstraction of saline

water aims to reduce the volume of saltwater by extracting brackish water from

the aquifer. The combination of injection of freshwater and extraction of saline

water can reduce the volume of saltwater and increase the volume of freshwater.

However most of these methods of controlling saltwater intrusion are

costly and may not be applicable to Barangay San Roque which is a heavily

populated area and of populace of mostly minimum wage earners.

Though minimizing the abstraction rate is a long time process and may or

may not work considering the area nearest to the coast are mostly occupied by

informal settlers, this is probably a better choice for Barangay San Roque. With

the closing down of some artesian wells, it would lessen the abstraction rate from

wells and in turn would eventually lessen the saltwater intrusion. In complement

to this action, MCWD communal connection is a good choice as residents in the

area will have another source of water.

MCWD communal facility monthly payment will not cost that much

compared to having individual connection. Another benefit of using MCWD

connection is the assurance of having a safer water than artesian wells. Also,

MCWD can monitor and regulate accordingly the sources they use for the water

18
supply than unmonitored artesian wells. If the installation cost of such facility will

burden the residents, it can be requested that the local government take care of

the finances. After all, this action to controlling saltwater intrusion will benefit not

only the local residents of Barangay San Roque but also the entire population

using the intruded aquifer.

This choice for the mitigation may be small in scale at the moment but

further study of the control models for saltwater intrusion in the area will greatly

affect the study of saltwater intrusion in the bigger picture.

19
 Chapter 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

Saltwater intrusion has become one of the major concerns in the coastal aquifer of

Metro Cebu. This problem poses as a threat as this limits the utilization of the

groundwater source.

In Brgy. San Roque, high salinity in freshwater imposes the possibility of

saltwater intrusion in the area. The wells in the study should be closely monitored by the

local government as the high salinity level in their waters indicates that these wells be

treated, if possible, or be closed down to avoid harming the people using it.

In connection to this, among the mitigation of saltwater intrusion mentioned in the

prior chapter, it was concluded that it is better to have a communal water facility instead

of using the involved artesian wells.

5.2 Recommendation

The scope of the study is done only in Brgy. San Roque and a small part in Brgy.

Tangke, Talisay City, Cebu so it is recommended to widen the range of the area to be

studied.

Since the research is done during low tide and rainy season, it is also

recommended that the research should be done during high tide and summer season for

comparison.

The study, however, is far from extensive and was limited in time, so it is

commendable to include other factors like the depth from where the water samples are

taken and the depth of the water table.

20
 Bibliography

Aitchison-Earl, P. (2003). Coastal aquifer saltwater intrusion assessment guidelines.

Environment Canterbury Unpublished Technical Report.

Barlow, P. M. (2003). Groundwater in Freshwater-Saltwater Environments of the Atlantic

Cost.

H.F. Abd-Elhamid, A. J. (2008). An Investigation into Control of Saltwater Intrusion

Considering the Effects. 20th Salt Water Meeting, 1-6.

Ivkovic, K. M., S. M. (2012). National-Scale Vulnerability Assessment of Seawater

Intrusion Summary Report. National Water Commission.

Joseph K, Pious (2016), Influence of saline intrusion along with fresh water coastal

aquifers of Central Kerala, South India. Shodhganga@INFLIBNET Center,

163-174.

Kohout, F. (1960). Cyclic Flow of saltwater in the Biscayne aquifer of southeastern

Florida. Journal of Geophysical Research, 2133-2141.

Nazimuddin, M. (2012). Coastal Hydrology of Kozhikode, Kerala.

Shodhganga@INFLIBNET Center, 116-145.

Scholze O, G. H. (2002). Protection of the Groundwater Resources of Saltwater

Intrusion into the Coastal Aquifer. 17th Salt Water Intrusion Meeting, 489-494.

Todd, DK, (1974). Salt-water intrusion and its control. Water Technology/Resources.

Journal of American Water Works Association, 66(3): 180-187.

21
 Appendix A
Salinity Contour Map

22
(Contour map insert here)

23
 Appendix B

Table B1: Salinity of Wells and their Distance from the Shore

Salinity Distance from shore

Well No.
(ppt) (m)

1 0.4 880.09
2 0.9 893.05
3 0.4 1338.53
4 0.5 1684.79
5 0.6 1435.66
6 1.1 822.28
7 1.6 384.97
8 0.9 556.28
9 2 326.64
10 2 259.51
11 0.4 915.61
12 0.9 1171.11
13 0.6 1497.19
14 0.5 1847.47
15 0.5 1947.17
16 0.5 1985.3
17 0.4 1855.2
18 0.6 2019.25
19 1.3 302.24
20 2.8 85.56
21 3.2 130.24
22 2.6 220.48
23 1.8 94.95
24 1 102.84

Table B1 shows the salinity of water from different artesian wells in

Barangay San Roque and their relative perpendicular distance from the shore.

The water samples were taken during low tide specifically of -0.09 m to 0.29 m

sea level.

24
 Appendix C

RESEARCH BUDGET

Transportation P 1 880.00

Printing P 1 000.00

Salinity Test P 5 760.00

Total P 8 960.00

25
 Appendix D

Figure D1: Water Salinity Diagram

26
 Appendix E

Figure E1: San Roque Barangay Hall

Figure E2: Gaisano Capital SRP, a mall in Brgy. San Roque

27
 Figure E3: One of the Sampled Artesian Wells (for public use)

Figure E4: One of the Sampled Artesian Wells (privately owned)

28
Figure E5: GPS Status app

Figure E6: Water samples

29
Figure E7: Location of Artesian Wells

30
 Appendix F
Water Analysis Results

Figure F1: Page 1 of water analysis results from November 20 & 23, 2016 samples

31
Figure F2: Page 2 water analysis results from November 20 & 23, 2016 samples

32