Language: Structure and Use

Unit one. Grammar

CHAPTER
1 Parts of Speech
In everything we do involving other people, we make use of communication in some form.
Of the different forms of communications, language -either spoken or written -is the most
common. We use words to say hello, to ask a favor, to give directions. We use them to apply
for a job, to request a loan, to get married, to take an oath. Regardless of the size or importance
of the job, however, the words we use all fall into one of the eight basic categories or classes
of English called parts of speech.
In this chapter you will become familiar with these word classes. The terms used will provide
you with a means of talking about language. The key to understanding the parts of speech,
you will find, is to be able to determine their function, the kind of work they do.

PART 1

Nouns
A noun is a word as the name of a person, place, thing or idea.

In the following sentences, the italicized words are nouns:

The view from the porch of her cabin gave Mary a constant source of inspiration for her new
poem about Israel.
The students bought a loaf of bread and a wedge of cheese in time to catch the train for
Cromwell.

Some of these nouns are concrete; that is, they name things (cabin, bread, train) which are
real and definite and can be touched or measured. Other nouns are abstract, naming things
(view, inspiration, time) which cannot be touched or measured. Abstract nouns name ideas,
sensations, emotions, beliefs, and so on.

 EXERCISE 1. List the nouns in each of the following sentences. The figure in
parentheses tell how many nouns are in that sentence.
Example: The rain coming in the window interrupted my concentration. (3)
Answer: rain; window; concentration

1. An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. (4)

2. Changes in your schedule must be approved by the principal. (3)
3. My older brother helps cook the meals, and my younger brother sets the table
and helps with the dishes. (5)
4. Her uncle is going to buy another Toyota when he goes back to Japan next
month. (4)
5. Rebecca feared rejection more than ridicule or indifference. (4)
6. The play ends when Rodney gives up his dream and goes back to his ranch
in Montana. (5)
7. Bill and Margaret inspected the old house from top to bottom. (5)
8. From the start of his story I was suspicious of his motives for telling us such
a tall tale. (4)
 9. The grain comes in bags of printed cotton that can be used for shits, dresses,
and handkerchiefs. (6)
10. By noon sixteen inches of snow had fallen, and the traffic was at a standstill.
(5)

 EXERCISE 2. Follow the same directions as you did for Exercise 1.

1. Sophie drew on memories of her childhood in Italy when she wrote that
story. (5)
2. The hikers follow the path that led through the woods to the camp. (4)
3. Cass looked through his binoculars often, hopping to see some big horn
sheep on the mountain. (4)
4. The rosy glow of the sunrise was reflected in the lake. (3)
5. At noon we ate our lunch of sandwiches, deviled eggs, cookies and milk. (6) Commented [RS1]: Midday, twelve noon, noontime,
6. Their vacation at the seashore lasted two weeks and was a high point in their noonday,
summer. (5) Commented [RS2]: Coastline, seabord, beach, shore,
7. It’s no exaggeration to say that a sense of humor can help a person through shoreline
many troubles. (5)
8. From the plane the passengers could only see white puffy clouds below and
a blue sky above. (4)
9. His dream was about the test he was to take in biology the next day. (4)
10. With the money she made distributing circulars for the store, Katherine
bought a new tote bag and a bookshelf for her room. (7)

Proper noun and common nouns. Nouns can be classed as proper nouns or
common nouns. A proper noun is the name of specific person, place, or thing. Proper
nouns always begin with a capital letter. A common noun is the name of a group or
class of people, places, or things.

Proper nouns Common nouns

Denver, South Carolina, Canada city, state, country
Oakland Bay Bridge, Mount Everest, bridge, mountain, planet
Mars
Rembrandt, Marie Curie, Vasco da painter, scientist, explorer
Gama
Shay’s Rebellion, Spanish, United battle, language, organization
Nations Children Fund

Names and titles of more than one word are generally regarded as one noun. There
are also certain combinations of words there are often regarded as one common noun;
for example, cure-all; ice cream; master of ceremonies; chop suey; hors d’oeuvre;
middle C; 18 percent.
  Exercise 3. List the nouns in each of the following sentences; then add in parentheses
“Common” or “Proper”.

Example: On September 19, 1974, Hurricane Fifi struck the Republic of

Honduras, killing about 8,000 persons.
Answer: September 19, 1974 (proper); Hurricane Fifi (proper); Republic of
Honduras (proper); persons (common)

1. A hurricane is made up of stormy clouds and violent winds swirling around an area
of low air pressure.
2. Such a storm originating in the North Pacific Ocean is called a typhoon, and a similar
one in the South Pacific Ocean or Indian Ocean is called a cyclone.
3. To qualify as a hurricane, a tropical storm must have winds of at least 75 miles (120
kilometers) per hour.
4. This velocity is termed force 12 on the Beaufort scale, a standard for the comparison Commented [RS3]: Kom-párison
of wind velocities.
5. The scale was developed on 1805 when Sir Francis Beaufort describe the force of
winds on the sails of a ship.
6. The clouds of a hurricane spiral in a counter-clockwise direction in the Northern
Hemisphere, but clockwise in the southern Hemisphere.
7. At the storm center, called the eye, rain ceases, the temperature rises, the winds drop,
and sunshine may appear.
8. The season for hurricanes in the North Atlantic Ocean and in the United States runs
mostly from June to October, with a peak of activity in September. Commented [RS4]: Top, highest, topmost, mountain,
9. During these months, weather experts, called meteorologists, keep an especially pinnacle, zenith, alp, mount
close watch on the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico and issue warnings to
communities in danger.
10. Hurricanes have traditionally been given names like Agnes, Beulah, and Celia, then,
in 1978, the World Meteorological Organization started assigning names like David,
Henri, and Juan as well.

PART 1

Nouns
A pronoun is a word that stands for, or takes the place of, a noun, and that functions
in most ways as a noun. In the following examples, the boldfaced pronoun stands for
the italicized noun or nouns:

Paula hurt herself when she got out of her car.

The deer, raccoons, squirrels, and other animals became terrified when they sensed
that the forest fire was coming their way.

Pronouns eliminate the necessity of repeating the same noun, like Paula over and
over. They are also useful when there are a number of nouns, like deer, raccoons,
squirrels, and animals, that can be replaced by the single pronouns, they and their.
 The noun a pronoun stands for is called the antecedent of the pronoun. The
antecedent need not to be in same sentence as the pronoun that refers to it:

The Hawks´ best runner had an accident in yesterday’s game. He will be out for six
weeks with a pulled hamstring in his left leg. The team has called up another player
to replace him in the lineup.

When pronouns refer to an antecedent that has appeared earlier – perhaps several
sentences earlier – the pronouns can actually help tie those sentences together.

SECTION 1 Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns are substitutes for the names of persons speaking (first person);
for the names of persons spoken to (second person); and for the names of persons or
things spoken about (third person).

Singular
Nominative case objective case Possesive case*
First person: I me my, mine
Second person: you you your, yours
Third person: he him his
she her her, hers
it it its
Plural
First person: we us our, ours
Second person: you you your, yours
Third person: they them their, theirs

The possessive forms mine, yours, hers, ours, yours, and theirs are used only when
no nouns follows the pronoun.

 Exercise 4. Write the personal pronouns in the following sentences or group of

sentences. The figure in parentheses tells how many pronouns are in each group.
After each pronoun, write in parentheses its antecedent, if there is one.

Example: George and Mr. Simon were looking for Maryanne yesterday.
Would you tell her to call them when she has a chance?
Answer: you; her (Maryanne); them (George, Mr. Simon); she (Maryanne)

1. Mrs. Davon gave the trophy to the winners and shook hands as she congratulated
them. (2)
2. The boys gave me a contribution for Hospital Fund. It has now received 50 percent
of the pledges set as a goal. (2) Commented [RS5]: Adelanto, depósito, entrada, garantía,
3. Mother gave Jane a scare by locking her out of the house. (1)
4. Theresa stopped Dave to show him the new camera she had bought. He told her it
was much better equipped than his. (6) Commented [RS6]: e-quípt
5. He received the new water bed he had ordered, but we don’t have ours. (4)
6. The mayor gave a conference for reporters last night. They asked her how Green
city would use the economic aid it had requested. (3)
7. No matter what George did, he couldn’t get the kids to tell him where they had
hidden it. (4)
8. Western University will build two new dormitories this year. It needs them
desperately because 2,100 new students are expected to enroll. The present housing Commented [RS7]: dés-prit-ly
will simply not accommodate all of them. (3)
Commented [RS8]: actual programa de residencies,
9. Many voters liked Teddy Roosevelt because they felt he was honest with them. (3) viviendas
10. The filly is hers, but the mare is mine. (2)
Commented [RS9]: Óo-nest

 Exercise 5. Follow the same directions as you did for Exercise 4.

1. Frank polished the car until it shone. Then he drove it to the house where Vic and
Lorraine were waiting for him.
2. When I flew I got the flu?
3.