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Abstract— A new procedure for out-of-step protection by Such techniques require extensive offline stability studies for
mapping the equal area criterion conditions to the time domain is obtaining the settings and their complexity increases when
proposed in this paper. The classification between stable and out- applied to multimachine systems. The performance also
of-step swings is done using the accelerating and decelerating
depends on the guidelines used for blinder and timer settings.
energies, which represents the area under the power-time curve.
The proposed methodology is simple and overcomes some of the The technique ensures better protection only in the worst case
difficulties associated with the previous techniques. The proposed scenarios [4] and the performance is affected by the swing
approach is based only on the local electrical quantities available frequencies encountered [5].
at the relay location, avoids the need for an off-line system study Another technique monitors the rate of change of swing
and does not depend on the network configuration and centre voltage (SCV) and compares it with a threshold value
parameters. The proposed algorithm has been tested on a single
to discriminate between stable and out-of-step swings. With
machine infinite bus and a three machine infinite bus system
using software simulations. A digital prototype of the relay has some approximations, the SCV is obtained locally from the
also been implemented on the hardware and its performance has voltage at the relay location, which consequently makes the
been assessed in a closed loop mode using a Real-Time Digital SCV independent of power system parameters. However, the
Simulator (RTDS). The simulation results and the hardware approximation is true only if the total system impedance is
testing results confirm the validity of the approach presented. close to 90 [6]. For a multimachine system, the voltage
measured at relay location does not give an accurate
Index Terms— Relays, power swings, out-of-step, equal area
approximation of SCV. The technique also requires offline
criterion.
system stability studies to set the threshold value (rate of
I. INTRODUCTION change of SCV), thereby making it system specific.
Reference [7] proposed out-of-step detection based on a
neural network and [8] proposed the application of fuzzy logic
E lectromechancial oscillations in power systems happen using an adaptive network based fuzzy interface (ANFIS) for
out-of-step detection. In [7], the mechanical input power,
due to an imbalance between input and output powers.
Depending on the severity of a disturbance, the system may or generator kinetic energy deviation and average kinetic energy
may not return to a new stable condition. When the deviation are selected as inputs to the neural network. The
disturbance is severe, the oscillations do not damp out and neural network technique is applied to a Three Machine Nine
lead to an unstable operating condition called out-of-step or Bus system. The technique based on fuzzy logic explained in
loss-of-synchronism condition. The out-of-step relays are [8] uses machine angular frequency deviation and impedance
equipped to detect such conditions in the power system and angle measured at the machine terminals as inputs. These two
disconnect a part of the system at preselected locations to techniques are able to make the decisions quickly for a new
bring the rest of the system back to a new stable condition [1, case, which has close resemblance to a known predefined case
2]. for which the algorithm is trained. However, the techniques
There are various techniques available in literature and in need an enormous training effort to train for all possible swing
practice to detect out-of-step conditions. Most popular scenarios. This makes the training process tedious and also
conventional out-of-step detection techniques use a distance the complexity increases as the system interconnections
relay with blinders in the impedance plane and a timer. The increase. The techniques make quick decisions only if
blinder and timer settings require knowledge of the fastest adequately trained.
power swing, the normal operating region, and the possible Reference [9] proposed the energy function criterion for
swing frequencies, and are therefore system specific [1, 3]. loss-of-synchronism detection for a complex power system.
During unstable swings, the entire power system oscillates in
two groups, and series elements (called cutset) connect them.
Manuscript received July 2, 2008. The authors are with the Department of By evaluating the potential energy of the cutset, the stable and
Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, unstable conditions are predicted. The technique requires the
S7N 5A9, CANADA (email: sumit.paudyal@usask.ca,
measurements across all series elements as any of the series
rama.krishna@usask.ca, sachdev@engr.usask.ca).
Appeared on IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 600-609, Apr. 2010 2
clearing and max represents the maximum swing of the power where (t) is the speed of the rotor during transient. From (1)
angle. The EAC in domain tells that for a system to be
stable, area A1 is equal to area A2, and area A2 occurs before - and (2),
0. For an unstable system, the area A1 is greater than area A2,
and the area A2 occurs at -0. The maximum swing of M
d ( Pm Pe )dt (3)
max, for a stable swing is less than -0 [13]. s
Integrating (3),
M
S d ( Pm Pe )dt (4)
A A1 A2 (P
t0
m Pe (t ))dt 0 (7)
t max
A A1 A2 (P
t0
m Pe (t ))dt 0 (8)
Equations (7) and (8) are the expressions for EAC in time
domain, which tells that during the transient, if area A1 and A2
Fig. 5. Pe-tcurve for an out-of-step case. under the Pe-t curve are equal, the system becomes stable. But
if area A1 becomes greater than area A2, the system goes to an
out-of-step condition. The area under the Pe-t curve
The mathematical expressions to evaluate area A1 and A2 in represents energy. Thus, this concept can be referred to as the
time domain can be derived from the swing equation (1) [14]. energy equilibrium criterion in the time domain. A balance of
If the speed deviation of the rotor is Δ, then transient energy results in a stable swing whereas an
d unbalance of transient energy results in an out-of-step swing.
(t ) s (2) Integrations in (7) and (8) are approximated by summation
dt
and Pm is set to Pe before the fault inception. The time limits
Appeared on IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 600-609, Apr. 2010 4
are also expressed in terms of Pe. Thus, for a stable condition, A. SMIB Simulation
the sum of two areas A1 and A2 becomes, A power system as shown in Fig. 1 is used to test the
t max
proposed algorithm on an SMIB configuration. The power
A ( Pe (t ) t t
Pe (t ))t 0 (9) system parameters are given in the Appendix [15]. An out-of-
0
t0
step relay is located at ‘R.’ At ‘R,’ voltage and current
information of three phases are measured and electric output
For an out-of-step condition, power of the generator (Pe) is calculated. A Discrete Fourier
Transform (DFT) technique is used for estimating the values
t max
A ( Pe (t ) t
of voltage and current phasors from the instantaneous values
t
Pe (t ))t 0 (10) of voltage and current measurements. The pre-fault power
0
t0
angle (0) is set at 30. A three phase fault is applied at the
middle of TL-II and four different simulations are carried out
where
with fault duration times of 0.167, 0.20, 0.233 and 0.267 s.
t 0 : Time when Pe (t ) Pe (t ) t t
first occurs Power system transient simulation tool PSCAD is chosen
for the simulation with a simulation time step of 50s [16].
tmax : Time when A t 0 (stable) or time when The fault duration times of 0.167 and 0.20 s make the system
Pe (t ) t t Pe (t ) t and Pe (t ) Pe (t ) t t
(out- stable whereas the fault duration times of 0.233 and 0.267 s
0 t 0 result in an out-of-step condition. The P-t curves are shown in
of-step) Fig. 6-9.
In (9) and (10), t represents a sampling interval, the time
after which a new value of Pe is available to the out-of-step
relay. Equation (9) and the limit tmax for stable case do not
become exactly equal to zero because of the approximation of
integration by summation. They are modified as
t max
A ( P(t )e t t
Pe (t ))t 0 (11)
0
t0
tmax : Time when A t t 0 and A t 0 (Stable) Fig. 6. Pe-t curve for =30 and fault cleared after 0.167 s.
Equations (10) and (11) along with the conditions for t0 and
tmax form the proposed algorithm for out-of-step detection.
Based on the proposed algorithm, a decision regarding a stable
or out-of-step condition is always made at tmax (time
corresponding to max) with an error of t or less.
The generators are considered lossless in (9). However, in
an actual system, the Pe calculated at fault inception from the
local measurements has to be corrected for losses and other
loads (house load etc) connected to the generator.
Fig. 7. Pe-t curve for =30 and fault cleared after 0.20 s.
In the studies, the presence of instability is assumed when
the maximum disturbance magnitude (change in Pe from the
original value) is greater than 10%. This way, further
calculations due to noise and other dynamic oscillations, are
avoided. In a practical implementation, the technique will be
used in conjunction with a relay starter element, so that it
operates only for fault situations.
The instability criterion discussed in this section shows that
the method is simple to apply and is well-suited for applying it
for out-of-step protection purposes. The following sections
give the simulation and hardware implementation results using Fig. 8. Pe-t curve for =30 and fault cleared after 0.233 s.
the proposed technique.
Fig. 12. Pe-t curve for Pm=0.877 pu and fault cleared after 0.25 s.
1.12
1.1
1.08
Pe,pu
1.06
1.04
1.02
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time,s
Fig. 15. Pe-t curve of Gen1 for 0.15 pu load change.
Fig. 13. Pe-t curve for Pm=0.984 pu and fault cleared after 0.25 s.
1.5
Pe,pu
0.5
-0.5
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time,s
Fig. 14. Pe-t curve for Pm=0.877 pu and fault cleared after 0.30 s.
Fig. 16. Pe-t curve of Gen1 for 0.5 pu load change.
TABLE II
SUMMARY OF STABLE AND OUT-OF-STEP SWINGS ON A THREE MACHINE
INFINITE BUS SYSTEM
TABLE III: SUMMARY OF RESULTS FOR GEN1 ON A THREE MACHINE
INFINITE BUS SYSTEM
Case 5 6 7 8
Input Power (Pm), pu 0.984 0.877 0.984 0.877
Case 9 10 13
Fault Duration Time, s 0.1 0.25 0.25 0.30
Area (A1), pu-s 0.0895 0.2127 0.2391 0.2531 Input Power (Pm), pu 1.059(Gen1) 1.01(Gen1) 0.877(Gen1)
Area (A2), pu-s -0.0895 -0.2127 -0.1204 -0.0774 -0.15 pu @Bus1 -0.5 pu @Bus1 Fault @ 70%
Decision Time, s 0.346 0.519 0.536 0.500 Load change +0.15 pu @ Bus +0.5 pu @ Bus of TL between
Decision Stable Stable OS OS 3 3 Bus 1 and 3
for 0.1 sec
OS: Out-of-step
Area (A1), pu-s 0.0327 0.02040 0.45434
Area (A2), pu-s -0.0327 -0.0180 -0.02059
The first two cases are decided as stable swing because the Decision Time, s 0.2815 0.544 0.921
total area A calculated is zero. In the other two cases, area A Decision Stable OS OS
is greater than zero. Consequently, out-of-step decisions are Frequency over 2.05 2.09 2.32
first (1-3 cycles), Hz
made. Frequency over 1.89 19.86 8.82
In order to study the affect of pure local mode oscillations 3 cycles(after 4sec),
Hz
on the proposed algorithm a load increase of 0.15 pu was OS: Out-of-step
applied at bus 3 and at the same instant a decrease in load by
0.15 pu was applied at bus 1. The P-t curve for this simulation Table IV gives summary of results when an out-of-step
case is shown in Fig. 15 below. The base MVA for pu relay is located at Gen3 due to local mode disturbances. The
calculations was chosen equal to 555 MVA. The figure shows base MVA used for pu calculations is 66 MVA. Case 11 is a
that +- 0.15 pu load change produces a stable swing. The stable case whereas cases 12 and 13 are unstable cases.
frequency of oscillation was found to be equal to be The results show that the proposed algorithm is not only
approximately equal to 2.05 Hz. effective on a SMIB system, but it is equally effective on an
In order to excite an unstable case due to local mode interconnected power system. The proposed technique can be
oscillations the load at bus 3 was increased by 0.5 pu and at directly applied to a multimachine system without reducing
the same time a 0.5 pu decrease in load was applied at bus 1. the multimachine system to an equivalent two area system.
The P-t curve for this simulation case is shown in Fig. 16 This makes the application of this technique simple even for a
below. The graph shows that this is an unstable case. The complex power system and avoids the need for any
initial frequency of oscillation in this case was found to be cumbersome network reduction techniques (such as Centre of
equal approximately equal to 2.09 Hz. A summary of results Inertia or Centre of Angle technique) [18, 19].
for Gen1 due to local mode oscillations is given in Table III
below.
Appeared on IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 600-609, Apr. 2010 7
Fig. 18. Pe-t curve for =35 and fault cleared after 0.22 s.
Fig. 23. Pe-t curve for =35 and fault cleared after 0.22 s (PSCAD results).
Fig. 19. Pe-t curve for =35 and fault cleared after 0.26 s.
Fig. 24. Pe-t curve for =35 and fault cleared after 0.272 s (PSCAD results).
TABLE V
SUMMARY OF CLOSED LOOP TESTING RESULTS FOR PRE-FAULT 35 AND
THE THREE PHASE FAULT APPLIED
Case 14 15 16 17 18
Fault Duration Time, s 0.22 0.26 0.271 0.272 0.28
Fault Duration Samples 211 250 260 261 269
Area (A1), in 109 7.674 9.083 8.994 8.585 10.007
Area (A2), in 109 7.676 9.098 8.995 6.451 0.355
Fig. 20. Pe-t curve for =35 and fault cleared after 0.271 s. Decision Stable Stable Stable OS OS
Decision Made at Sample 461 707 944 669 495
Decision Time, s 0.4794 0.7353 0.9817 0.6957 0.5148
OS: Out-of-step
TABLE VI
Appeared on IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 600-609, Apr. 2010 9
COMPARISON OF RESULTS OBTAINED FROM HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE showed that the algorithm did not require line parameter
SIMULATIONS
information, and also did not require any off-line system
Case 19 20 21 22 studies. The proposed technique also does not need the inertia
Simulation Tool Hardware Software Hardware Software constant „M’ and is therefore more accurate than the classical
Power Angle (0)
Fault Duration Time, s
35
0.22
35
0.22
35
0.272
35
0.272
P- equal area criterion, which requires the knowledge of
Area (A1) 7.674×109 0.058 8.585×109 0.071 „M’. The simulation studies on a three machine infinite bus
Area (A2) 7.676×109 0.058 6.451×109 0.055 configuration showed that the proposed algorithm can be
Decision Stable Stable OS OS
Decision Time, s 0.4794 0.4784 0.6957 0.6895 directly applied to a multimachine system without any need
OS: Out-of-step for reduction of the system. Finally, closed loop testing of the
prototype of the relay using RTDS™ showed its applicability
TABLE VII
SUMMARY OF CLOSED LOOP TESTING RESULTS FOR PRE-FAULT 40 AND on an actual power system.
THE LINE TO LINE FAULT APPLIED
VI. REFERENCE
Case 23 24 25 26 27 [1] W. A. Elmore, Protective Relaying Theory and Applications. ,2nd ed.,
Fault Duration Time, s 0.4 0.42 0.435 0.436 0.437 rev. and expanded. ed.New York: Marcel Dekker, c2004.
Fault Duration Samples 384 403 418 419 420 [2] C. R. Mason, The Art and Science of Protective Relaying. New York:
Area (A1), in 109 6.630 6.846 6.913 6.961 6.981 Wiley, 1956.
Area (A2), in 109 6.631 6.851 3.547 3.303 3.283 [3] J. Holbach, "New Out of Step Blocking Algorithm for Detecting Fast
Decision Stable Stable OS OS OS Power Swing Frequencies,” Power Systems Conference: Advanced
Decision Made at Sample 682 921 712 695 692 Metering, Protection, Control, Communication, and Distributed
Decision Time, s 0.709 0.957 0.740 0.722 0.719
Resources, 2006. PS '06, pp. 182-199, 2006.
OS: Out-of-step [4] Yuanqi Liu, "Aspects on Power System Islanding for Preventing
Widespread Blackout," Networking, Sensing and Control, 2006. ICNSC
'06. Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE International Conference on, pp.
TABLE VIII 1090-1095, 2006.
SUMMARY OF CLOSED LOOP TESTING RESULTS FOR PRE-FAULT 45 AND [5] A. Mechraoui, "A new principle for high resistance earth fault detection
THE LINE TO GROUND FAULT APPLIED during fast power swings for distance protection," Power Delivery, IEEE
Transactions on, vol. 12, pp. 1452-1457, 1997.
Case 28 29 30 31 32 [6] D. Tziouvaras and D. Hou, “Out-Of-Step Protection Fundamentals and
Fault Duration Time, s 0.6 0.68 0.683 0.684 0.7 Advancements”, Proc. 30th Annual Western Protective Relay
Fault Duration Samples 577 653 656 657 673 Conference, Spokane,WA,October 21-23,2003.
Area (A1), in 109 4.385 4.667 4.671 4.755 4.772 [7] A. Y. Abdelaziz, "Adaptive protection strategies for detecting power
Area (A2), in 109 4.391 4.669 4.671 1.806 1.777 system out-of-step conditions using neural networks," Generation,
Decision Stable Stable Stable OS OS Transmission and Distribution, IEE Proceedings-, vol. 145, pp. 387-
Decision Made at Sample 821 1129 1246 957 937 394, 1998.
Decision Time, s 0.853 1.174 1.295 0.995 0.974
[8] W. Rebizant, "Fuzzy logic application to out-of-step protection of
OS: Out-of-step generators," Power Engineering Society Summer Meeting, 2001. IEEE,
vol. 2, pp. 927-932 vol.2, 2001.
The results obtained from the closed loop testing were in [9] R. Padiyar and S. Krishna, "Online detection of loss of synchronism
close agreement with the results obtained from software using energy function criterion," Power Delivery, IEEE Transactions on,
simulations. The relay model developed showed that the vol. 21, pp. 46-55, 2006.
[10] V. Centeno, "An adaptive out-of-step relay [for power system
proposed algorithm is simple to implement on digital protection]," Power Delivery, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 12, pp. 61-71,
hardware. The proposed algorithm was able to discriminate in 1997.
cases well when the system was on the verge of instability. [11] W. D. Stevenson, Elements of Power System Analysis. ,4th ed. ed.New
York ;: McGraw-Hill, c1982.
The successful real time testing using RTDS implied that [12] Shengli Cheng and M.S.Sachdev, "Out-of-step protection using the
the proposed relay can work effectively on an actual power equal area criterion," Electrical and Computer Engineering, 2005.
system. The decision times obtained from the hardware Canadian Conference on, pp. 1488-1491, 2005.
[13] P. Kundur, Power System Stability and Control. New York: McGraw-
testing were in accordance with those obtained from the Hill, c1994.
software simulations. To account for measurement [14] “PSCAD User Manuals," Manitoba HVDC Research Centre, Winnipeg,
inaccuracies and the possibility of breaker re-closures, the Canada.
decision times could be delayed by few sampling intervals [15] D. X. Du, "An Advanced Real Time Digital Simulator Based Test
System for Protection Relays, "Universities Power Engineering
(i.e. 0.00104 s or more), so that inaccurate decisions are Conference, 2006. UPEC '06. Proceedings of the 41st International, vol.
avoided. 3, pp. 851-855, 2006.
[16] P. Forsyth, "Real time digital simulation for control and protection
system testing,” Power Electronics Specialists Conference, 2004. PESC
V. CONCLUSION 04. 2004 IEEE 35th Annual, vol. 1, pp. 329-335 Vol.1, 2004.
A technique for out-of-step detection by modifying the [17] IEEE Power System Relaying Committee of the IEEE Power
Engineering Society “Power swing and out-of-step considerations on
classical equal area criterion condition to the time domain was transmission line,” Report PSRC WG D6, July 2005, available at
proposed in this paper and its effectiveness was tested on an http://www.pes-psrc.org/Reports/Power%20Swing%20and%20OOS%2
SMIB and a Three Machine Infinite Bus system. The 0Considerations%20on%20Transmission%20Lines%20F.pdf
[18] M. A. Pai, Energy Function Analysis for Power System Stability.
proposed algorithm perfectly discriminated between stable Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, c1989.
and out-of-step swings based on the local voltage and current [19] M. A. Pai, Power System Stability :Analysis by the Direct Method of
information available at the relay location. The analysis Lyapunov. Amsterdam ; North-Holland Pub. Co. ; c1981.
Appeared on IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 600-609, Apr. 2010 10
[20] “ADSP-BF533 EZ-KIT lite evaluation system manual," Analog Devices Servo Gain (Q) = 5 p.u.
Inc.,
Main Servo Time Constant (Tg) = 0.2 s
Temporary Drop (Rt) = 0.4 p.u.
VII. APPENDIX Reset Time Constant (TR) = 5 s
SMIB Parameters: Permanent Drop (Rp) =0.04 p.u.
Generator rating = 4*555MVA, 24kV Maximum Gate Position (Gmin) = 1 p.u.
Direct Axis Transient Reactance (Xd‟) =0.3 Minimum Gate Position (Gmax) = 0 p.u.
Inertia Constant (H) =3.5 MW-s/MVA Maximum Gate Opening Rate = 0.16 p.u./s
Frequency=60Hz, Infinite Bus Voltage=0.9 pu Maximum Gate Closing Rate = 0.16 p.u./s
Transformer=j0.15 pu, TL-I=j0.5 pu,TL-II=j0.93 pu
RTDS™ Features:
Three Machine Infinite Bus Parameters: The RTDS™ is a real-time digital power system simulator that
Generator-1 rating=555 MVA, H =3.38 MW-s/MVA mimics the actual power system in real time. The RTDS™
Generator-2 rating=635 MVA, H =5.40 MW-s/MVA hardware is assembled in modular units called racks, and each
Generator-3 rating=66 MVA, (H) =4.29 MW-s/MVA rack is equipped with processing and communication
Bus Voltage=24kV modules.
Z1=0.048+j0.48Z2=0.00576+j0.573 The RTDS™ simulator used for this study consists of a Triple
Z3=0.0288+ j0.288 Z4=0.0576+ j0.576 Processor (3PC: Analog Devices‟ ADSP−21062 digital signal
Z5=0.0142+ j0.142 Z6=0.0192+ j0.192 processor), a Gigaprocessor (GPC: IBM PPC750GX
Z7=j0.0957 PowerPC processors), a Workstation Interface Card (WIF), 48
analog output ports (24 on 3PC and 24 on GPC), and a digital
Excitation System Parameters: input interface (16 bit).
Exciter Type: Field controlled alternator-rectifier excitation
system (AC1A). EZ LITE-KIT Board Features:
Lead Time Constant (TC) = 0 s One ADSP-BF533 Blackfin Processor
Lag Time Constant (TB) = 0 s Clock Speed: 750 MHZ
Regulator Gain (KA) = 400 pu 32 MB (16M×16-bit) SDRAM
Time Constant (TA) = 0.02 s 2MB (512M×16-bit×2) FLASH memory
Max. Regulator Internal Voltage (VAMAX) = 14.5 pu AD1836 96 kHz audio codec with input and output RCA
Min. Regulator Internal Voltage (VAMIN) = -14.5 pu jacks
Under Excitation Limit Input Signal =None Three 90-pin connectors
Over Excitation Limit Input Signal =None
Max. Regulator Output Voltage (VRMAX) = 6.03 pu VIII. BIOGRAPHIES
Min. Regulator Output Voltage (VRMIN) = -5.43 pu
Rate Feedback Gain (KF) = 0.03 pu Sumit Paudyal (S‟07) received the Bachelor‟s degree (B.E.) in Electrical
Engineering with distinction from Tribhuvan University (T.U.), Nepal in
Rate Feedback Time Constant (TF) = 1 s
2003. He worked with Kathmandu Engineering College in 2003 as a
Exciter Time Constant (TE) = 0.8 s Research Assistant and with Nepal Electricity Authority in 2004 as an
Exciter Constant Related to Field (KE) = 1 pu Electrical Engineer. He completed M.Sc. from the University of
Field Current Commutating Reactance (KC) = 0.2 pu Saskatchewan, Canada in June 2008 and is currently pursuing PhD studies at
Demagnetizing Factor (KD) = 0.38 pu the University of Waterloo.
are power system analysis and power system protection. Dr. Sachdev is a
Fellow of Institution of Engineers (India) and a Fellow of Institution of
Electrical Engineers (U.K.). He is also a Registered Professional Engineer in
the Province of Saskatchewan and a Chartered Engineer in the U.K.